Chapter 9: NC and CNC MACHINE TOOLS

9.1. OVERVIEW

9.2. OPERATIONAL FEATURES of CNC MACHINES

9.3. BASIC PRINCIPLES in NC and CNC MACHINE TOOLS

9.4. PRECISION IN CNC MACHINING

1
9.1. Overview

Cam-controlled Automatic
Machine Tools

2
9.1. Overview

Electrically operated and controlled Automatic machine tools

3
9.1. Overview

Hydraulically operated and controlled Automatic machine tools

4
9.1. Overview

The term of numerical

control is a widely accepted
and commonly used term in
the machine tool industry.
Numerical control (NC) enables an operator to communicate with
machine tools through a series of numbers and symbols.

By integrating a computer processor, computer numerical control, or

“CNC” as it is now known, allows part machining programs to be
edited and stored in the computer memory as well as permitting
diagnostics and quality control functions during the actual machining.
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 9.1. OVERVIEW
No NC Machine CNC machine

Input data method: programs are fed directly into the

Input data method: Punched tape, punched
1 computer by small key board similar to our traditional
card and other such media.
key board.

2 NC machine cost is less. CNC machine cost is high.

The accuracy is less as compared with the

3 It has high accuracy.
CNC.

Programs should be changed in punched card,

4 We can modify the program in computer.
magnetic tapes and then fed to machine.

5 Modification in the program is difficult. Modification in the program is very easy.

6 Flexibility is less. Flexibility is high

7 It required more time to perform an operation. It requires less time.

It is known as the machine which is controlled It is known as the machine which is used to control
by the set of instructions in the form of the motions of the work piece and tool with the help
8
numbers, letters and symbols. The set of of prepared program in computer. The program is
instructions is called as program. written in alphanumeric data.

9 It is not possible to run it continuously. It can be run continuously for 24 hours of a day.
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 9.2. OPERATIONAL FEATURES of CNC MACHINES

 A < N: Use CNC machine tools

 B > N: Use Automatic machine tools

Machining cost

CNC machine
tools

Automatic
machine tools
a A B
N Number of parts
a: Initial cost of Automatic
machine tools Machining cost in CNC and
automatic machine tools 7
 9.2. OPERATIONAL FEATURES of CNC MACHINES
Conventional
a) Conventional Machine tools Machinist
Machine tools

b) NC Machine tools

Machining Machine NC Machine

Input data
program control unit tools

Machinist
c) CNC Machine tools

Input Machining Machine CNC Machine

Computer program tools
data control unit

Machinist
8
 Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages
• High Repeatability and Precision e.g. machining Aircraft parts
• Complex contours/surfaces need to be machined, etc
• Flexibility in job change, automatic tool settings
• More safe, higher productivity, better quality
• Less paper work, faster prototype production, reduction in lead time

Disadvantages

• Costly setup, skilled operators

• Computers, programming knowledge required
• Maintenance is difficult

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 Elements of a CNC machine

1. Input device
2. Machine control unit
3. Machine tool
4. Driving system
5. Feedback device
6. Display unit

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 Application of CNC Machine Tools
Some common types of CNC machines and instruments used in
industry are as following:
 CNC Drilling machines
 CNC Lathe / turning centers
 CNC Milling and machining centers
 CNC electrical discharge machining (EDM)
 CNC grinding machines
 CNC cutting machines (laser, plasma, electron, or flame)
 CNC welding machines
 CNC fabrication machines (sheet metal punch press, bending
machine …)
 CNC Coordinate measuring machines
 …….. 11
Application of CNC Machine Tools

NC turning machine 16K20T1

12
 Application of CNC Machine Tools

NC Drilling machines 2P135∅2 13

 Application of CNC Machine Tools

CNC Milling – Drilling – Boring 6904BM∅2

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 Application of CNC Machine Tools

CNC laser cutting machines

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 Application of CNC Machine Tools
Manufacturing Cell

