UNIT III DATA ANALYSIS AND REPORTING

Overview of Multivariate analysis, Hypotheses testing and Measures of

Association. Presenting Insights and findings using written reports and oral presentation.

Introduction

Multivariate means involving multiple dependent variables resulting in one outcome. This
explains that the majority of the problems in the real world are Multivariate. For example,
we cannot predict the weather of any year based on the season. There are multiple factors
like pollution, humidity, precipitation, etc. Here, we will introduce you to multivariate
analysis, its history, and its application in different fields.

Multivariate analysis: An overview

Multivariate analysis (MVA) is a Statistical procedure for analysis of data

involving more than one type of measurement or observation. It may also mean solving
problems where more than one dependent variable is analyzed simultaneously with other
variables.

Multivariate analysis is used widely in many industries, like healthcare. In the

recent event of COVID-19, a team of data scientists predicted that Delhi would have more
than 5lakh COVID-19 patients by the end of July 2020. This analysis was based on
multiple variables like government decision, public behavior, population, occupation,
public transport, healthcare services, and overall immunity of the community.

The History of Multivariate analysis

In 1928, Wishart presented his paper. The Precise distribution of the sample covariance
matrix of the multivariate normal population, which is the initiation of MVA.

In the 1930s, R.A. Fischer, Hotelling, S.N. Roy, and B.L. Xu et al. made a lot of
fundamental theoretical work on multivariate analysis. At that time, it was widely used in
the fields of psychology, education, and biology.

In the middle of the 1950s, with the appearance and expansion of computers, multivariate
analysis began to play a big role in geological, meteorological. Medical and social and
science. From then on, new theories and new methods were proposed and tested
constantly by practice and at the same time, more application fields were exploited. With
the aids of modern computers, we can apply the methodology of multivariate analysis to
do rather complex statistical analyses.

Classification Chart of Multivariate Techniques

Selection of the appropriate multivariate technique depends upon-

a) Are the variables divided into independent and dependent classification?

b) If Yes, how many variables are treated as dependents in a single analysis?

c) How are the variables, both dependent and independent measured?

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Multivariate analysis technique can be classified into two broad categories viz., This
classification depends upon the question: are the involved variables dependent on each
other or not?

If the answer is yes: We have Dependence methods.

If the answer is no: We have Interdependence methods.

Dependence technique: Dependence Techniques are types of multivariate analysis

techniques that are used when one or more of the variables can be identified as dependent
variables and the remaining variables can be identified as independent.

Interdependence Technique

Interdependence techniques are a type of relationship that variables cannot be classified

as either dependent or independent.

It aims to unravel relationships between variables and/or subjects without explicitly

assuming specific distributions for the variables. The idea is to describe the patterns in the
data without making (very) strong assumptions about the variables.

The Objective of multivariate analysis

(1) Data reduction or structural simplification: This helps data to get simplified as
possible without sacrificing valuable information. This will make interpretation easier.

(2) Sorting and grouping: When we have multiple variables, Groups of “similar” objects
or variables are created, based upon measured characteristics.
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(3) Investigation of dependence among variables: The nature of the relationships
among variables is of interest. Are all the variables mutually independent or are one or
more variables dependent on the others?

(4) Prediction Relationships between variables: must be determined for the purpose of
predicting the values of one or more variables based on observations on the other
variables.

(5) Hypothesis construction and testing. Specific statistical hypotheses, formulated in

terms of the parameters of multivariate populations, are tested. This may be done to
validate assumptions or to reinforce prior convictions.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Multivariate Analysis

Advantages

 The main advantage of multivariate analysis is that since it considers more than
one factor of independent variables that influence the variability of dependent
variables, the conclusion drawn is more accurate.
 The conclusions are more realistic and nearer to the real-life situation.

Disadvantages

 The main disadvantage of MVA includes that it requires rather complex

computations to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion.
 Many observations for a large number of variables need to be collected and
tabulated; it is a rather time-consuming process.
Hypotheses testing and Measures of Association.
What Is Hypothesis Testing?

Hypothesis testing is an act in statistics whereby an analyst tests an assumption regarding a

population parameter. The methodology employed by the analyst depends on the nature of
the data used and the reason for the analysis.

Hypothesis testing is used to assess the plausibility of a hypothesis by using sample data.
Such data may come from a larger population, or from a data-generating process. The word
"population" will be used for both of these cases in the following descriptions.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Hypothesis testing is used to assess the plausibility of a hypothesis by using sample

data.
 The test provides evidence concerning the plausibility of the hypothesis, given the
data.
 Statistical analysts test a hypothesis by measuring and examining a random sample
of the population being analyzed.

