Chapters Covered

❏ Functions ❏ Limits
❏ Quadratic Equations ❏ Continuity & Differentiability
❏ Complex Numbers ❏ AOD
❏ Sequence and Series ❏ Integration
❏ Binomial Theorem ❏ Area under Curves
❏ Trigonometry & ITF ❏ Differential equations
❏ Straight Lines ❏ Matrices and Determinants
❏ Circles ❏ Vectors and 3D
❏ Conic Sections ❏ Probability
 Standard Functions

❖ Modulus function
❖ Greatest Integer functions
❖ Fractional Part functions
❖ Exponential Functions
❖ Logarithmic Function
❖ Signum Function
 Modulus Function
For all a, b > 0, we have
Eg. Solve for x: 4 ≤ | x − 2 | < 6
1) | f(x) | = a ⇒ f(x) = ±a

2) | f(x) | ≤ a ⇒ −a ≤ f(x) ≤ a

3) | f(x) | ≥ a ⇒ f(x) ≥ a or f(x) ≤ −a

4) a ≤ | f(x) | ≤ b ⇒ f(x) ∈ [−b, −a] ∪ [a, b]

Observation Eg. The domain of the function is:

 Modulus Function
Properties of Modulus
Eg. Solve for x: | 2x − 3 | = | x − 1 | + | x − 2 |
(1) | a | ≥ a
(2) | ab | = | a | × | b |

Triangle inequality:

(4) (i) |a + b| ≤ | a | + | b |
(ii) |a − b| ≥ || a | − | b ||
 Greatest Integer Function

The representation of the Greatest Integer Function (GIF) is

f(x) = [x]
For any real number x :
[x] ➝ is the greatest integer less than or equal to x.

Eg. Find the value of

Where, [.] is GIF.

 Greatest Integer Function
Eg. Find domain:
Result
 Greatest Integer Function
Eg. If y = 3[x] + 1 = 2[x - 3] + 5, then find the
Result
value of [x + y], where [.] represents GIF.
● [x + k] = [x] + k for k ∈ integer

NOTE

[kx] ≠ k [x]
 Fractional Part Function

The Fractional Part Function is denoted as Eg. Solve for x : [x] = 2{x} + 1

f (x) = {x} = x - [x]

NOTE

Every real number can be expressed as

sum of two numbers, x = [x] + {x}

Remark

if x is not an integer
 Exponential Function

y = ax, a > 0, a ≠ 1

Y
Y
0<a<1

a>1

X’ X X’ X
O O

Y’ Y’
 Exponential Function

Result
 Logarithmic Function

y = logax , a > 0, a ≠ 1, x > 0

Y Y

a>1 0<a<1

X X
O O
 Logarithmic Function

Result Eg. Solve for x: log10(x2 - 5x) < log106

(a) loga x2 = logax1 ⇒

(b) loga x2 > logax1

Eg. Find domain

(c) loga x > p

While solving equations and inequations

involving log, be careful about domain.
 Signum Function

For example
(1) sgn (x2 + 10) =
(2) sgn ({x} − 2) =
 Range of Functions
Collection of all the images is called range of function.
It’s primarily, values of y for which x is defined.
Eg. Find the range of the following:

(a)

(b) , {.} is fractional part function

(c)
Graph Transformation
 Graph Transformation

(1) y = f(x) → y = f(x) ± a

Result

To draw y = f(x) ± a, shift the graph

of y = f(x) upward or downward
respectively by a units.
 Graph Transformation

(2) y = f(x) → y = f(x ± a)

Result

To draw y = f(x ± a), shift the graph

of y = f(x) to the left or right
respectively by a units.
 Graph Transformation

(3) y = f(x) → y = af(x)

Result
(1) To draw y = af (x), inflate or deflate
graph of y = f (x) by a units depending
upon whether a > 1 or 0 < a < 1.
(2) To draw y = -f (x), reflect the graph
of y = f (x) about X-axis
 Graph Transformation

(4) y = f(x) → y = f(ax)

