Chemistry

4. CARBON & ITS COMPOUNDS

Carbon in nutshell
Sixth most abundant element in the universe.
Forms the largest number of compounds and is studied as a separate branch of chemistry known as organic
chemistry.
Atomic No = 6 ; Mass No. = 12
Earth’s crust has only 0.02% carbon in the form of minerals and atmosphere has 0.03% of carbon dioxide.
Bonding in carbon
The c ova l ent bond
We know that the reactivity of elements is explained as their tendency to attain a completely filled outer shell,
that is, attain noble gas configuration. Elements forming ionic compounds achieve this by either gaining or losing
electrons from the outermost shell. In the case of carbon,it has four electrons in its outermost shell and needs to
gain or lose four electrons to attain noble gas configuration. If it were to gain or lose electrons –
It could gain four electrons forming C 4 – anion. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six protons to hold
on to ten electrons, that is, four extra electrons.
It could lose four electrons forming C 4 + cation. But it would require a large amount of energy to remove
four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with six protons in its nucleus holding on to just two
electrons.
Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with atoms of
other elements. Not just carbon, but many other elements form molecules by sharing electrons in this manner.
The shared electrons ‘belong’ to the outer shells of both the atoms and lead to both atoms attaining the noble gas
configuration. This type of bonding is called covalent bonding.
Thus the bonds which are formed by the sharing of an electron pair between two same or different atoms
are known as covalentbonds.
The no. of electrons shared show the covalency of that atom.
Ex a mpl es of for ma ti on of c ova l ent bonds

X
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H X C
X

H
Fig.1 Formation of methane molecule [It is also called marsh gas, used as a fuel & is a major compound of CNG]

X
H X N ×
×
X

H
Fig.2 Formation of ammonia (NH3) molecule

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Class X
Fig. 3 Formation of water molecule

X
×O ×
× ×
X

Fig. 4 Formation of sulphur molecule (S8)

× ×
× × or O=C=O

Fig. 5 Formation of sulphur molecule

S
S S
S S
S
S S

Fig. 6 Formation of cyclopentane (C5C10)

H H
H C C H
H H
C C
H C H
H H
Fig. 7 Formation of chloromethane (CH3Cl)

H
x H H–

H x C x Cl or C–Cl
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H
H

Fig. 8 Formation of Ethanoic acid (CH3 COOH)

H O
H O
H C C O H or H–C–C–OH
H
H

Fig. 9 Formation of Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)

××
H × S or H–S –H
×× ×

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 Chemistry
Fig. 10 Formation of propanone (CH3 COCH3 )

H O H
H O H

H C C C H or H–C–C–C–H

H H
H H

Fig. 11 Formation of Fluorine (F2)

F F or F –F

Pr oper ti es of c ova l ent c ompounds

◗ Covalently bonded molecules are seen to have strong bonds within the molecule, but intermolecular
forces are small. This gives rise to the low melting and boiling points of these compounds. Exceptions :
diamond & graphite.

◗ Since the electrons are shared between atoms and no charged particles are formed, such covalent
compounds are generally poor conductors of electricity.

◗ These compounds are generally insoluble in water but some which are capable to form H-bond are
soluble in water.

Allotropes of carbon
Di a mond
◗ Each carbon in a diamond crystal is bonded to four other carbon atoms making a giant macromolecular
array (lattice).
◗ It is the hardest naturally occuring substance.
◗ It is brittle (not malleable).
◗ Diamond is an insulator (non-conductor of electricity) but good thermal conductor (heat).
◗ It is insoluble in water due to its non polar nature.

◗ It has very high melting point of about 3500 °C due to strong covalent bonds.
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Us es of Di a mond

◗ They are used in jewellery because of their ability to reflect Carbon atoms
and refract light.
C ovalent
◗ Black diamonds called c a r bona do are used in cutting glass and bonds
drilling rocks.
◗ Diamond has extraordinary sensitivity to heat rays and due to
this reason, it is used for making high precision thermometers.
◗ Diamond has the ability to cut out harmful radiations and due to
this reason, it is used for making protective windows for space
probes. Fig.12 Part of the covalent giant
structure of diamond
◗ Diamond dies are used for drawing thin wires. Very thin tungsten
wires of diameter of less than one sixth of the diameter of human
hair have been drawn using diamond dies.

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Class X
G r a phi te

◗ In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to Very weak

van der Waals'
three other carbon atoms in the same plane force
giving a hexagonal array.
Carbon atoms
◗ There are strong covalent bonds between
carbon atoms in each layer. But, only weak
forces exist between layers. This allows layers C ovalent
Layers of carbon bonds
of carbon to slide over each other in graphite. atoms arranged in
That makes it slippery in nature. rings

Fig.13 Part of the giant structure of graphite

◗ It is a dark grey solid having a metallic lustre.

It has a soft greasy touch. It makes the paper grey.

It density ranges from 1.5 to 2.3 gm/cm3.

It is good conductor of heat and electricity.

It is insoluble in ordinary solvents.

Graphite when heated in the absence of air, melts at about 3730°C

Graphite catches fire at 700°C in the presence of oxygen and forms carbon dioxide gas.
70 0°C
C + O2 CO 2
G raphite O xy gen C arbon dioxide

Us es of Gr a phi te

◗ A s penc i l l ea d : Graphite is mixed with clay or finely powdered sand. It is then moulded to form thin
rods, which are called pencil lead. The hardness of pencil lead depends upon the amount of clay in it, i.e,
more the clay, the harder is the pencil lead.

◗ A s el ec tr odes : Graphite is a good conductor of electricity. Moreover, it does not react with acids or
alkalis. Thus, it is used for making electrodes for electrolytic cells, which are not affected by acids and
alkalis.

◗ A s a dr y l ubri ca nt : Graphite powder suspended in oil is used as a lubricant in those part of machinery,
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where oil cannot be applied easily.

◗ A s hea t r esis ta nt c r uci bl es : When graphite mixed with clay is moulded and baked, it forms heat resistant
crucibles.The crucibles can with stand high temperatures on accountof clay and are good conductors on account
of graphite.

