ECOCIDE AS AN EMERGING CRIME

BLJ 5.4 PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAW

SUBMITTED BY:
YASH SABAL
UID: UGJ21-63
B.A.LL.B.(Adjudication and Justicing)
Semester-V
Academic Session:2023-24

SUBMITTED TO:
Dr. Veena Roshan Jose
(Assistant Professor of Law)

MAHARASHTRA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY , NAGPUR

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1|Page
 ABSTRACT 2

INTRODUCTION 3

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 4

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 5
AIM AND OBJECTIVE
RESEARCH QUESTION
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
RESEARCH DESIGN
NEED OF THE SIGNIFICANT RESEARCH

HISTORY OF ECOCIDE 6

ECOCIDE AS A NATIONAL CRIME IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 7

MEA’S ROLE 8

THE NEED FOR A LAW AGAINST ECOCIDE 9

CONCEPTUAL PROBLEMS WITH "CRIME" OF ECOCIDE. 11

ECOCIDE’S DESTRUCTIVE OUTCOMES ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 12

INDIA'S LEGISLATIVE FOUNDATION FOR IMPLEMENTING ECOCIDE 13

LEGISLATION

CONCLUSION 14

BIBLIOGRAPHY 15

INTRODUCTION

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The term “ecocide” was formed by combining the prefix “eco” with the suffix “cide”. The
prefix “eco” originates from the Greek word “oikos”, which pertains to the environment and
its relationship with humankind. On the other hand, the suffix “cide” is derived from the
Latin verb “caedere”, meaning “to kill”. So, ecocide refers to the extensive and destructive
harm caused to the environment, resulting in adverse effects on life. Presently, there is no
universally agreed-upon legal definition for this concept, and it is not widely accepted that
ecocide should be considered a criminal offense. According to Freud, Ecocide refers to
diverse actions of devastation and destruction, united by their intention to harm and disrupt
the ecology of specific geographical regions, thereby adversely affecting human life, animal
life, and plant life.

In 1972, the United Nations organized a conference in Stockholm, marking the first-ever
exclusive focus on international environmental matters. During the opening speech, Swedish
Prime Minister Olof Palme said the term "ecocide" to depict the environmental repercussions
of the Vietnam conflict. From this analytical standpoint, viewing ecocide as the most severe
environmental offense highlights its significant threat to sustainable development. The
governmental and corporate forms of ecocide inflict severe damage upon the environment.
Apart from endangering environmental security, ecocide also erodes the pillars of economic
and social stability. The immediate fallout of this crime is the destruction of a society's
economic foundations and security, potentially giving rise to various grave social crises like
poverty, diseases, unemployment, tensions, illiteracy, immigration, displacement, ethnic
struggles, and armed conflicts. Ecocide, currently ranked as the fifth most serious crime
against global peace, presents a fresh menace to both national and international economic
systems, notably endangering the principles of sustainable development and the green
economy model.

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STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Recognizing and addressing ecocide as a problem is crucial for preserving the Earth's natural
resources and safeguarding the delicate balance of ecosystems. It requires collective action,
responsible environmental policies, and a commitment from individuals, communities,
governments, and businesses to adopt sustainable practices that prioritize the protection of
our planet's biodiversity and ecological health. Ecocide refers to the extensive destruction,
damage, or loss of ecosystems, often resulting from human activities. It is a concept used to
describe large-scale environmental destruction that can have severe consequences for
biodiversity, ecosystems, and the well-being of both present and future generations. Ecocide
can be viewed as a subset of environmental degradation, but it specifically emphasizes acts
that lead to widespread ecological harm. Human activities such as deforestation, pollution,
industrial waste dumping, oil spills, overfishing, and large-scale mining are examples of
actions that can contribute to ecocide. These activities can disrupt delicate ecological
balances, lead to habitat loss, threaten the survival of numerous species, and degrade the
natural resources necessary for sustaining life. The consequences of ecocide can be far-
reaching and long-lasting. It can exacerbate climate change, reduce the planet's ability to
absorb carbon dioxide, increase the frequency and intensity of natural disasters, and disrupt
the services ecosystems provide, such as clean water and air purification. Efforts to address
ecocide involve a combination of environmental conservation, sustainable development, and
international cooperation. Some proponents argue for the establishment of an international
law against ecocide, similar to existing laws against genocide and war crimes. Such a law
could hold individuals and corporations accountable for ecologically destructive actions and
serve as a deterrent to prevent further harm to the environment.