Result
(1) To draw the graph of y = f(ax), stretch or
compress the graph of y = f (x) depending
upon 0 < a < 1 or a > 1 respectively.
(2) To draw y = f (-x), reflect the graph of
y = f (x), about Y-axis.
 Graph Transformation

(5) y = f(x) → y = | f(x) |

Result
To plot y = |f(x)| , keep the graph of y = f(x)
as such where f(x) ≥ 0 while reflecting it
about X-axis where f (x) < 0.
 Graph Transformation

(6) y = f(x) → y = f(|x|)

Result
To draw the graph of y = f(|x|), keep the
graph of y = f(x) as such on +ve x-axis and
also take a reflection copy of graph on +ve
x-axis about y-axis. If there is some part of
graph of y = f(x) on -ve x-axis, then erase it
first to draw y = f(|x|).
 Even and Odd Functions

Even Function Eg. Check for Even and odd functions

If f(-x) = f(x) ∀ x then f (x) is even function (a)

Odd Function
If f(-x) = -f(x) ∀ x then f (x) is odd function (b)

Where [. ] represents GIF.

NOTE
(1) Graph of even function is symmetric
about Y-axis.
(2) Graph of an odd function is symmetric
about origin.
 Periodic Functions

Definition
A function f (x) is said to be periodic function if there exists a positive
real number T such that f (x + T) = f (x) ∀ x.

Least such value of T is called Fundamental Period of y = f (x).

Graph of a Periodic Function

Graph of periodic function repeats at fixed length of interval.
 Periodic Functions
Some Standard Functions and their Periods

Function Period

sinn x, cosn x, secn x, cosecn x π if n is even, 2π if n is odd

tann x, cotn x π

|sin x|, |co x|, .….,|cot x| π

{x} 1

Algebraic Functions non-periodic

Constant Function periodic, period undefined

 Periodic Functions

NOTE

(a) If period of f (x) is T, then period of y = kf (ax + b) + c is .

(b) If period of f (x) is T1 and period of g(x) is T2, then LCM (T1, T2)
is period of f (x) + g(x).
[It need not be fundamental period]
 Periodic Functions

(a) LCM of two rational numbers always exists. Eg. Find periods of the following:

(a)
For example, LCM
(b) y = cos x + {x} (c) y = e sinx
(b) LCM of a rational & an irrational never exist.
(d) y = |sin x| + |cos x|
For example, LCM does not exist.
(c) LCM of two irrational exist if one is rational
multiple of other.

Remark
Whenever we have complementary functions with
mod or same even powers then Fundamental period
is half of the period found by LCM.
 Classification of Functions

(a) One-one and many-one

(b) Onto and into

One-one → Injective
Onto → Surjective
One-one and onto → Bijective
 Composition of Functions
Composition of f(x) and g(x) is denoted as fog(x) and gof(x)
It is defined as :
(a) fog(x) = f(g(x))
(b) gof(x) = g(f(x))

Eg. If
then find the function f(x).
 Inverse of Functions
Definition Eg. Find inverse function of following:
A function f : X → Y is said to be invertible, if there exists
a function g : Y → X such that gof = Ix and fog = Iy.
The function g(x) is called inverse of f(x) and is
denoted as f-1(x)

Algorithm to find Inverse of function

Step 1: Write y = f(x) and replace x y

Step 2: Find value of y. This is f-1(x)
 Inverse of Functions

NOTE

A function is invertible iff it is bijective.

Observation
(a) Graph of y = f-1(x) is reflection of graph of
y = f(x) about y = x.

(b) Solutions of f(x) = x and f-1(x) = x are same.

 Functional Equations

Result
For a non zero function f(x), we have

(a) f(xy) = f(x) + f(y) f(x) = K ln x

(b) f(xy) = f(x) × f(y) f(x) = xn

(c) f(x + y) = f(x) × f(y) f(x) = ax

(d) f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) f(x) = Kx

(e) and f(x)

is a polynomial then f(x) = ±xn + 1

Slide 34

1 For my reference: add 1-2 examples here like f(x) + f(1-x) = const aa jata hai
arvind kalia, 10-03-2025
 Relation between roots & Coefficients
Eg. If 𝜶, 𝜷 are the roots of x2 + √2x - 8 = 0

and an = 𝜶n +𝜷n, then =___.