◗ I n ma ki n g l i ght w ei ght c om pos i te ma ter i a l : The graphite fibres are very strong. T hese fibres are
used to reinforce plastic. T he reinforced plastic with carbon fibres form a composite material. It is used
for making (i) tennis rackets, (ii) fishing rods, (iii) bicycle frame, (iv) aircraft frames (v)parts of the spacecraft,
and (vi) dish antennas.

◗ I n ma ki n g a r ti fi cial di a monds : Graphite is heated to a temperature of 2000°C in the presence of

some noble gas at a pressure of 100,000 times the atmospheric pressure. The high pressure and
temperature breaks the carbon atoms in graphite, which rearrange themselves into diamond structure.
Roughly 90% of the diamonds required for making tools are made artificially from graphite.

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 Chemistry
Ful l er enes
These are small molecules of carbon in which the giant structure
is closed over into spheres of atoms (buc ky balls) or tubes
(sometimes called nano-tubes).
The smallest fullerene has 60 car bon atoms arranged in
pentagons and hexagons like a football. T his is called
Fig.14 Structure of
Buc kmi ns ter ful l er ene. buckminsterfulle rene.
The name ‘buckminster fullerene’ comes from the inventor of (The black and grey
the geodesic dome (Richard Buckminster Fuller) which has a balls represent carbon
atoms).
similiar structure to a fullerene.

Fullerenes were first isolated from the soot of chimneys and extracted from solvents as red crystals.
Fullerenes are insolublein water but soluble in methyl benzene. They are non- conductors as the individual
molecules are only held to each other by weak Vander Waal’s forces.
They are not very reactive due to the stability of the graphite-like bonds, and are also fairly insoluble in
many solvents.

Us es of ful l er enes

Fullerenes and their compounds may prove to be of great use as semiconductors, superconductors,
lubricants, catalysts, electric wires and as fibres to reinforce plastic (to make plastic strong).
Some of the compounds of fullerenes appear to be active against diseases like cancer and AIDS. This can
lead to finding cure for cancer and AIDS.

Versatile nature of carbon

Ca tena ti on
Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of carbon, giving rise to large molecules. This
property is called catenation. These compounds may have long chains of carbon, branched chains of carbon or
even carbon atoms arranged in rings.
Tetr a va l enc y
Carbon atoms may be linked by single, double or triple bonds. Compounds of carbon, w hich are linked by only
single bonds between the carbon atoms are called saturated compounds. Compounds of carbon having double
or triple bonds between their carbon atoms are called unsaturated compounds.Since carbon has a valency of
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four, it is capable of bonding with four other atoms of carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element.
Sta bi l i ty of C – C bonds
No other element exhibits the proper ty of catenation to the extent seen in carbon compounds. Silicon forms
compounds with hydrogen w hich have chains of upto seven or eight atoms, but these compounds are very
reactive. The carbon-carbon bond is very strong and hence stable. This gives us the large number of compounds
with many carbon atoms linked to each other.
S m a l l s i ze of c a r bon
The bonds that carbon forms with most other elements are very strong making these compounds exceptionally
stable. One reason for the formation of strong bonds by carbon is its small size. This enables the nucleus to hold
on to the shared pairs of electrons strongly. The bonds formed by elements having larger atoms are much
weaker.

I mpor ta nt note
Remember that the strength of bond decreases with increase in the size of atoms.

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Class X
Vital force theory
O r ga ni c c ompounds
Because of versatile nature of carbon, it forms many compounds. In eighteenth century all known compounds
were divided into two categories.
Compound

O r ga ni c I nor ga ni c
c om pounds c om pounds
Like urea, sugar, oils, fats Like marble, common salt, alum,
dyes etc. which were isolated CuS O 4 etc which were isolated
directly or indirectly from living from non-living sources such as
organisms such as animals and plants. rocks and minerals.
Vi ta l for c e theor y

This theory was given by Ber zel i us in 1815.

According to him, or ganic compounds are produced only under the influence of some mysterious force existing
in the living organism. T his mysterious force was called the vi ta l forc e. So, it was believed that no organic
compound can be prepared in the laboratory.

W ohl er 's s ynthes i s

Berzilius's theory was disapproved by Friedrich Wohler in 1828 by preparing urea from ammonium cyanate
(NH4CNO) in laboratory.

O
|
Structure of urea H2 N– C –NH2

Moder n defi ni ti on of or ga ni c c ompounds

Compounds of carbon, containing usually hydrogen and one and more other element such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur,
halogens, phosphorus etc.arecalled or ga ni c c ompounds .

Classification of organic compounds

Hydrocarbon
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Aliphatic compound Aromatic compound

Unsaturated compound
Always cyclic
Straight chain Branched chain Cyclic Planar and follow
compounds e.g. compound Huckel's rule
C H 3–C H 2 –C H 2– CH 3 e.g. Conjugation is present
CH3 He terocyclic Carbocyclic
Delocalisation of
| [Contain an [Only C atoms
electron is present
atom other are present in
Saturated Unsaturated C H 3– C– CH 3
| than C in the ring]
Alkanes C H3 the ring] e.g.
Alkenes Alkyne e.g.

O (cyclopropane)
Saturated Unsaturated (Furan)

Saturated Unsaturated
Saturated Unsaturated

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 Chemistry
Sa tur a ted a nd uns a tur a ted hydr oc a r bon

On the basis of bondi ng carbon compounds can be classified in two categories.

◗ Saturated hydrocarbons
◗ Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Sa tur a ted Hydr oc a r bon

The hydrocarbons which contain only single carbon-carbon covalent bonds are called s atur ated hydr oc ar bons.

They are also called a l ka nes .

General formula for alkanes is Cn H2n+2 where 'n' is the number of carbon atoms.