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 RESEARCH METHADOLOGY

AIM AND OBJECTIVES.

 To understand the term Ecocide.

 To comprehend the ecocide as an emerging crime to the whole world.
 To understand the history of the ecocide.
 To understand the Ecocide’s Role in International Environmental Law.
 To understand the functionality of higgins’ ecocide law.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

 What is definition of a Contemporary Definition of Ecocide in International Law?

 What type of environmental damage is considered ecocide?
 Why does ecocide not have any deterrent value under the ICC's purview?

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

 Is ecocide a crime that can be the subject of a prosecution.

 Is the definition of ecocide is evolving, and ecocide law's flaws are being fixed.

RESEARCH DESIGN

The project is based on secondary sources, including books, journals, papers, articles, and the
official websites of significant international organizations. The “Doctrinal Method of
research” is applied throughout the project, and no static data is gathered from first-hand
sources.

NEED OF THE SIGNIFICANT RESEARCH

The criminalization of ecocide is essential to foster a deeper sense of environmental

responsibility, protect the planet's ecosystems, and create a sustainable and equitable future
for all living beings. In an attempt to protect our planet, environmental movements are

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sweeping the world at a faster pace than ever before, with a significant impetus for the
criminalisation of ecological harm. This mounting pressure is in response to substantial
threats from land degradation, biodiversity loss, air, land and water pollution, and the effects
of climate change. These harms are compromising the ability of the planet to meet human
needs for both present and future generations. We must acknowledge that the wellbeing and
prosperity of humanity are entwined with the state of our environment

HISTORY OF ECOCIDE

Ecocide has been a concept in international law for decades and its history can be traced back
to the Vietnam War when it was used to describe the environmental destruction caused by the
United States' chemical warfare. Professor Arthur W Galston first used the term "ecocide"
and advocated for an international agreement to ban it. He compared ecocide to genocide and
called for the UN to formulate a proposal against it 1. Ecocide evolved in meaning over time,
and in the 1970s and 1980s, there was extensive study and debate about including it in the
Genocide Convention. The 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment
addressed the issue of ecocide and led to the formation of the Stockholm Declaration, which
outlined principles of international environmental law. During the Conference, additional
unofficial events were held, including the 'People's Summit,' which discussed creating a
crime of ecocide and formed a Working Group to draft an 'Ecocide Convention.' The
convention was later submitted to the UN in 1973. Ecocide was also a recurring topic in the
Environmental Forum, which catered to non-government organizations unable to participate
in the main conference. There was confusion regarding whether ecocide should be considered
an environmental or war issue, as early discussions linked it to the United States' actions in
Vietnam. In 1973, Professor Falk published a proposed "International Convention on the
Crime of Ecocide" that included analysis, definition 2, and a framework. This proposal
extended ecocide to both peacetime and wartime situations and included an element of
criminal intent. The article was later included in a UN study evaluating the effectiveness of
the Genocide Convention, which raised the question of incorporating ecocide and cultural
genocide into the Convention to expand its scope. The study considered three
conceptualizations of ecocide: as an international crime similar to genocide, as a war crime,

1
By Anja Gauger, Mai Pouye Rabatel-Fernel, Louise Kulbicki, Damien Short and Polly Higgins. The Ecocide
Project, “Ecocide is the missing 5th Crime Against Peace”.
2
By Sarthak Gupta, The Proposed Definition of “Ecocide”: An Attempt to Constitute Fifth International Crime?

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and as actions to influence the environment for military purposes. While some countries
supported incorporating ecocide into the Convention, opposition arose due to the lack of a
clear legal definition. Ultimately, the Study concluded that including ecocide within the
context of genocide would compromise the Convention's effectiveness.

ECOCIDE AS A NATIONAL CRIME IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.