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The main important characteristics of a good hypothesis are listed below:

1. The hypothesis should be empirical statements.

2. A good hypothesis must be plausible.
3. Should not include generalization.
4. Must be testable.

How Hypothesis Testing Works

In hypothesis testing, an analyst tests a statistical sample, with the goal of providing
evidence on the plausibility of the null hypothesis.

Statistical analysts test a hypothesis by measuring and examining a random sample of the
population being analyzed. All analysts use a random population sample to test two different
hypotheses: the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis.

The null hypothesis is usually a hypothesis of equality between population parameters; e.g.,
a null hypothesis may state that the population mean return is equal to zero. The alternative
hypothesis is effectively the opposite of a null hypothesis (e.g., the population mean return is
not equal to zero). Thus, they are mutually exclusive, and only one can be true. However,
one of the two hypotheses will always be true.

4 Steps of Hypothesis Testing

All hypotheses are tested using a four-step process:

1. The first step is for the analyst to state the two hypotheses so that only one can be
right.
2. The next step is to formulate an analysis plan, which outlines how the data will be
evaluated.
3. The third step is to carry out the plan and physically analyze the sample data.
4. The fourth and final step is to analyze the results and either reject the null hypothesis,
or state that the null hypothesis is plausible, given the data.

Different Types of Hypothesis:

1. Simple Hypothesis:

 A Simple hypothesis is also known as composite hypothesis.

 In simple hypothesis all parameters of the distribution are specified.
 It predicts relationship between two variables i.e. the dependent and the
independent variable

2. Complex Hypothesis:

 A Complex hypothesis examines relationship between two or more independent

variables and two or more dependent variables.

3. Working or Research Hypothesis:

 A research hypothesis is a specific, clear prediction about the possible outcome

of a scientific research study based on specific factors of the population.

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 4. Null Hypothesis:

 A null hypothesis is a general statement which states no relationship between

two variables or two phenomena. It is usually denoted by H0.

5. Alternative Hypothesis:

 An alternative hypothesis is a statement which states some statistical

significance between two phenomena. It is usually denoted by H1 or HA.

6. Logical Hypothesis:

 A logical hypothesis is a planned explanation holding limited evidence.

7. Statistical Hypothesis:

 A statistical hypothesis, sometimes called confirmatory data analysis, is an

assumption about a population parameter.

Developing a hypothesis

1. Ask a question
Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question
should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project.

Do students who attend more lectures get better exam results?

2. Do some preliminary research

Your initial answer to the question should be based on what is already known about the topic.
Look for theories and previous studies to help you form educated assumptions about what
your research will find.

At this stage, you might construct a conceptual framework to identify which variables you
will study and what you think the relationships are between them.

3. Formulate your hypothesis

Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Write your initial answer to the
question in a clear, concise sentence.

Attending more lectures leads to better exam results.

4. Refine your hypothesis

You need to make sure your hypothesis is specific and testable. There are various ways of
phrasing a hypothesis, but all the terms you use should have clear definitions, and the
hypothesis should contain:

 The relevant variables

 The specific group being studied
 The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis

5. Phrase your hypothesis in three ways

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 To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if…then form. The first part of
the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable.

If a first-year student starts attending more lectures, then their exam scores will improve.

In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations or

effects, where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables.

The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their exam
scores.

If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect to find
between them.

First-year students who attended most lectures will have better exam scores than those who
attended few lectures.

6. Write a null hypothesis

If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing, you will also have to write a null
hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association between the
variables. The null hypothesis is written as H0, while the alternative hypothesis is H1 or Ha.

H0: The number of lectures attended by first-year students has no effect on their final exam
scores.
H1: The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their final
exam scores.

Major Differences Between Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis:

Null hypothesis Alternative hypothesis

An alternative hypothesis is the opposite of the

A null hypothesis represents the hypothesis that null hypothesis where we can find some
there is “no relationship” or “no association” or statistical importance or relationship
“no difference” between two variables. between two variables.

In case of null hypothesis, researcher tries to In an alternative hypothesis, the researcher

invalidate or reject the hypothesis. wants to show or prove some relationship
between variables.

It is an assumption that describes an alternative

It is an assumption that specifies a possible truth to truth where there is some effect or some
an event where there is absence of an effect. difference.