Gener a l for mul a of s a tur a ted hydr oc a r bon (C n H 2 n +2 )

No. of 'C' a toms Na me For mul a Str uc tur e

H
1 Methane CH4 H–C–H
H

H H H–
C––C–H H
2 Ethane C 2 H6
H

H H H H–C––
3 Propane C 3 H8 C––C––H H H
H

H H H H H–C––
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C––C––C––H H H
4 Butane C 4 H1 0
H H

H H H H H H–C––C––
C––C––C––H H H H
5 Pentane C 5 H1 2
H H

H H H H H H H–C––C––
C––C––C––C––H H H H
6 Hexane C 6 H1 4
H H H

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Class X
Str uc tur e of pr opa ne C 3 H 8
H H H
| | |
In a similar manner we can derive the structure of propane. H– C– C– C–H
| | |
H H H
H H H
x x x

H x C C C x H
x x x
H H H

Lewis dot structure of propane

Uns a tur a ted hydr oc a r bons
The hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms are bonded to each other by a double (=) or a triple ( ) bond
is called an uns a tur a ted hydr oc a r bon .
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are of two types viz. alkenes and alkynes.

Al kenes (–C=C– )
The hydrocarbons in which the two carbon atoms are bonded by a double bond are called a l kenes .
Their general formula is C n H2n where "n" is the number of carbon atoms.
Gener a l for mul a of a l kenes : C n H 2 n

No. of C a toms Na me F orm ul a Str uc tur e

H H
2 Ethene C 2 H4 C=C or C H 2=CH 2
H H

H H H
3 Propene C 3 H6 H–C ––C =C ––H or CH3 –CH=CH2
H

H H H H H—
4. Butene C 4 H8
C — C =C —C —H
H H
or CH3 –CH=CH–CH3
H H H H
H—C =C —C —C — H or CH2 =CH–CH2 –CH3
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H H
For ma ti on of ethene mol ec ul e (C 2 H 4 )
The electronic configuration of carbon atom is 2, 4. There are four valence electrons in one C atom. Each H
atom contains one valence electron.

H H
+ + H H
H + C + C + H H C C H
Carbon and hydrogen with Shared pair of electrons
their valence electrons

H H
H2 C = CH2 C =C
Ethene H H
molecule
Double covalent bond
in ethene molecule

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 Chemistry
Al kyne (–C C–)
The hydrocarbons in which two carbon atoms are bonded by a triple bond are called a l kynes .
Their general formula is C n H2n –2 where 'n' is the number of carbon atoms.
G e n e ra l f o rm ul a o f s a tura ted a l kyn es ( C n H 2 n – 2 )

N o . o f ' C' a to m s Na me F o rm u l a S tru ctu re

2 Ethyne C 2 H 2 or HC= CH H–C C–H

H H––C––
C C––H
3 Propyne C 3 H 4 or H 3 C– C C–H
H

H H
4 Butyne C 4 H 6 or H 3 C– C C– CH3 H––C––C C––C––H
H H

For ma ti on of ethyne mol ec ul e (C 2 H 2 )

H + C +C + H H C CH H–C C– H
Two carbon and two hydrogen atoms Shared pairs Triple covalent bond
with their valence electrons of electrons in ethyne molecule
Cha i ns , br a nc hes a nd r i ngs
On the basis of s tr uc tur e carbon compounds can be divided into 3 categories.
(a) Straight chain compounds
(b) Branched chain compounds
(c) Closed chain / cyclic / ringed compounds
Straight chain compounds
If a carbon compound has carbon-carbon link in chain fashion, we get a straight chain compound.
In these, a carbon can form bond with a maximum of 2 carbon atoms e.g.
(i) Straight chain alkanes
CH4 CH3 –CH3 CH3 –CH2 –CH3 CH3 –CH2 –CH2 –CH3
Methane Ethane Propane Butane
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(ii) Straight chain alkenes

H2 C=CH2 CH3 –CH=CH2 CH3 –CH=CH–CH3 or CH2 =CH–CH2 –CH3
Ethene Propene Butene
(iii) Straight chain alkynes
HC CH H3C–C CH H3 C–C C–CH3 or HC C–CH2 –CH3
Ethyne Propyne Butyne
Br a nc hed s tr uc tur e
The alkanes containing three or less carbon atoms do not form branches.
CH4 CH3 –CH3 CH3 –CH2 –CH3
Methane Ethane Propane
The alkane containing four carbon atoms (C4H10) has two types of arrangement of carbon atoms.
C H3
H 3 C –C H
H 3 C –C H2 –CH2 –CH3 C H3
Continuous chain Branched chain

Structural Isomers

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Class X
Thus carbon compounds in which atleast one carbon of the chain is linked to three or four other carbon atoms
are called br a nc hed c ha i n c ompounds .
Like saturated compounds, unsaturated compounds can also have branched chain structure e.g. C 2 H4 , butene
may have following structure.
CH3 –CH2 –CH=CH2 CH3 –CH=CH–CH3 CH3 – C — CH2
CH3
(1) (2) (3)
Among these three, (1) and (2) are straight chains while (3) is a branched chain.
Cl os ed c ha i ns or c yc l i c hydr oc a r bons or r i ng hydr oc a r bons
These hydrocarbons contains closed chain or ring of atoms in their molecules. These can be of further two
types :
Al i c yc l i c hydr oc a r bon or s a tur a ted c yc l i c c a r bon c ompounds or c yc l oa l ka nes
These hydrocarbons contain a ring chain of three or more carbon atoms.
These cyclic compounds are named by prefixing 'c yc l o' before the name of corresponding straight
chain hydrocarbon.

H H
H–C––––C–H H H
H C H
H–C––––C–H
C––––C
H H H H

Cyclobutane (C 4H8) Cyclopropane (C 3H6)

H H
H H
H C H
C
H H H
C C H
C C
H H H H
C C
H C––C H H C H
H H
H H
Cy clopentane (C 5H 10 ) Cy clohexane (C 6H 1 2 )

Ar oma ti c hydr oc a r bon or Uns a tur a ted c yc l i c c a r bon c ompound

These have at least one benzene ring in their molecules.

It is a special type of ring of six carbon atoms with three double bonds in alternate positions.
H H
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1 1

H 6 C H H 6 C H
C C2 C C2
or or Benzene
C C3 C C3H
H 5 H H 5
C C
4 4
H H

Func ti ona l gr oup

Carbon forms most of the compounds with hydrogen. But carbon also forms bonds with other atoms such as
halogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. Therefore, carbon is said to be a very friendly element.
These compounds are obtained by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms by other atoms such that the valency
of carbon remains satisfied. The atom or a group of atoms replacing the hydrogen atom are called heter oa tom
or func ti ona l gr oup respectively.
Different organic compounds having same functional group have almost same properties. These are called
fa mi l i es.