As of now, ten countries have incorporated the crime of ecocide into their respective penal
codes, with Vietnam being the pioneer in 1990. Article 278 of the Vietnamese criminal code
explicitly states that the deliberate destruction of the natural environment, whether occurring
during times of peace or war, is regarded as a crime against humanity. Indeed, the remaining
nine countries that have included the crime of ecocide in their penal codes are all former
members of the Soviet Union. The chronological order of their adoption of ecocide laws is as
follows - Russian Federation in 1996, Kyrgyzstan in 1997, Kazakhstan in 1997, Tajikistan in
1998, Georgia in 1999, Belarus in 1999, Ukraine in 2001, Moldova in 2002, Armenia in
2003. Russia included the term “ecocide” in its criminal legislation. Article 358 of the
Russian criminal code defines ecocide as the extensive destruction of fauna and flora, the
contamination of the atmosphere or water, or any other action capable of leading to an
ecological catastrophe.

The concept of ecocide as a national crime refers to the inclusion of ecocide as a criminal
offense in the domestic legal framework of a particular country. By recognizing ecocide as a
national crime, a country acknowledges the gravity of large-scale environmental destruction
and establishes legal mechanisms to address and punish such actions within its jurisdiction3.

Making ecocide a national crime allows a country to:

 Establish Legal Accountability: It provides a legal basis to hold individuals,

corporations, or entities responsible for acts that cause significant harm to the
environment within the country's borders.

 Ensure Deterrence: Criminalizing ecocide acts as a deterrent, discouraging potential

perpetrators from engaging in activities that lead to ecological devastation.

3
By Hindu, The global push to make ecocide a crime.

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  Protect the Environment: The inclusion of ecocide as a crime emphasizes the
importance of protecting the environment and natural resources for current and future
generations.

 Enforce Penalties: It enables authorities to impose appropriate penalties and

sanctions on those found guilty of committing ecocide, ensuring justice for affected
communities and the environment.

 Encourage Sustainable Practices: By making ecocide a national crime, a country

promotes environmentally responsible practices and encourages sustainable
development.

 Complement International Efforts: National criminalization of ecocide can

complement international efforts to address environmental issues and contribute to the
global fight against large-scale ecological harm.

 Enhance Environmental Justice: Recognizing ecocide as a national crime helps

protect vulnerable communities disproportionately affected by environmental
degradation, ensuring greater environmental justice.

 Foster Public Awareness: The criminalization of ecocide raises public awareness

about the importance of environmental protection and the consequences of harmful
actions.

It's worth noting that the establishment of ecocide as a national crime is a legal and policy
decision made by individual countries. Some nations have already taken steps to include
ecocide in their national laws, while others are still considering or debating its
implementation. The level of enforcement, penalties, and specific elements of the crime may
vary depending on each country's legal system and approach to environmental protection4.

4
By Danuta Palarczyk, “Ecocide Before the International Criminal Court: Simplicity is Better Than an
Elaborate Embellishment”.

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MEAS ROLE

While MEAs have played a crucial role in addressing environmental issues, there has been
increasing recognition of the need for a more comprehensive and integrated approach to
tackle the interconnected challenges facing the environment. Moving forward, international
environmental law is evolving to embrace a more holistic perspective that considers the
interrelatedness of various environmental issues and seeks to promote sustainable
development and the well-being of both human societies and the natural world. Indeed,
international environmental law has largely addressed environmental degradation by
establishing Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) like “the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol” 5. Initially,
many MEAs were primarily focused on safeguarding specific species or adopting a sectoral
approach, concentrating solely on environmental protection and conservation in particular
areas6.

This sectoral approach was driven by the need to address urgent and specific environmental
challenges, such as the protection of endangered species or the conservation of critical
habitats. Over time, as the understanding of global environmental issues grew, the focus
expanded to encompass broader concerns, including climate change, biodiversity loss, and
ecosystem degradation. the recent developments in Multilateral Environmental Agreements
(MEAs) demonstrate a shift towards considering sustainable development and the responsible
use of natural resources. These agreements now acknowledge the interconnected nature of
our environment, recognizing the importance of balancing environmental protection with
socio-economic needs.