Manufacturing cells are groups of machinery that are grouped in a way that
makes the manufacturing process more efficient. In other words, they are stations
where the layout of machinery is based on flow rather than machine type.
These cells are used in organizations who engage in cellular manufacturing in
an effort to reduce waste and be leaner 16
 Application of CNC Machine Tools
DNC (Direct Numerical Control or Distibuted Numerical Control)

In a Direct Numerical Control system (DNC), a mainframe computer is used

to coordinate the simultaneous operations of a number CNC machines.
In such a system, a host computer communicate with many CNC machine
tools via networks and download or upload programs. 17
 Application of CNC Machine Tools
ANC (Adaptive Numerical Control)
Driver command
CNC system Machine tool
Position feedback

Machining
process

Adaptive Measure
variables Sensor

Constraints
Strategy Diagram of ANC (Adaptive Numerical Control)
Performance index
An adaptive control system is one in which the controller parameters are
adjusted automatically to compensate for changing process conditions 18
 Application of CNC Machine Tools
ANC (Adaptive Numerical Control)

In-process inspection of workpiece diameter is performed in a turning

operation. The system automatically adjusts the radial position of the cutting
tool in order to machine the correct diameter.

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 Application of CNC Machine Tools
FMS (Flexible Manufacturing System)

FMS is a manufacturing system in which there is some amount

of flexibility that allows the system to react in case of changes, whether
predicted or unpredicted. 20
 Application of CNC Machine Tools
FMS (Flexible Manufacturing System)

FMS consists of robots, CNC machines, instrumentation devices,

computers, sensors, and other stand alone systems such as inspection
machines. 21
 Application of CNC Machine Tools
CIM (Computer Integrated Manufacturing)

CIM is the manufacturing approach of using computers to control entire

production process. This integration allows individual processes to exchange
information with each part. 22
 Application of CNC Machine Tools
CIM (Computer Integrated Manufacturing)
CIM is a manufacturing approach that provides a complete automation of a
manufacturing facility. All the operations are controlled by computers and have
a common storage and distribution. The various processes involved in a CIM
are listed as follows:
 Computer-aided design
 Prototype manufacture
 Determining the efficient method for manufacturing by calculating the costs
and considering the production methods, volume of products, storage and
distribution
 Ordering of the necessary materials needed for the manufacturing process
 Computer-aided manufacturing of the products with the help of computer
numerical controllers
 Quality controls at each phase of the development

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 9.3. Basic principles in NC and CNC machine tools
 The two most common axis types are linear (driven along a
straight path) and rotary (driven along a circular path).
 Motion can be resolved into 6 axes, namely, 3 linear axes (X,
Y, and Z axis) and rotary axes (A, B and C axis).

The right-hand rule for linear motion

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9.3. Basic principles in NC and CNC machine tools

Z+

X+
Y+

The CNC milling machine can be programmed on three axes:

•The X axis controls the table movement left or right.
•The Y axis controls the table movement toward or away from the column.
•The Z axis controls the vertical (up or down) movement of the knee or spindle 25
9.3. Basic principles in NC and CNC machine tools
The right-hand rule for rotary motion +Z
Axis direction +C

+A +Y +B

+X

+A

The thumb may represent the X, Y, or Z

axis direction, and the curl of the fingers
may represent the positive rotation about
each axis. These are known as A, B, and C
and represent the rotary motions about X,
Y, and Z, respectively 26
9.3. Basic principles in NC and CNC machine tools

CNC Horizontal milling machine

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9.5. Basic principles in NC and CNC machine tools

Most lathes are programmed on two axes.

•The X axis controls the cross motion of the cutting tool. Negative X (-X) moves
the tool towards the spindle centerline; positive X moves the tool away from the
spindle centerline.
•The Z axis controls the carriage travel toward or away from the headstock 28
CNC drilling machine

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5-axes CNC vertical milling machine

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5-axes CNC horizontal milling machine

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 Reference points on a NC controlled machine
 Machine zero point (M)
It is the point of the CNC machine tool fixed by the manufacturer. It
is always located the same position of the machine tool.
 Work Piece Zero Point (W)
This point determines the work piece coordinate system in relation
to the CNC system when setting up the machine.
 Program zero point (P)
It is the point which is selected for programming. In theory, the
program zero point may be selected literally anywhere.