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 Chemistry
To understand the meaning of a functional group, let us consider ethane (C2H6) and ethanol (C2H5OH). Here,
ethanol is obtained by replacing one hydrogen atom of ethane by the hydroxyl group as shown below :

H H H H
| | – H
| |
H–C–C–H +O H
H–C–C–OH Functional group
| | | |
H H H H
Ethane Ethanol

Both ethane & ethanol have different physical and chemical properties. For example,
Ethane is a gas while ethanol is a liquid at room temperature.

Ethanol is an antiseptic and hypnotic (induces sleep) but ethane does not have these properties.
Ethanol reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide with the evolution of hydrogen gas but ethane does
not give thisreaction.
Example of different compounds with same functional group

H H H
H–C– O H H–C –––C – O H
H H H F unctional
Functional
Methanol group Ethanol group

Properties of CH3 –OH and CH3 –CH2 OH are similar and it is due to the presence of –OH (hydroxyl) group.
This group is known as a l c ohol i c gr oup.

Family of compounds having –OH group is called a l c ohol.

S o m e Func ti ona l Gr oups i n Ca r bon c ompounds

Heter o a tom Func ti ona l Gr oup For mul a of Func ti ona l Gr oup

Ha l ogen a tom Halo (Fluoro, Chloro, Bromo, Iodo) –X (–F, –Cl, –Br, –I)
(F, Cl, Br, I)

O x ygen (O) 1. Alcohol –OH

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H
2. Aldehydes –C or – CHO
O

3. Ketones C= O or – CO

O
4. Carboxylic acid – C– O H or – CO O H

Homol ogous Ser i es

Definition : "A series of organic compounds having similar structures and similar chemical properties in which
the successive members differ in their molecular formula by –CH2 group".
The different members of the series are called as homol ogues .

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Class X
Cha r a c ter i s ti c s of homol ogous s er i es
All the members of a homologous series can be described by a common general formula.
Ex a mpl e : All alkane can be described by the general formula C n H 2 n + 2 .
Each member of a homologous series differs from its higher and lower neighbouring member by a
common difference of –CH2 group.
Molecular masses of the two adjacent homologues differ by 14 mass units, because molecular mass of –
CH2 group is 12 + 2 = 14.
All the members of a homologous series show similar chemical properties. e.g. substitution reaction is
shown by allalkanes.
All the members of a homologous series show a gradation in physical properties as molecular mass
increases. e.g. M.P. and B.P. increases with increase in molecular mass.
All the members of the series can be prepared by similar methods known as the general method of
preparation.

Gr a d a ti on i n Sa m e ge n e r al
p h ys i c al p r op ert ies fo r m u l a

Si m i l a r c h em ical H omo logous

D i ffe r e n ce o f –C H 2
p r o p e r ti es s er i es

Common me thod D i ffe r e n ce o f

o f s yn t h esis 1 4 m a s s u n it

Al ka ne Al kene Al kyne
Cn H2n+2 C n H2n C n H2n –2
Homologous series Homologous series Homologous series
S o m e member s of a l ka ne, a l kene a nd a l kyne homol ogous s er i es .

Na me For mul a Na me For mul a Na me For mul a

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Methane CH4 – – – –

Ethane C 2 H6 Ethene C 2 H4 Ethyne C 2 H2

Propane C 3 H8 Propene C 3 H6 Propyne C 3 H4

Butane C 4 H1 0 Butene C 4 H8 Butyne C 4 H6

Pentane C 5 H1 2 Pentene C 5 H1 0 Pentyne C 5 H8

Hexane C 6 H1 4 Hexene C 2 H1 2 Hexyne C 6 H1 0

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 Chemistry
Nomenc l a tur e of c a r bon c ompounds
There are two ways to name carbon compounds :
1. Trivial system 2. IUPAC system
Tr i vi al s ys te m : In earlier days, organic compounds were named after the source from which they were
obtained. For example, urea got its name because the substance was obtained from the urine of mammals.
These names are without any systematic basis and are known as c ommon na mes or tr i vi a l na mes .
I U P A C s ys te m : It is the system for naming organic compound given by I nt er na ti onal Uni on of P ur e
a nd Appl i ed Chemi s tr y. This system is very useful in the study of organic compounds.
In IUPAC system of nomenclature, the name of organic compounds consists of three parts.
(i) Word root (ii) Suffix (iii) prefix
W or d r oot : The word root denotes the number of carbon atoms present in the chain. For chains containing
upto four car bon atoms, special word roots (meth-C1, eth-C2, prop-C3, but-C4) have been used while
those containing more than four carbon atoms, Greek numerals have been used to represent the word
root. For example.

C h a i n l ength Word root Chain Length Word Root

C-1 Meth C-6 Hex

C-2 Eth C-7 Hept
C-3 Prop C-8 Oct
C-4 But C-9 Non
C-5 Pent C-10 Dec
Suffi x
The word root is linked to the suffix which may be primary or secondary or both.
Pr i ma r y s uffi x : It indicates the nature of linkage in the carbon atoms. For example if the carbon atom is
linked by single covalent bond (C–C), the primary suffix - ane is used. Similarly for a double bond between
two carbon atoms (C=C), –ene is used, the suffix –yne is used for a triple bond between two carbon atoms
(C C).
S ec on da r y s uffi x : It indicates the presence of functional group in the or ganic compound. A few important
secondary suffixes are listed below,

Func ti ona l g r o u p Suffix

Alcohols (– OH) –ol
Aldehydes (– CHO) –al
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Ketones (> C=O) –one

Carboxylic acids (–COOH) –oic acid
◗ Pr efi x
There are few groups which are not regarded as functional groups in IUPAC name of a compound.
These are regarded as substituent and are represented as prefixes and are put before the word root
while naming a particular compound. A few important prefixes are given:
Subs ti tuent Pr efi x
–F Fluoro
–Cl Chloro
–Br Bromo
–I Iodo
–R Alkyl
Thus a complete IUPAC name of an organic compound may be represented as

Pr efi x + W or d r oot + Pr i ma r y s uffi x + Sec onda r y s uffi x

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Class X
I s omer i s m
The existence of an organic compound with the same molecular formula and different structural formulae is
called isomerism.
The isomerism can be of various types depending on the type of variation in the structures of the molecules.
(i ) Cha i n i s om er i s m: T he phenomenon in which two or more organic compounds have the same molecular
formula but differ in the arrangement of carbon atoms in the longest chain.
All types of hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes and alkynes) with more than 3 carbon atoms exhibit this type
of isomerism.
The molecule in which all carbon atoms are arranged in a straight chain is called n-isomer. The molecule
in w hich there is a branched chain arrangement in the molecule a prefix iso or neo is used depending on
the type of branching.