As per the International Environmental Agreement Database Project, there are currently over
1,300 MEAs covering a wide range of issues, including the atmosphere, marine environment,
noise pollution, and nuclear safety7. These agreements reflect the growing recognition of
various environmental challenges and the need for collective action to address them
effectively. New Zealand, like many other countries, has various obligations under these
MEAs, and many of them are incorporated into the country's domestic laws as required.
These agreements can range from providing general principles to tackle specific
5
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (opened for signature 4 June 1992, entered into
force 21 March 1994); and Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(Signed 11 December 1997, entered into force 16 February 2005).
6
Belinda Bowling “Multilateral Environmental Agreements: A Handbook for Afghan Officials” (March 2008)
United Nations Environment Programme.
7
Ronald B Mitchell “International Environmental Agreements (IEA) Database Project.

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environmental issues, as exemplified by the Convention on Biological Diversity 8, to setting
specific international obligations and objectives for the parties involved, as seen in the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 9. Through
these MEAs, countries can work together to address environmental issues on a global scale,
promote sustainable practices, protect biodiversity, and mitigate the impact of human
activities on the natural world. The cooperative nature of these agreements helps foster a
more comprehensive and united approach to safeguarding the environment for the benefit of
present and future generations.

THE NEED FOR A LAW AGAINST ECOCIDE

The need for a law against ecocide arises from the recognition of the significant and often
irreversible harm caused to the environment and the planet's ecosystems due to human
activities. Ecocide refers to the large-scale destruction, damage, or loss of ecosystems, often
as a result of industrial activities, pollution, deforestation, and other harmful practices.
Several reasons highlight the necessity of an ecocide law:

 Environmental Protection: Ecocide laws would serve to protect the environment

and natural ecosystems, ensuring that vital resources and biodiversity are preserved
for current and future generations.
 Climate Change Mitigation: Many human activities that contribute to ecocide, such
as large-scale deforestation and pollution, are major drivers of climate change. An
ecocide law would help address these issues and contribute to global efforts to combat
climate change.
 Ecological Balance: Healthy ecosystems are essential for maintaining ecological
balance and providing essential services like clean water, air, and fertile soil. Laws
against ecocide would promote responsible stewardship of the environment.
 Preventing Environmental Catastrophes: By holding individuals and corporations
accountable for ecocide, such laws can act as a deterrent and reduce the occurrence of
large-scale environmental disasters.
 Human Rights and Social Justice: Ecocide often affects vulnerable communities
and indigenous populations who rely on their local environment for survival. An
ecocide law could protect their rights and ensure their well-being.
8
Convention on Biological Diversity (opened for signature 5 June 1992, entered into force 29 December 1993).
9
Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.

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  International Cooperation: An ecocide law could foster international cooperation in
addressing environmental issues, as transboundary environmental harm requires
global solutions.
 Corporate Accountability: Companies engaged in harmful practices that lead to
ecocide should be held accountable for their actions, ensuring they adopt sustainable
practices.
 Long-Term Vision: An ecocide law encourages decision-makers to consider the
long-term consequences of their actions on the environment rather than focusing
solely on short-term gains.

Efforts are underway by various organizations and advocates to recognize ecocide as an

international crime under the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court. The goal is to
establish a legal framework that holds individuals, including corporate executives,
accountable for ecocidal actions, and to reinforce the importance of environmental protection
on a global scale.

CONCEPTUAL PROBLEMS WITH "CRIME" OF ECOCIDE.

Lack of a defined concept of causation. In the absence of a venue that would be appropriate
for prosecution, ecocide cannot be shown because it has no connection to the issue at hand. In
no past war tribunals or international court proceedings has ecocide been prohibited by a
convention or even acknowledged. Those weak laws the context and lack of a clear definition
raise questions about ecocide's ability to be successfully adopted. as an offense covered by
the ICC's jurisdiction. Second, the tragedies of World War II were the catalyst for the
creation of the ICC, which was intended to address violations of human rights.

many academics believe that environmental crimes should be prosecuted in a separate

environmental court, as opposed to the ICC, where judges and prosecutors would have the
necessary specialised knowledge and could present more appropriate remedies 10. Although
ecocide could fill many of the gaps in international environmental law and build on our
current artillery, it would also bring with it its own issues that would need to be resolved
before its inception into international law.