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 Basic Length Unit (BLU)
 Each BLU unit corresponds to the position resolution of the axis of motion.
 For example, 1 BLU = 0,002mm means that the axis will move 0,002mm for
every one electrical pulse received by the motor. The BLU is also referred
to as Bit (binary digit).
Resolution = BLU = Bit

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The architecture of NC machine tools and machining operation flow
The task flow that is needed for producing a part using an NC machine. The
tasks can be classified as the following three types:
1. Offline tasks
2. Online tasks
3. Post-line tasks

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The architecture of NC machine tools and machining operation flow
1. Offline tasks: are needed to generate a part program for controlling an
NC machine.

After finishing geometric modeling, Computer Aided Process Planning

(CAPP) is carried out where necessary information for machining is generated.
In this stage, the selection of machine tools, tools, jig and fixture, decisions
about cutting conditions, scheduling and machining sequences are created.
Because process planning is very complicated and CAPP is immature with
respect to technology, process planning generally depends on the know-how of
a process planner.

CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) is executed in the final stage for

generating a part program. In this stage, tool paths are generated based on
geometry information from CAD and machining information from CAPP. During
tool path generation, interferences between tool and workpiece, minimization of
machining time and tool change, and machine performance are considered. In
particular, CAM is an essential tool to generate 2.5D or 3D toolpaths for
machine tools with more than three axes.
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The architecture of NC machine tools and machining operation flow
2. Online tasks: are needed to machine parts using NC machines.
In this stage, the NC system reads and interprets part programs from
memory and controls the movement of axes. The NC system generates
instructions for position and velocity control based on the part program and
servo motors are controlled based on the instructions generated. As the rotation
of a servo motor is transformed into linear movement via ball-screw
mechanisms, the workpiece or tool is moved and, finally, the part is machined
by these movements.

In the online stage, the status of the machine and machining process may be
monitored during machining. Actually, tool-breakage detection, compensation of
thermal deformation, adaptive control, and compensation of tool deflection
based on monitoring of cutting force, heat, and electric current are applied
during machining. On-Machine Measurement is also used to calculate
machining error by inspecting the finished part on the machine, returning
machining errors to NC to carry out compensation.

36
The architecture of NC machine tools and machining operation flow
3. Postline task: is to carry out CAI (Computer Aided Inspection), inspecting
the finished part.
In this stage, inspection using a CMM (Coordinate Measurement Machine) is
used to make a comparison between the result and the geometry model in
order to perform compensation.
The compensation is executed by modifying tool or by doing post-operations
such as re-machining and grinding.

37
Some calculations about the working unit of a NC control system
The stepper motor is driven by a series of electrical pulses generated by the
MCU. Each pulse causes the motor to rotate a fraction of one revolution
Parameters of stepper motor
1. Number of steps S
3600
2. Step angle  (degrees):  =
S 1
3. Motor revolution per pulse nmp (revolution per pulse): nmp =
S 60.f
4. The revolution number nm of the motor per minute (rpm): nm =
S
In which f is the pulse frequency or pulse rate (Hz or pulses per second)
5. The total number of pulses N that motor receives for travelling the table

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Parameters of working unit of a NC machine
1. Leadscrew pitch T (mm)
2. The table speed V (mm/m): V = nlead . T
In which nlead is revolution number of leadscrew (rpm)
3. Resolution or BLU (mm) of NC machine
a. Direct transmission
T
BLU =
S

b. Transmission through a belt (gear) drive

T
BLU =
S.i
In which i is belt (or gear)
transmission ratio
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Parameters of working unit of a NC machine
60.f
The revolution number nm of the motor per minute (rpm): nm =
S
in which f is the pulse frequency or pulse rate (pulses per second)

The revolution number nsp of the spindle per minute (rpm): nsp = nm . i
in which i is belt (or gear) transmission ratio

40
Some calculations about the working unit of a NC control system
 Each BLU unit corresponds to the position resolution of the axis of motion.