Ex . 1. Pentane 2. Pentene
H2 C = C H – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 (n – Pentene)
H3 C – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 (n – Pentane)
H3 C – CH2 – CH – CH3 CH3
CH3 H2 C = C H – C H – CH3
(Isopentane) (Isopentene)
3. Pentyne

CH3
H3 C – C – CH3
HC C – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 (n – Pentyne)
C H3
(Neopentane)

HC C – CH – CH3
CH3
(Isopentyne)
(ii) Pos i ti on i s omer i s m: The phenomenon in which the hydrocarbon has the same chain but differs in the
position of multiple bonds or constituents on the parent chain is called position isomerism.
This is exhibited by unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes) with more than 3 carbon atoms (or)
saturated hydrocarbons with substituents as side chain.
Ex . (i) Butene
Molecular formula - C 4 H8
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H3 C – CH2 – C H = CH2 (1 -Butene)
H3 C – C H = C H – CH3 (2 -Butene)
(ii) Pentyne
Molecular formula - C 5 H8
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – C C H (1- Pentyne)
H3 C – CH2 – C C – CH3 (2 -Pentyne)
(iii) 5-carbon chain with methyl substituent.

1 2 3 4 5
H3 C – CH2 – C H – CH2 – CH3 (3 -Methylpentane)
CH3

1 2 3 4 5
H3 C – C H – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 (2 -Methylpentane)
CH3

44
 Chemistry
(i ii ) Func ti ona l i s omer i s m: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different functional groups are
called functional isomers and this phenomenon is called functional isomerism.
Ex . Two functional isomers are possible with the molecular formulae C 2 H6 O.
One isomer with an alcoholic functional group (R—OH) and the other with an ether linkage or functional
group (R—O—R)
(a) Molecular formulae: C 2 H6 O
CH3 – CH2 – OH CH3 – O – CH3
Ethyl alcohol Dimethyl ether
IUPAC : Ethanol IUPAC : Methoxy methane
(b) Molecular formulae: C 3 H6 O
O O
H3 C — CH2 —C — H H3 C — C — CH3
Propanaldehyde Acetone
IUPAC : Propanal IUPAC : Propanone
Two functional isomers namely propionaldehyde and acetone are possiblefor the molecular formulae C 3 H6 O,
O
one with aldehydic functional group (R — C — H) and the other with ketone functional group
O
(R — C — R) .
(iv) Meta mer i s m: The isomers in which there is unequal distribution of carbon chain or atoms on either side of
the functional group are called metamers and this phenomenon is termed 'metamerism'. Thus metamers
differ in the size of an alkyl group or chain on either side of the functional group.
This is exhibited by compounds having divalent functional groups.
Example
Molecular formula: C 4 H1 0 O
H3 C — CH2 — O — CH2 — CH3 H3 C — O — CH2 — CH2 — CH3
Diethyl ether Methyl propyl ether
IUPAC : Ethoxyethane IUPAC : Methoxypropane
Chemical properties of carbon compounds
Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide along with the release of heat and light.
Most carbon compounds also release a large amount of heat and light on burning.
( i ) C + O2 CO 2 + heat and light
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(ii ) CH4 + O 2 CO 2 + H2 O + heat and light

(iii ) CH3 CH2 O H + O 2 CO 2 + H2 O + heat and light
Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean flame while unsaturated carbon compounds will give a yellow
flame with lots of black smoke. However, limiting the supply of air results in incomplete combustion of even
saturated hydrocarbons giving a sooty flame. T he gas/kerosene stove used at home has inlets for air so that a
sufficiently oxygen-rich mixture is burnt to give a clean blue flame.
If you observe the bottoms of cooking vessels getting blackened, it means that the air holes are blocked and fuel
is getting wasted. Fuels such as coal and petroleum have some amount of nitrogen and sulphur in them. Their
combustion results in the formation of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen which are major pollutants in the environ-
ment. This is because a flame is only produced when gaseous substances burn. When wood or charcoal is
ignited, the volatile substances present vapourise and burn with a flame in the beginning. A luminous flame is
seen when the atoms of the gaseous substance are heated and start to glow. The colour produced by each
element is a characteristic property of that element.Carbon compounds can be easily oxidised on combustion.
In addition to this complete oxidation, we have reactions in which alcohols are converted to carboxylic acids.

45
 Chemistry
Types of fuel s

◗ Solid fuels- wood, coal, coke, charcoal etc.

◗ Liquid fuels-kerosene, petrol, diesel etc.

◗ Gaseous fuels- LPG, CNG, coal gas, water gas etc.

Combus ti on

◗ A chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give heat is called c ombus ti on .

◗ The substance that undergoes combustion is called to be a c ombus ti bl e. It is also called fuel . E.g.
petrol, kerosene.

◗ The fuel may be solid, liquid or gas. For combustion air is necessary.

◗ The lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire is called i gni ti on temper a tur e.

◗ A combustible substance cannot catch fire or burn as long as its temperature is lower than its ignition
temperature.

◗ The substances which have very low ignition temperature and can easily catch fire with a flame are
i nfl a mma bl e s ubs ta nc es . E.g. petrol, alcohol, LPG (Liquified petroleum gas) etc.

Types of c ombus ti on

◗ Combustion in which gas burns rapidly and produces light and heat is known as r a pi d c ombus ti on . E.g.
burning of gas stove in kitchen.