Newton’s Identity:

If ⍺ and β are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0

and Sn = p⍺n ± qβn
Then, aSn + bSn − 1 + cSn − 2 = 0 Eg. If Sn = (2 + √3 i)n + (2 - √3 i)n, then

the value of is _____.

 Relation between roots & Coefficients
For a cubic equation, we have
Eg. If 𝜶, 𝜷, 𝜸 are the roots of 2x3 - 5x + 1 = 0,
then 𝜶3 + 𝜷3 + 𝜸3 is equal to _____.

Eg. Let P(x) = x3 - 8x2 + cx - d be a polynomial

with real coefficients and with all its roots
being distinct positive integers. Then number
of possible values of ‘c’ is ____
 Relation between roots & Coefficients
For a Biquadratic equation, we have
 Relation between roots & Coefficients
NOTE
Whenever we are finding or proving some Eg. If 𝜶, 𝜷, 𝜸 be the roots of the equation
condition and during the procedure we get value x3 + ax2 + bx + c = 0 such that 𝜶𝜷 + 1 = 0,
of some root, always make it satisfy the equation. then the value of c2 + ac + b + 1 is ___
 Nature of roots
For a quadratic equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0,
the value of discriminant ’D’ determine the nature of the roots of equation.
Discriminant, D = b2 - 4ac
 Nature of roots

Eg. Show that the expression

x2 + 2(a + b + c) x + 3(bc + ca + ab)
will be a perfect square if a = b = c.
D

D>0 D=0 D<0

Real & Distinct roots Real & Equal roots Non-Real roots
Note: If D is not a Note: a > 0 & D = 0 Note: If a, b ∈ R, then
perfect square and will imply that roots are conjugate
a, b ∈ Q, then roots quadratic is a complex numbers
are conjugate complete square
irrationals
 Transformation of equation
If roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 are α & β then equation having roots:
(a) 2⍺ and 2β is →

(b) is →

(c) ⍺ + 2 and β + 2 is →

Remark

This shortcut works for equation of any degree.

 Common roots
Given two Quadratic Equations, there are two possibilities-
1. They have one root in common
2. Both the roots are common
 Common roots
Condition for one root common in
a1x2 + b1x + c1 = 0
& a2x2 + b2x + c2 = 0 is (c1a2 - c2a1)2 = (b1c2 - b2c1) (a1b2 - a2b1)

Eg. The value of k such that x2 - kx - 1 = 0 Eg. If x2 + bx + c = 0 and x2 + cx + b = 0

and x2 - 3x +2 = 0 have common root is have a common root, then find their
uncommon root. Given b ≠ c.
 Common roots
one root common

Eg. The relation between a, b & c if x2 + bx + c = 0

and bx2 + cx + 1 = 0 have a common root, is ____
 Common roots

Condition for both roots common in a1x2 + b1x + c1 = 0 & a2x2 + b2x + c2 = 0 is

Eg. The value of a + b such that the equations

ax2 + bx + a = 0 and x3 - 2x2 + 2x - 1 = 0 have
two roots common is ______.

Eg. The relation between a, b, & c such that the

equations ax2 + bx + c = 0 and x3 + x - 2 = 0
have two roots common is ______.
 Analysis of Graph of Quadratic equation

Parabola Opens Upwards Parabola Opens downwards

 Analysis of Graph of Quadratic equation
Significance of D
For D > 0

D > 0 and a > 0 D > 0 and a < 0

X X
 Analysis of Graph of Quadratic equation
Significance of D
For D = 0

D = 0 and a < 0

X X

D = 0 and a > 0
 Analysis of Graph of Quadratic equation
Significance of D
For D < 0