Example 1: A stepper motor (S = 200 steps per revolution) is mounted directly

on the leadscrew of a NC drilling machine. Known that the leadscrew pitch is T
= 2 mm/rev.
1. Calculate the BLU.
2. If the motor receives a pulse frequency of f = 2000Hz, what is the speed
of the table V?
Answer
1. Calculate the BLU: T 2
BLU = = = 0,01 mm
S 200
2. The table speed V:
60.f 2000x60
The revolution number nm of motor: nm = = = 600 rpm
S 200
The revolution number nlead of leadscrew: nlead = nm = 600 rpm

The table speed V: V = nlead . T = 600 x 2 = 1200 mm/m

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Some calculations about the working unit of a NC control system
Example 2: A stepper motor (S = 400 steps per revolution) is mounted directly
on the leadscrew in X-direction of a NC milling machine. Known that the
leadscrew pitch is T = 5 mm/rev.
1. If the motor receives the total number of pulses N = 2800, what is the table
distance L traveled in X-direction?
2. What should be the pulse frequency f for a travel speed of Vt = 375 mm/min?
Answer
The total number of motor revolutions n: N 2800
n= = = 7 revolutions
S 400

1. The table distance traveled in X-direction: L = T . n = 5 x 7 = 35 mm

Vt 375
The revolution number nm of the motor: nm = = = 75 rpm
T 5
S x nm 400x75
2. The pulse frequency f : f = = = 500 Hz
60 60
42
Some calculations about the working unit of a NC control system
Example 3: A NC milling machine has to cut a slot located between the points
A(10,10) and B(40,50) on the XY-plane. Y B(XB,YB)

1. If the speed along the slot is to be V = 2mm/sec,

find the cutting time t and axial velocities V.
2. If the velocity is X-axis is off by 10%, what would
be the new position ?
Answer
A(XA,YA)
1. The distance L traveled along the slot:
X
 X B - X A  + YB - YA  40 -10  + 50 -10 
2 2 2 2
L= = = 50 mm

L 50
The cutting time t: t= = = 25 seconds
V 2
LX 30
The axial velocities V: X-direction VX = .V= . 2 = 1,2 mm/sec
L 50
LY 40
Y-direction VY = .V= . 2 = 1,6 mm/sec
L 50
43
Some calculations about the working unit of a NC control system
Example 3: A NC milling machine has to cut a slot located between the points
A(10,10) and B(40,50) on the XY-plane. Y B(40,50)

1. If the speed along the slot is to be 2mm/sec, find

the cutting time t and axial velocities V.
2. If the velocity is Y-axis is off by 10%, what would
be the new position ?
Answer
A(10,10)
2. The new velocity in X-axis: 1,2 x 90% = 1,08 mm/sec X

In the time T = 25 sec, the table travels in X-axis as follows:

LX = T . VX = 25 x 1,08 = 27 mm

Coordinates of new point C (XC, YC):

XC = XA + LX = 10 + 27 = 37
YC = YA + LY = 10 + 40 = 50

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Example 4: Consider a CNC worktable driven by a closed-loop control system
consisting of a servomotor, leadscrew, and optical encoder. The leadscrew has
a pitch T = 5 mm and is coupled to the motor shaft with a screw to motor gear
ratio of 1:4. The encoder generates S = 200 pulses per revolution of the
leadscrew. If the total number of pulses and the pulse rate received by the
control system are N = 3000 and f = 200 Hz respectively, calculate:
1. Table speed V in mm/m
2. Motor speed in rpm
3. Distance traveled by the table L
Answer
60.f 200x60
The revolution number nlead of leadscrew: nlead = = = 60 rpm
S 200
1. The table speed V: V = nlead . T = 60 x 5 = 300 mm/m
2. The revolution number nm of the motor: nm = 60 x 4 = 240 rpm
The total number of leadscrew revolutions Nlead :
N 3000
Nlead = = = 15 revolutions
S 200
3. The table distance traveled: L = T . Nlead = 5 x 15 = 75 mm
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Example 5: A DC servomotor is coupled to a leadscrew which drives the table
of a CNC machine tool. A digital encoder, mounted at the end of the screw,
emits S = 500 pulses per revolution. If the pitch is T = 5 mm per rev, and the
motor rotates 600 rpm (i = 1:1 gear ratio), calculate:
1. Table speed V (mm/m)
2. BLU
3. Frequency of pulses transmitted by the encorder