Null hypothesis is a statement that signifies no Alternative hypothesis is a statement

change, no effect and no any differences between that signifies some change, some effect and
variables. some differences between variables.

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 If null hypothesis is true, any discrepancy between If alternative hypothesis is true, the observed
observed data and the hypothesis is only due to discrepancy between the observed data and the
chance. null hypothesis is not due to chance.

An alternative hypothesis is denoted as H1 or

A null hypothesis is denoted as H0. HA.

Example of null hypothesis: Example of an alternative hypothesis:

There is no association between use of oral There is no association between use of oral
contraceptive and blood cancer contraceptive and blood cancer

H0: µ = 0 HA: µ ≠ 0

3.3 Presenting Insights and findings using written reports and oral presentation.
Overview:

This chapter describes the importance of report preparation and presentation and outlines
the process of producing written and oral presentations. We provide guide- lines for
report preparation, including report writing and preparing tables and graphs, and we
discuss oral presentation of the report. Research follow-up, including assisting the client
and evaluating the research process, is described. The special con- siderations for report
preparation and presentation in international marketing research are discussed, and
relevant ethical issues are identified. We begin with an example of the potential array of
reports that can emerge from a marketing research project that is primarily presenting
quantitative findings. This is followed with an example of a very creative means to
present findings to a study that is primarily pre- senting qualitative findings. Both
examples illustrate the different styles and means to present marketing research reports.

Importance of the report and presentation:

For the following reasons, the report and its presentation are important parts of the
marketing research project:
1. They are the tangible products of the research effort. After the project is complete and
management has made the decision, there is little documentary evidence of the project
other than the written report. The report serves as a historical record of the project.
2. Management decisions are guided by the report and the presentation. If the first five steps
in the project are carefully conducted but inadequate attention is paid to the sixth step, the
value of the project to management will be greatly diminished.
3. The involvement of many marketing managers in the project is limited to the writ- ten
report and the oral presentation. These managers evaluate the quality of the entire project on
the quality of the report and presentation.
4. Management’s decision to undertake marketing research in the future or to use the
particular research supplier again will be influenced by the perceived usefulness of the
report and the presentation.

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Preparation and presentation process

Problem definition,
approach, research design
and fieldwork

Data analysis

Interpretation,
conclusion, and
recommendations

Report preparation

Oral presentation

Reading of the
report by the
client

Research follow-up

The process begins by interpreting the results of data analysis in the light of the
marketing research problem, approach, research design and fieldwork. Instead of merely
summarising the quantitative and/or qualitative analyses, the researcher should present
the findings in such a way that they can be used directly as input into decision-making.
Wherever appropriate, conclusions should be drawn and recom- mendations made. The
researcher should aim to make their recommendations actionable. Before writing the
report, the researcher should discuss the major find- ings, conclusions and
recommendations with the key decision-makers. These discussions play a major role in
ensuring that the report meets the client’s needs and is ultimately accepted. These
discussions should confirm specific dates for the delivery of the written report and other
data.

The entire marketing research project should be summarised in a single written

report or in several reports addressed to different readers. Generally, an oral presenta-
tion supplements the written documents. The client should be given an opportunity to
read the report. After that, the researcher should take necessary follow-up actions. The
researcher should assist the client in understanding the report, help in interpreta- tions of
the findings that can affect their implementation, offer to undertake further research and
reflect upon the research process to evaluate its overall worth.

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Report format

Report formats are likely to vary with the researcher or the marketing research firm
conducting the project, the client for whom the project is being conducted, and the nature
of the project itself. Hence, the following is intended as a guideline from which the
researcher can develop a format for the research project at hand. Most research reports
include the following elements:

1 Submission letter
2 Title page
3.Table of contents
(a) Main sections
(b) List of tables
(c) List of graphs
(d) List of appendices
(e) List of exhibits

3 Executive summary
(a) Summary of prime objectives
(b) Major findings
(c) Conclusions and recommendations

4 Problem definition
(a) Background to the problem
(b) Statement of the marketing problem
(c) Statement of the research objectives – information needs

5 Approach to the problem and research design

(a) Type of research design
(b) Data collection from secondary sources
(c) Data collection from primary sources

6 Data analysis
(a) Research design
(b) Plan of data analysis and means of interpreting results

7 Results
8 Conclusions and recommendations
9 Limitations and caveats
10 Appendices
(a) Letter of authorisation
(b) Questionnaire development and pre-testing
(c) Questionnaires, forms, interview guides
(d) Sampling techniques, including error and confidence levels

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 (e) Fieldwork
(f) Lists including contact individuals and organisations

This format closely follows the earlier steps of the marketing research process. The results may
be presented in several chapters of the report. For example, in a national survey, data
analysis may be conducted for the overall sample and then the data for each geographic
region may be analysed separately. If so, the results from each analy- sis may be presented
in a separate chapter.
Submission letter. A formal report generally contains a letter of submission that delivers the
report to the client and summarises the researcher’s overall experience with the project,
without mentioning the findings. The letter should also identify the need for further action
on the part of the client, such as implementation of the find- ings or further research that
should be undertaken.

