DATA MANIPULATION

Computer Science: An Overview by J. Glenn Brookshear and Dennis Brylow publisher Pearson
 Data Manipulation
 Computer Architecture
 Machine Language
 Program Execution
 Arithmetic/Logic Instructions

2
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
 Computer Architecture
 Central Processing Unit (CPU) or processor
 Arithmetic/Logic unit versus Control unit
 Registers
 General purpose
 Special purpose
 Bus
 Motherboard

4
CPU and main memory connected via
a bus

5
 Motherboards
 The motherboard
 is the main printed circuit board.
 contains the buses, or electrical
pathways found in a computer.
Buses allow data to travel
among the various components.
 accommodates CPU, RAM,
expansion slots, heat sink/fan
assembly, BIOS chip, chip set,
sockets, internal and external
connectors, various ports, and
the embedded wires that
interconnect the motherboard
components.

6
 Central Processing Unit
 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is known as the brain
of the computer. It is also referred to as the processor.
 The CPU executes a program, which is a sequence of
stored instructions.

7
 Central Processing Unit
 Some CPUs incorporate hyperthreading or
hypertransport to enhance the performance of the CPU.
 The amount of data that a CPU can process at one time
depends on the size of the processor data bus.
 Speed of the CPU is measured in cycles per second -
megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).
 Overclocking is a technique used to make a processor
work at a faster speed than its original specification.

8
 Central Processing Unit
 The latest processor technology has resulted in CPU
manufacturers finding ways to incorporate more than one
CPU core onto a single chip.
 Dual Core CPU - Two cores inside a single CPU
 Triple Core CPU - Three cores inside a single CPU
 Quad Core CPU - Four cores inside a single CPU
 Hexa-Core CPU - Six cores inside a single CPU
 Octa-Core CPU - Eight cores inside a single CPU

9
 The Arithmetic/Logic Unit
 Subsystem that performs addition, subtraction, and
comparison for equality
 Components
 Registers, interconnections between components, and the
ALU circuitry
 Register
 Storage cell that holds the operands of an arithmetic
operation and holds its result
 Bus
 Path for electrical signals

10
 The Arithmetic/Logic Unit
 Registers are similar to RAM with following minor
differences
 They do not have a numeric memory address but are
accessed by a special register designator such as A, X or R0
 They can be accessed much more quickly than regular
memory cells
 They are not used for general purpose storage but for
specific purposes such as holding the operands for an
upcoming arithmetic computations.
 A typical ALU has 16, 32 or 64 registers.

11
 The Control Unit
 Control unit
 Tasks: fetch, decode, and execute

12
MACHINE LANGUAGE
 Stored Program Concept
 A program can be encoded as bit patterns and stored in
main memory.
 From there, the CPU can then extract the instructions and
execute them.
 In turn, the program to be executed can be altered easily.

14
 Terminology
 Machine instruction: An instruction (or command)
encoded as a bit pattern recognizable by the CPU

 Machine language: The set of all instructions recognized

15
 Machine Language Philosophies
 Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)
 Few, simple, efficient, and fast instructions
 Examples: PowerPC from Apple/IBM/Motorola and ARM

 Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC)

16
 Machine Instruction Types
 Data Transfer: copy data from one location to another
 Arithmetic/Logic: use existing bit patterns to compute a
new bit patterns
 Control: direct the execution of the program

17
Adding values stored in memory

18
Dividing values stored in memory

19
An architecture of the machine

20
 Parts of a Machine Instruction
 Op-code: Specifies which operation to execute
 Operand: Gives more detailed information about the
operation
 Interpretation of operand varies depending on op-code

21
The composition of an instruction

22
Decoding the instruction 35A7

23
 A Simple Machine Language

Op-code Operand Description

24
 A Simple Machine Language

Op-code Operand Description

25
 A Simple Machine Language
 14A3: Load
 The contents of the memory cell located at address A3 to
be placed in register 4.
 20A3: Load
 The value A3 to be placed in register 0.
 35B1: Store
 The contents of register 5 to be placed in the memory cell
whose address is B1.
 40A4: Move
 The contents of register A to be copied into register 4.

26
 A Simple Machine Language
 5726: Add
 The binary values in registers 2 and 6 to be added and the
sum placed in register 7.
 634E: Add
 The values in registers 4 and E to be added as floating-
point values and the result to be placed in register 3.

27
 A Simple Machine Language
 7CB4: Or
 The result of ORing the contents of registers B and 4 to be
placed in register C.
 8045: And
 The result of ANDing the contents of registers 4 and 5 to be
placed in register 0.
 95F3: Xor
 The result of XORing the contents of registers F and 3 to be
placed in register 5.
 A403: Rotate
 The contents of registers 4 to be rotated 3 bits to the right in
a circular fashion.
28
 A Simple Machine Language
 B43C:
 Compare the contents of register 4 with the contents of
register 0.
 If equal, the pattern 3C would be placed in the program
counter so that the next execution executed would be the
one located at that memory address.
 Otherwise, nothing would be done.
 C000:
 Stop program execution.

29
An encoded version of the instructions

QUIZ
30
PROGRAM EXECUTION
 Program Execution
 Controlled by two special-purpose registers
 Program counter: address of next instruction
 Instruction register: current instruction
 Machine Cycle
 Fetch
 Decode
 Execute

32
The machine cycle

33
Decoding the instruction B258

34
A program stored in main memory

35
The fetch step of the machine
cycle

36
The fetch step of the machine cycle

37
ARITHMETIC/LOGIC
INSTRUCTIONS
 Arithmetic/Logic Operations
 Logic: AND, OR, XOR
 Masking
 Rotate and Shift:
 circular shift (rotation)
 logical shift
 arithmetic shift
 Arithmetic: add, subtract, multiply, divide
 Precise action depends on how the values are encoded
(two’s complement versus floating-point).

39
Masking

40
Circular shift

41
Logical shift

QUIZ 42