◗ The type of combustion in which a material suddenly bursts in the flame without application of any
external source is called s ponta neo us c omb us ti on . E.g. spontaneous combustion of coal dust.
Combustion in which a sudden reaction takes place with the evolution of heat, light and sound is known
as ex pl os i on e.g. ignition of fire crackers.

Flame
A fl a me (from Latin flamma) is the visible (light-emitting), gaseous part of a fire. It is caused by a highly
exothermic reaction (for example, combustion, a self-sustaining oxidation reaction) taking place in a thin
zone.If a fire is hot enough to ionize the gaseous components, it can become a pl a s ma .
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Colour and temperature of a flame are dependent on the type of fuel involved in the combustion, as, for example,
when a lighter is held to a candle. The applied heat causes the fuel molecules in the candle wax to vaporize.
In this state they can then readily react with oxygen in the air, which gives off enough heat in the subsequent
exothermic reaction to vaporize yet more fuel, thus sustaining a consistent flame.

Fl a me zones Outer Zone of

complete combustion
◗ I nner mos t zone : It is cooler than outer zone and it is dark.
Middle Zone of
partial combustion
◗ Mi ddl e zone : It is the largest zone of candle flame. This zone
Inner Dark Zone of
gives soot and smoke. unburnt wax vapours

◗ O ut er m os t zon e : This zone of the flame is thin and blue in

colour. This is the hottest zone of the flame. The temperature of
this zone is maximum around 1800°C.

Different zones of a candle flame

47
Class X
Some important carbon compounds
Etha nol
Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature. It is commonly called alcohol and is the active ingredient of all alcoholic
drinks. In addition, because it is a good solvent, it is also used in medicines such as tincture iodine, cough syrups,
and many tonics. Ethanol is also soluble in water in all proportions. Consumption of small quantities of dilute
ethanol causes drunkenness. Even though this practice is condemned, it is a socially widespread practice. However,
intake of even a small quantity of pure ethanol (called absolute alcohol) can be lethal. Also, long-term consumption
of alcohol leads to many health problems.
Rea c ti on of Etha nol
(i)Reaction with sodium - 2Na + 2CH3 CH2 O H 2CH3 CH2 O – Na + + H2
(Sodium ethoxide)
Alcohols react with sodium leading to the evolution of hydrogen. With ethanol, the other product is sodium
ethoxide.
(ii) Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbon: Heating ethanol at 443 K with excess concentrated sulphuric
acid results in the dehydration of ethanol to give ethene. T he concentrated sulphuric acid can be
regarded as a dehydrating agent which removes water from ethanol.

(iii) C H 3 –CH 2 OH Ho tc on c C H =2CH + H2

H2 S O 4 2
O
◗ Effec t of a l c ohol on l i vi ng bei ngs
When large quantities of ethanol are consumed, it tends to slow metabolic processes and to depress the
central nervous system. This results in lack of coordination, mental confusion, drowsiness, lowering of the
normal inhibitions, and finally stupour.The individual may feel relaxed but does not realise that his sense
of judgement, sense of timing, and muscular coordination have been seriously impaired. Unlike ethanol,
intake of methanol in very small quantities can cause death. Methanol is oxidised to methanal in the liver.
Methanal reacts rapidly with the components of cells. It causes the protoplasm to get coagulated, in much
the same way an egg is coagulated by cooking. Methanol also affects the optic nerve, causing
blindness.Ethanol is an important industrial solvent. To prevent the misuse of ethanol produced for industrial
use, it is made unfit for drinking by adding poisonous substances like methanol to it. Dyes are also added
to colour the alcohol blue so that it can be identified easily. This is called denatured alcohol.
Etha noi c a c i d
Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid and belongs to a group of acids called carboxylic acids. 5-8% solution
of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as a preservative in pickles. The melting point of
pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often freezes during winter in cold climates. This gave rise to its name
glacial acetic acid. Node5\e\Data\CBSE-2016\10th\Advance\CCP\Chemistry-1\4.Carbon & Its Compounds (Th+Ex.).p65

The group of organic compounds called carboxylic acids are obviously characterised by a special acidity. However,
unlike mineral acids like HCl, which are completely ionised, carboxylic acids are weak acids.
Rea c ti ons of etha noi c a c i d
◗ Esterification reaction: Esters are most commonly formed by reaction of an acid and an alcohol.Ethanoic
acid reacts with absolute ethanol in the presence of an acid catalyst to give an ester

(Ethanol) O
(Ethanoic acid) (Ester)
Esters are sweet-smelling substances. These are used in making perfumes and as flavouring agents. Esters
react in the presence of an acid or a base to give back the alcohol and carboxylic acid. This reaction
is known as saponification because it is used in the preparation of soap.

C H COOC H Na OH C H OH + CH COOH
3 2 5 2 5 3

48
 Chemistry
◗ Reaction with a base: Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid reacts with a base such as sodium hydroxide to
give a salt (sodium ethanoate or commonly called sodium acetate) and water:
NaOH + CH3 COO H CH3 COONa + H2 O

◗ Reaction with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates: Ethanoic acid reacts with car bonates and
hydrogencarbonates to give rise to a salt, carbon dioxide and water. The salt produced is commonly called
sodium acetate.
2CH3 COO H + Na 2 CO 3 2CH3 COONa + H2 O + CO2

CH3 COO H + NaHCO 3 CH3 COONa + H2 O + CO 2

Soaps and detergents

Commercially used soaps are sodium salts of fatty acid, such as oleic acid (C 17 H33 COOH), stearic acid and
palmitic acid (C 15 H31 COOH) which are plant or animal origin. Soap is made from oil or fat which are esters of
fatty acids or glycerols as shown in the following equation.

C 1 5 H3 1 –COOCH2 CH2 OH
C 1 5 H3 1 –COOCH + 3NaOH CHOH + 3C 1 5 H3 1 COONa

C 1 5 H3 1 –COOCH2 CH2 OH
Glycerol (Soap)

The above reaction is known as s a poni fi c a tion. The soap from the solution is separated by the addition of
c ommon s a l t.
T h e wa s hi ng a c ti on of s oa p
The washing action of soap has been explained on the basis of formation of micelles. (fig). The soap is made up
of two components ; hydrocarbon part and –COO Na group. T he former is hydrophobic (water repelling)
whereas the later is hydrophillic (water loving). Because of this, the arrangement of soap molecules is as shown
in fig. The hydrocarbon part dissolves grease along with the dirt sticking to the cloth.