ECOCIDE’S DESTRUCTIVE OUTCOMES ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

10
Greene, above n 95, at 39.

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 Ecocide as a Menace for Sustainable Development

Economics underscores the crucial dependence of a sustainable economy on three key

factors: workforce, resources, and capital. Examining the element of resources reveals that
ecocide directly harms natural resources, endangering human resources and capital indirectly.
This study focuses on resources, emphasizing that a society's economy relies on essential
elements like water, seas, soil, climate, and more. Ecocide, defined as long-term, massive
destruction of these resources, leads to economic collapse. The consequences include famine,
inflation, industry closure, agriculture decline, energy crisis, unemployment, stock market
disorder, capital withdrawal, widespread poverty, and more. Ecocide contradicts sustainable
development and pure economic growth, necessitating a new perspective in modern
economics to rescue the economy from ecocide's destructive impact. The crime of ecocide
poses a significant threat to local, national, regional, and international economic security.

 Ecocide as a Menace for Sustainable Social development

Ecocide is not just an environmental crisis; it serves as the root cause of political, social,
economic, and cultural crises. In other words, it's a crime that spawns poverty,
unemployment, illnesses, delinquency, armed conflicts, ethnic tensions, displacement,
homelessness, soil degradation, pollution, and more. This destructive impact underscores the
urgency of combating and preventing ecocide, as it transforms the pursuit of social justice
into a futile endeavour. At its core, ecocide disrupts essential resources for human survival,
inevitably leading to conflicts over dwindling vital resources.

 Ecocide as a Menace for Global Environment

Undoubtedly, the most tangible and immediate impact of ecocide on societies and sustainable
development is its environmental consequences. Ecocide, being fundamentally a crime
against the environment, poses a significant threat to global ecology. This threat manifests in
various forms, including climate change, global warming, water and soil contamination,
pollution, biodiversity loss, and improper disposal of hazardous waste. These environmental
damages are the direct result of the oppressive exploitation of the planet 11. A classic example
is "forest ecocide" or deforestation, notably prevalent in tropical regions and rainforests.
Deforestation12 not only endangers human health and the existence of ancient societies but

11
By Raisdana, Fariborz, “Globalization of the Massacre”.
12
By Darvish, “Rio province of Indonesia over the past 25 years”, 65% of the jungles, 84% of the population

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also results in the gradual depletion of natural resources and the extinction of flora and fauna.
The destruction caused by ecocide, illustrated vividly by events like the rampant use of Agent
Orange in Vietnam, highlights the urgent need to address and prevent such environmental
crimes13.

INDIA'S LEGISLATIVE FOUNDATION FOR IMPLEMENTING ECOCIDE

LEGISLATION
India has legal mechanisms, primarily through the Supreme Court and the Indian
Constitution, dedicated to preserving the environment. While specific ecocide laws are not
codified, certain constitutional articles and Supreme Court decisions contribute to
environmental protection. The Constitution's Preamble commits to a pollution-free
environment, aligning with fundamental rights under Part III, notably the "Right to life"
under Article 2114. The Supreme Court has affirmed citizens' right to approach through
Article 32 to address threats to the quality of life caused by pollution. The Central
Government is working to amend state-specific Tree Protection Acts, emphasizing the need
for consent for tree cutting, with penalties of up to Rs 5000- and six-months’ imprisonment
for unauthorized cutting. Article 48-A of the Indian Constitution places the responsibility on
the government to protect the environment, including forests, aquatic life, and wildlife.
Fundamental duties sections underscore individuals' responsibility to care for the natural
environment and ecosystem.
India has witnessed several alarming events, signaling an urgent need for ecocide laws. In
2020, Cyclone Amphan and Cyclone Nisarga, along with a grasshopper plague, adversely
impacted the ecology. Scientists attribute these events to human-induced environmental
changes. Development projects, including tree cutting for roads with historical significance,
raise environmental concerns. A PIL was filed against cutting over 300 trees for road
construction in West Bengal. In 2019, the Tree Authority in Mumbai approved cutting 2,702
trees in Aarey Forest, impacting its complex ecosystem and endangered species. A report by
the Central Water Commission found harmful metals in 42 rivers, indicating pollution from
industrial waste and domestic wastewater. These findings emphasize the pressing need for
strict ecocide laws to counter the over-exploitation and depletion of natural resources,
safeguarding India's environment and ecosystem crucial for the well-being of millions. India
of the elephants, and 70% of seeds have been destroyed.
13
By Darvish, “A Reflection on Critical Criminology with a Green Criminology Approach”
14
article 21 of the constitution of India

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is at a crucial juncture to introduce and adopt ecocide laws as a key defense for its
environment and the health of its people.