Title page. The title page should include the title of the report, information (name, address and
telephone number) about the researcher or organisation conducting the research, the name of
the client for whom the report was prepared, and the date of release. The title should
encapsulate the nature of the project with a tone that is meaningful to the target managers,
not one of technical ‘research-speak’.

Table of contents. The table of contents should list the topics covered and the appropriate page
numbers. In most reports, only the major headings and subheadings are included. The table
of contents is followed by a list of tables, a list of graphs, a list of appendices and a list of
exhibits.

Executive summary. The executive summary is an extremely important part of the report,
because this is often the only portion of the report that executives read. The summary should
concisely describe the problem, approach and research design that were adopted. A
summary section should be devoted to the major results, conclusions and recommendations.
The executive summary should be written after the rest of the report.

Problem definition. The problem definition section of the report gives the back- ground to the
problem. This part summarises elements of the marketing and research problem diagnosis.
Key elements of any discussions with decision makers, industry experts and initial
secondary data analyses are presented. Having set this context for the whole project, a clear
statement of the management decision problem(s) and the marketing research problem(s)
should be presented.

Approach to the problem and research design. The approach to the problem sec- tion
should discuss the broad approach that was adopted in addressing the problem. This
section should summarise the theoretical foundations that guided the research, any
analytical models formulated, research questions, hypotheses, and the factors that
influenced the research design. The research design should specify the details of how the
research was conducted, preferably with a graphical presentation of the stages
undertaken, showing the relationships between stages. This should detail the methods
undertaken in the data collection from secondary and primary sources. These topics
should be presented in a non- technical, easy-to-understand manner. The technical
details should be included in an

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appendix. This section of the report should justify the specific methods selected.

Data analysis. The section on data analysis, be it quantitative or qualitative, should

describe the plan of data analysis and justify the data analysis strategy and techniques
used. The techniques used for analysis should be described in simple, non-technical
terms, with examples to guide the reader through the interpretations.

Results. The results section is normally the longest part of the report and may entail
several chapters. It may be presented in any of the following ways.
1 Forms of analysis. For example, in a health care marketing survey of hospitals, the
results were presented in four chapters. One chapter presented the overall results,
another examined the differences between geographical regions, a third presented the
differences between for-profit and non-profit hospitals, and a fourth presented the
differences according to bed capacity. Often, results are presented not only at the
aggregate level but also at the subgroup (market segment, geographical area, etc.) level.
2 Forms of data collection. For example, a study may contain significant elements of
secondary data collection and analyses, a series of focus group interviews and a survey.
The results in such circumstances may be best presented by drawing con- clusions from
one method before moving on to another method. The conclusions derived from focus
groups, for example, may need to be established to show the link to a sample design and
questions used in a survey.
3 Objectives. There may be a series of research objectives whose fulfilment may incor-
porate a variety of data collection methods and levels of analysis. In these
circumstances the results combine methods and levels of analyses to show connec-
tions and to develop and illustrate emergingissues.
The results should be organised in a coherent and logical way. Choosing whether to
present by forms of analysis, forms of data collection or objectives helps to build that
coherence and logic. The presentation of the results should be geared directly to the
components of the marketing research problem and the information needs that were
identified. The nature of the information needs and characteristics of the recipients of
the report ultimately determine the best way to present results.

Conclusions and recommendations. Presenting a mere summary of the quantita- tive or

qualitative findings is not enough. The researcher should interpret the results in light of
the problem being addressed to arrive at major conclusions. Based on the results and
conclusions, the researcher may make recommendations to the decision- makers.
Sometimes, marketing researchers are not asked to make recommendations because they
research only one area and do not understand the bigger picture at the client firm.
The researcher may not have been fully involved in the diagnosis of the marketing and
research problems, in which case their interpretations may not fit into the context that the
marketer understands.
In any research project there are many approaches that can be taken to analyse the
data. This can result in a potential over-abundance of data (quantitative and/or quali- tative)
and distilling the ‘meaning’ from the data and presenting this in a clear report can result in
much of the original meaning or richness being lost. 3 To maintain the meaning or richness,
the researcher should strive to understand the nature of the decision-making process that is
being supported. Only then can sound interpretations of the collected data be made.