Hydrophillic
ionic part
Hydrophilic end
Hydrophobic end
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Grease or dirt Hydrophobic hydrocarbon part

Na+
Na+ Na+
Na+ Na+ O il
Na droplet
+
Na+
Na+
Micelle Na +

Na Na
+
+

Formation of micelles

The formation of micelles

49
Class X
Synthetic detergents have a structure similar to that of soap. The water attracting part in detergents is sulphonate
(–SO3Na) group. Synthetic detergents can la ther well even with ha r d wa ter as unlike soaps, they do not from
insoluble calcium or magnesium salts with hard water.

The essential constituents of washing powders are as follows.

◗ Detergents - about 15-30% by mass.

Sodium sulphate and sodium silicate - to keep the washing powder dry.

Sodium tripolyphosphate or sodium carbonate - to maintain alkalnity which helps in removing dirt.

Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) to keep the dirt suspend in water.

Mild bleaching agent such as sodium perborate - to produce whiteness.

Synthetic detergents containing branched hydrocarbons are not biodegradable, i.e. they are not decomposed
by bacteria present in water. So these are pollutants for river water.

Important points to ponder

Catalytic hydrogenation is not shown by saturated hydrocarbon.

Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated ‘C’ chains while animal fats have saturated ‘C’ chains.

Hydrogenation reduces the number of unsaturated ‘C’ chains which produce rancidity in foods (due to the
production of carboxylic acids & aldehydes) and hence slows down the development of rancidity.

Unsaturated carbon compounds disappears orange colour of bromine water.

Saturated hydrocarbons are less reactive than unsaturated hydrocarbons.

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50
 Chemistry
CARBON & ITS COMPOUNDS EXERCISE
1. Which of the following have a triple bond? 12. Diamond is not a good conductor of electricity
(1) C 2 H4 (2) C 3 H4 (3) C 3 H8 (4) C 3 H9 because
2. How many unshared pairs of electrons are present (1) it is very hard
in water molecule? (2) its structure is very compact
(1)One (2) Zero (3) Two (4) Three (3) it is not water soluble
3. Number of electrons shared between carbon carbon (4) it has no free electrons
atoms in ethene is 13. Which of the following is not a crystalline form of
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 6 (4) 8 carbon?
4. Which of the following does not contain double
(1)Diamond (2) Graphite
bond?
(3) Fullerene (4) Coke
(1) CO 2 (2) C 2 H4 (3) HCl (4) O 2
14. In order to form branching, an organic compound
5. Nitrogen molecule involves formation of
must have a minimum number of
(1)Single covalent bond
(1) four carbon atoms (2) three carbon atoms
(2)Double covalent bond
(3) five carbon atoms (4) six carbon atoms
(3) Triple covalent bond
15. The number of isomers of pentane is
(4)Ionic bond
(1) 2 (2) 3
6. Oxygen molecule involves formation of
(1)Single covalent bond (3) 4 (4) 5
(2)Double covalent bond 16. Which of the following represents the correct
increasing order of unsaturation?
(3) Triple covalent bond
(4)Ionic bond (1) Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes
7 . A phenomenon by which an element occurs in (2) Alkanes, alkynes, alkenes
different physical modification in same physical state (3) Alkenes, alkynes, alkanes
is called (4) Alkynes, alkanes, alkenes
(1) Isomerism (2) Allotropy 17. Among the following the one having longest chain is
(3) Amorphous (4) Crystalline (1) Neopentane
8. Which of the following is not an allotropic form of
(2)Isopentane
carbon?
(3)2-Methylpentane
(1) Fullerene (2) Fluorine
(4)2,2-Dimethylbutane
(3)Diamond (4) Graphite
18. In C 6 H1 4 the number of possible isomers is
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9. Number of free electron(s) in each carbon atom in

graphite is /are (1) 3 (2) 6
(1)Two (2) Four (3) 4 (4) 5
(3) One (4) Three 19. Which is not a property of graphite?
10. In fullerene carbon atoms are arranged in mixed (1) It melts at 800°C
(1)tetragons and pentagons (2) It is a smooth, crystalline form of carbon
(2)pentagons and hexagons (3) It is a good conductor of electricity
(3)pentagons and heptagons (4) It forms a black sign on the paper
(4)All are correct 20. Which of the following is purest form of carbon?
11. Two adjacent layers in graphite are bonded by (1) Diamond (2) Coal
comparatively
(3) Wood (4) Paper
(1)strong forces 21. Which of the follow ing is not a saturated
(2) weak forces hydrocarbon?
(3)no forces (1) Cyclohexane (2) Benzene
(4) few strong and few weak forces
(3) Butane (4) Isobutane

51
Class X
22. Which of the following is a pair of saturated 30. W hich of the following belong to the same
hydrocarbon ? homologous series?