CONCLUSION

The concept of ecocide as an emerging crime has gained significant attention in recent years.
It refers to the extensive damage, destruction, or loss of ecosystems and their services caused
by human activities. While it is not yet officially recognized as an international crime, there is
growing momentum to include it as the fifth crime under the jurisdiction of the International
Criminal Court (ICC).

Many experts and activists argue that ecocide should be treated as a crime on par with
genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and aggression. By criminalizing ecocide, it
is believed that individuals, corporations, or governments responsible for causing severe
environmental harm could be held accountable and face legal consequences.

The ongoing climate crisis and heightened awareness of environmental issues have
contributed to the increasing recognition of ecocide as a serious global concern. As
discussions continue, international cooperation and public support will play a crucial role in
determining the future status and implications of ecocide as an emerging crime. In September
2021, ecocide had not been officially recognized as a crime in India. However, it's important
to note that legal implications can change over time, and new developments may have
occurred since then. The recognition of ecocide as a crime in India would likely have
implications for environmental regulation, law enforcement, and penalties for offenders. It
could signal a growing awareness of the importance of safeguarding the environment and the
natural resources that sustain life.

The current international environmental legal scheme falls short in adequately addressing
environmental harm. Ecocide, proposed as a potential solution, has beneficial aspects to
complement existing environmental law. However, it overlooks conceptual and practical
challenges that may hinder its success as an international crime. Higgins' law of ecocide
appears excessive in burdening less affluent nations with unascertainable responsibilities
under strict liability. Yet, it remains insufficient to tackle the massive scale of environmental
damage. The prosecution process faces constraints, and the lack of deterrence suggests that
the current formulation of ecocide is inadequate to address the planet's distress. While there
are potential remedies, they may only offer superficial solutions. A new, better-suited

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formulation may emerge in ongoing debates. Nevertheless, a fundamental cultural and value
shift is necessary to combat accepted environmental harm and achieve a meaningful impact
in eradicating ecocide.

BIBLIOGHRAPHY

BOOKS

 By Anshna ecocide, Ecocide and the international criminal law – an analysis of fact :
A brief case study of the Maldives.
 By Divid Whyte, Ecocide: kill the corporation before it kill us. (Published by :
Manchester University Press 1 Sep 2020)
 By Akinwumi Komolafe, The Ecocide.
 By Darvish, “A Reflection on Critical Criminology with a Green Criminology
Approach”,
 Belinda Bowling “Multilateral Environmental Agreements: A Handbook for Afghan
Officials” (March 2008) United Nations Environment Programme.

RESEARCH PAPER

 By Zahra McDonnell-Elmetri, THE CRIME OF ECOCIDE: THE ANSWER TO

OUR ENVIRONMENTAL EMERGENCY?
 By Mehra, Nasrin & Gholipour, Gholamreza & Babakhani, Erfan. (2019). Ecocide: a
Crime against Sustainable Development.
 By Sarliève, Maud. (2021). Ecocide: Past, Present, and Future Challenges.
 By Higgins, Polly & Short, Damien & South, Nigel. (2013). Protecting the planet: A
proposal for a law of ecocide. Crime, Law and Social Change.
 By Gray, M.A. (1996). The international crime of ecocide. California Western
International Law Journal.
 Ignjatović, Đorđe. (2023). Green criminology and crime control. Crimen.
 By Darvish, “Rio province of Indonesia over the past 25 years”, 65% of the jungles,
84% of the populationof the elephants, and 70% of seeds have been destroyed.
 By Darvish, “A Reflection on Critical Criminology with a Green Criminology
Approach”

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 By Raisdana, Fariborz, “Globalization of the Massacre”.
 Convention on Biological Diversity (opened for signature 5 June 1992, entered into
force 29 December 1993).
 Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora.

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