Answer
The revolution number nlead of leadscrew: nlead = nm = 600 rpm (i = 1:1)

1. The table speed V: V = nlead . T = 600 x 5 = 3000 mm/m

T 5
2. Resolution or BLU (mm) BLU = = = 0,01 mm
S 500
3. Frequency of pulses transmitted by the encorder is calculated from:

60.f nlead .S 600x500

nm = f= = = 5000 Hz
S 60 60
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Example 6: The AC servomotor equipped with a 200 ppr incremental encoder
is used to transmit motion to the spindle of a CNC turning machine tool through
the belt drive. If the driving pulley diameter D1 = Ø150 mm, driven pulley
diameter D2 = Ø60 mm, and the frequency of pulses transmitted f = 2500Hz,
calculate the revolution number nsp of spindle.

Answer

The revolution number nm of motor:

60.f 60x2500
nm = = = 750 rpm
S 200
D1 150
Belt transmission ratio: i = = = 2,5
D2 60
The revolution number nsp of spindle: nsp = nm . i = 750 x 2,5 = 1875 rpm
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9.4. PRECISION IN CNC MACHINING
Three critical measures of precision are:
1. Resolution
2. Accuracy
3. Repeatability
1. Resolution
Control resolution (BLU) is the distance separating two adjacent points in the
axis movement (the smallest change in the position).

The electromechanical components of the positioning system that affect the

resolution are the leadscrew pitch, the gear ratio, and the step angle in the
stepper motor (open loop) or the angle between the slots in the encoder
(closed-loop)

The programming resolution can not exceed the control resolution.

48
Three critical measures of precision are:
1. Resolution
2. Accuracy
3. Repeatability
The difference between the accuracy and the repeatability.

Low Accuracy Low Accuracy High Accuracy

Low Repeatability High Repeatability High Repeatability
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Three critical measures of precision are:
1. Resolution
2. Accuracy
3. Repeatability
2. Accuracy
Accuracy of a CNC system depends on 3 factors: the resolution, the
computer control algorithms, and the machine inaccuracies.
+ The inaccuracy due to the resolution is considered to be (1/2)BLU on the
average.
+ The control algorithm inaccuracy is due to the rounding off the errors in the
computer which is insignificant.
+ The machine inaccuracy could be due to several reasons (cutting tool
deflection, machine tool chatter, mechanical linkage between the leadscrew
and the tool, and thermal deformations …). The designer minimizes this
inaccuracy to be under (1/2)BLU and hence:

Accuracy = (1/2) Resolution + Machining inaccuracy = BLU 50

Three critical measures of precision are:
1. Resolution
2. Accuracy
3. Repeatability
3. Repeatability
Repeatability is a statistical term associated with accuracy. It refers to the
capability of a positioning system to return to a programmed point, and is
measured in terms of the errors associated with the programmed point.

The deviation from the control point (error) usually follows a normal
distribution in which case the repeatability may be given as  3 where  is the
standard deviation. The repeatability is always better than the accuracy. The
mechanical inaccuracy can be considered as the repeatability.

Repeatability =  (1/2) Accuracy =  (1/2) BLU

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Example 7: What is the control resolution of a NC system with a belt drive
(Driving pulley D1 = 300 mm, Driven pulley D2 = 80 mm), pitch of leadscrew T
= 6 mm/rev, and the DC step motor receives S = 800 pulses per revolution.
What would be the accuracy and repeatability if the machining inaccuracy is
about (1/2)BLU ?

Answer

D1 300
i : belt transmission ratio i = = = 3,75
D2 80
T 6
BLU = = = 0,002 mm
S . i 800 x 3,75

Resolution = BLU = 0,002 mm

Accuracy = (1/2) Resolution + Machining inaccuracy = BLU = 0,002 mm
Repeatability =  (1/2) Accuracy =  0,001 mm 52