(1)Butane and isobutane (1)Ethane, ethene, ethyne

(2) Cyclohexane and hexene (2)Propanol, propanone, propanal

(3)Methanol, ethanol, propanol
(3) Propanal and propanone
(4)Ethane, ethanol, ethanoic acid
(4)All of these 31. Unsaturation in the organic compound can be
23. A double bond between two carbon atoms is formed by tested by the help of
(1)transfer of two electrons fromonecarbonto the other (1) Baeyer's test (2) Fehling's test
(3) Chlorination reaction (4) Dehydration reaction
(2) transfer of oneelectron fromonecarbon to the other
32. The functional group present in butanone is
(3)sharing of two electrons (1) Carboxy (2) Ketonic
(4)sharing of two pairs of electrons (3) Aldehydic (4) Alcoholic
33. The IUPAC name of CH3 CHO is
24. Which of the following is an isomeric pair?
(1) Acetaldehyde (2) Methanal
(1) Ethane and propane (3) Ethanal (4) Formaldehyde
(2) Ethane and ethene
CH3
(3) Propane and butane
34. The IUPAC name of CH3 – CH2 – C H – C – C H 3
(4) Butane and 2-methyl propane C H3 C H3
25. Pentane has the molecular formula C 5 H1 2 . It has
is
(1)5 covalent bonds (1)2,2,3-Trimethylpentane
(2)12 covalent bonds (2)3,4,4-Trimethylpentane
(3)16 covalent bonds (3)2-Ethyl-3,3-dimethylbutane
(4)2,3-Dimethlhexane
(4)17 covalent bonds
35. The IUPAC name of the compound CH2 = C(CH3)2 is
26. Which of the following gases is called 'Marsh gas'? (1)1,1-Dimethylprop-2-ene
(1) H2 (2) CH4 (2)2-Methylprop-1-ene
(3) C 2 H4 (4) C 2 H2 (3)2-Ethyl-3,3-dimethylbutane
(4)2,3-Dimethylhexane
27. Organic compounds will always contain
36. The second member of homologous series of alkenes
(1) carbon (2) hydrogen is
(3)nitrogen (4) sulphur (1) Ethene (2) Propene
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(3) Butene (4) Ethyne
28. Which of the following statements is not correct ?
( 1 ) A common functional group is present in 37. Compound CH3 CH2 CH(CH3 )CH2 – C – Cl has the
different members of a homologous series. O
(2) Two consecutive members of a homologous IUPAC name
series differ by a –CH 3group. (1)3-Methylpentanoyl chloride
(2)1-Chloroformyl-2-methyl butane
(3) The members of a homologous series can be
(3)3-Methylchloridebutane
represented by one general formula.
(4)3-Methylchloropentanone
(4) Different members of a homologous series have 38. Methane, ethane and propane are said to form a
similar chemical properties. homologous series because all are
29. T he differ ence in molecular weight of two (1)hydrocarbons
consecutive members of a homologous series is (2)saturated hydrocarbons
(1) 15 (2) 14 (3)aliphatic hydrocarbons
(4) differ from each other by –CH2 group
(3) 8 (4) 9

52
 Chemistry
47. Saturated hydrocarbons on combustion gives
39. The reaction CH Cl hv
CH Cl HCl is
4 2 l ight 3
(1) Sooty flame (2) Non-sooty flame
an example of
(3) Oxygen (4) Carbon monoxide
(1) addition reaction (2) substitution reaction
48. An organic compound X with molecular formula
(3) elimination reaction (4) oxidation reaction
C 2 H4 2 O turns blue litmus red and gives brisk
40. The final product obtained when methane reacts
effervescence with sodium bicarbonate.
with chlorine in presence of sunlight is
Identify the compound.
(1) C 2 Cl 6 (2) CCl 4
(1) Methanoic acid (2) Ethanoic acid
(3) CHCl 3 (4) CH2 Cl 2
(3) Propanoic acid (4) Butanoic acid
41. Which of the following hydrocarbons does not
49. When ethanoic acid is heated with NaHCO 3 the gas
decolourise bromine water?
evolved is
(1) C 1 0 H2 2 (2) C 6 H1 2
(1) H 2 (2) CO 2 (3) C H 4 (4) CO
(3) C 1 0 H1 8 (4) C 1 0 H2 0
50. Glacial acetic acid is
42. 2-Methylbut-2-ene will be represented as
(1) frozen acetic acid
CH3 (2) 5–8% solution of acetic acid
(1) CH3 – C H – CH2 CH3
(3) mixture of acetic acid and alcohol
(2) CH3 – C (4)None of these
CH –CH3
51. Ethene can be prepared by reaction of ethanol with
CH3 (1) Hot conc. H2 S O 4 (2) Alkaline KMnO 4

(3) CH3 – CH2 – C CH2 (3) Sodium metal (4) NaHCO 3

CH3 CH 52. The reaction, 2C 2 H5 OH + 2Na 2C 2 H5 ONa + H2
(4) CH 3 – CH– CH 2
suggests that ethanol is
CH3
(1) acidic in nature
4 3 . The substance that would not at all be formed during
the reaction of methane and chlorine in presence (2) basic in nature
of sunlight is (3) amphoteric in nature
(1) CH3 Cl (2) CHCl 3 (4) neutral in nature
(3) CH3 CH2 CH3 (4) CH2 Cl 2
53. Saponification means
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44. T he follow ing reaction is an example of

(1) Acid hydrolysis (2) Alkaline hydrolysis
CH4 + 2O 2 CO 2 + 2H2 O + heat + light
(3) Esterification (4) Dehydration
(1)addition reaction
54. The structural formula of ethyl ethanoate is
(2)substitution reaction
(3)combustion reaction O

(4)displacement reaction (1) CH3 – C –OCH3

45. When methane is burnt in an excess of air, the
O
products of combustion are
(2) CH3 – C – OCH2 CH3
(1) C and H 2O (2) CO and H 2O
(3) CO 2 and H2 (4) CO 2 and H2 O O
46. The number of oxygen molecules used in the
(3) CH3 CH2 – C – OCH2 CH3
combustion of 1 molecule of ethanol is
(1) 1 (2) 2 O
(3) 3 (4) 4 (4) CH3 CH2 – C – OCH3

53
Class X
55. Conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid is a/an 58. The by-product of soap industry is
(1)substitution reaction (1) glycerol (2) glycol
(2)oxidation reaction (3) isoprene (4) acid

(3)addition reaction 59. C 2 H4 reacts with hydrogen in presence of Ni to give

(4) rearrangement reaction (1) CH4 (2) C 2 H6
56. In the reaction CH3 COONa + NaOH the gas (3)HCOOH (4)HCHO
obtained is 60. Which of the following salts when dissolved in water
(1) C 2 H6 (2) C 2 H2 produce hard water ?

(3) CH4 (4) C 2 H6 (1) Calcium sulphate

57. Ethanol on complete oxidation gives (2)Magnesium bicarbonate
(1) carbon dioxide and water (3)Calcium bicarbonate
(4)All of these
(2) acetaldehyde
(3) acetic acid
(4)acetone

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ANSWER K E Y

Qu e . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
An s . 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 4 4 1 2 1 3 4 1 1
Qu e . 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
An s . 2 1 4 4 3 2 1 2 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 2 1 4 2 2
Qu e . 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
An s . 1 2 3 3 4 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 1 2 4

54