Limitations and caveats. All marketing research projects have limitations caused by time,
budget and other organisational constraints. Furthermore, the research design adopted may
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 be limited in terms of the various types of errors, and some of these may be serious enough
to warrant discussion. This section should be written with great care and a balanced
perspective. On the one hand, the researcher must make sure that management does not rely
too heavily on the results or use them for unintended purposes, such as projecting them to
unintended populations. On the other hand, this section should not erode their confidence in
the research or unduly minimise its importance.

Appendices. At the end of the report, documents can be compiled that may be used by
different readers to help them to understand characteristics of the research project in more
detail. These should include the letter of authorisation to conduct the research; this
authorisation could include the agreed research proposal. Details that relate to individual
techniques should be included relating to questionnaires, inter- view guides, sampling and
fieldwork activities. The final part of the appendix should include lists of contacts,
references used and further sources of reference.

Guidelines for graphs

As a general rule, graphical aids should be employed whenever practical. Graphical

display of information can effectively complement the text and tables to enhance clar- ity
of communication and impact.8 As the saying goes, a picture is worth a thousand words.
The guidelines for preparing graphs are similar to those for tables. Therefore, this section
focuses on the different types of graphical aids.9 We illustrate several of these using the
GlobalCash data from Table 25.1.

Geographic and other maps. Geographic and other maps, such as product posi- tioning
maps, can communicate relative location and other comparative information. Geographic
maps form the bases of presentations in geodemographic analyses as dis- cussed in
Chapter
5. The maps used in geodemographic analyses can portray customer locations and types,
potential consumers, location of competitors, road net- works to show consumer flows
and other facilities that may attract consumers to certain locations.
Round or pie charts. In a pie chart, the area of each section, as a percentage of the
total area of the circle, reflects the percentage associated with the value of a specific
variable. Pie charts are very useful in presenting simple relative frequencies in num-
bers or percentages. A pie chart is not useful for displaying relationships over time or
relationships among several variables. As a general guideline, a pie chart should not
require more than seven sections.10 Figure 25.2 shows a pie chart for the sourcing
strategies of European companies. Great care must be taken with 3D pie charts as the
relative sizes of the pie segments become distorted.

Line charts. A line chart connects a series of data points using continuous lines. This is an
attractive way of illustrating trends and changes over time. Several series can be compared on
the same chart, and forecasts, interpolations and extrapolations can be shown. If several
series are displayed simultaneously, each line should have a distinc- tive colour or form.

Oral Presentation

The entire marketing research project should be presented to the management of the client
firm. This presentation will help management understand and accept the writ- ten report.
Any preliminary questions that the management may have can be addressed in the
presentation. Because many executives form their first and lasting impressions about the
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 project based on the oral presentation, its importance cannot be over emphasised.

The key to an effective presentation is preparation. A written script or detailed out- line
should be prepared following the format of the written report. The presentation must be
geared to the audience. For this purpose, the researcher should determine the backgrounds,
interests and involvement of those in the project, as well as the extent to which they are
likely to be affected by it. The presentation should be rehearsed several times before it is
made to the management.

Visual aids such as tables and graphs should be displayed with a variety of media.
Flip charts of large pads of blank paper mounted on an easel enable the researcher to
manipulate numbers. They are particularly useful in communicating answers to tech- nical
questions. Visual aids can also be drawn on the pages in advance, and the speaker flips
through the pages during the presentation. Although not as flexible, magnetic boards and felt
boards allow for rapid presentation of previously prepared material. Overhead projectors can
present simple charts as well as complex overlays produced by the successive additions of
new images to the screen. The use of com- puter packages such as Microsoft’s PowerPoint
can also be of immense help. They can be used for making computer-controlled
presentations or for presenting technical information such as analytical models. However,
the presenter must not lose sight of the message, as illustrated in the following two
examples.

After the presentation, key executives in the client firm should be given time to read the
report in detail.

Research follow-up

The researcher’s task does not end with the oral presentation. Two other tasks remain.
The researcher should help the client understand and implement the findings and take
follow- up action. Second, while it is still fresh in the researcher’s mind, the entire
marketing research project should be evaluated.

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