D < 0 and a < 0

X
X

D < 0 and a > 0

 Analysis of Graph of Quadratic equation

Observation

1. Range of y = ax2 + bx + c is →

2. (i) ax2 + bx + c > 0 ∀ x if →

(ii) ax2 + bx + c < 0 ∀ x if →

 Analysis of Graph of Quadratic equation

Eg. If (a + 2)(a - 1)x2 + (a + 2)x - 1 < 0

Observation
∀ x ∈ R , then ‘a’ belongs to the
interval ___.
1. Range of y = ax2 + bx + c is →

2. (i) ax2 + bx + c > 0 ∀ x if → a > 0 and D < 0

(ii) ax2 + bx + c < 0 ∀ x if → a < 0 and D < 0

X
Analysis of Graph of Quadratic equation
Eg. Find range of:
(a) y = x2 + 2x + 4 ; 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
(b) y = x2 + 2x + 4 ; -3 ≤ x ≤ -2
(c) y = 2x2 + x + 1 ; -1 ≤ x ≤ 1
 Location of Roots
Let 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of quadratic equation
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c where a, b, c ∈ R
Let us consider a real number ‘k’
 Location of Roots
Eg. Find the value of ‘ p ’ such that
Result x2 + 2(p -3)x + 9 = 0 has roots such
that 6 lies inside them.
 Location of Roots

Eg. For what values of m, both roots of the

Result
equation x2 - (m - 3)x + m = 0 are greater
than 2?
Location of Roots

Eg. Find all possible values of a so that the equation

x2 + (3 - 2a) x + a = 0 has exactly one root in (-1, 2)

Ans:
 Describing Complex Numbers & Its Algebra

z=x+iy; x, y R

Remark

If x = 0 then z is called purely imaginary.

 Describing Complex Numbers & Its Algebra
1. Equality:
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2
Then, z1 = z2 If x1 = x2 and y1 = y2

2. Addition and subtraction:

z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2) + i(y1 + y2)

z1 - z2 = (x1 - x2) + i(y1 - y2)

NOTE

Inequalities do not occur in complex number

i.e. we cannot compare two complex numbers.
1 + 2i < 5 + 10i is a wrong statement
 Describing Complex Numbers & Its Algebra
3. Multiplication:

z1 × z2 = (x1 + iy1) × (x2 + iy2) =

Eg. (a + ib) × (a - ib) =

Eg. If z2 + 2(1 + 2i)z - (11 + 2i) = 0, find z.
4. Division:

Eg.
Conjugate, Modulus & Argument
 Conjugate of complex numbers
Let z = x + iy then its conjugate, denoted by is defined by x - iy.
So,

Eg:
Eg. Solve for z:
(a)

(b)

(c)
 Conjugate of complex numbers
Properties of Conjugate
Eg. If , then

find Img(z).

Eg. If z is complex number such that

is purely real, then zz = ___

(where z is imaginary number)

 Argand Plane
A two dimensional plane having axes as Re(z) and Im(z) is called Argand plane.

We represent the complex number z = x + iy by the point (x, y) on Argand plane.

Im(z)

Re(z)
 Modulus & Argument of Complex Numbers
Let z = x + iy Im(z)

Re(z)

Modulus: If P denotes z = x + iy in Argand plane then the length OP is called

modulus of complex number z. It is denoted by |z|.
 Modulus & Argument of Complex Numbers
Properties of Modulus
Eg. If |z1| = 2, |z2| = 3, |z3| = 4 and |z1 + z2 + z3| = 5,
(1) | z | = 0 z=0 then |4z2z3 + 9z3z1 + 16z1z2| = ______.

(2) Ans: 120

(3) | z1 z2| = | z1 | | z2 | | zn | = | z |n

(4)

(5)
(6) Triangle inequalities
(a) | z1 + z2| ≤ | z1 | + | z2 |
(b) | z1 - z2| ≥ || z1 | - | z2 ||
 Modulus & Argument of Complex Numbers
Properties of Modulus
Eg. If z1 + z2 + z3 = 0 and |z1| = |z2| = |z3| = 1,
then value of equals _____

Ans: 0
 Modulus & Argument of Complex Numbers
Argument: If P denotes z = x + iy in Argand plane then argument is defined as
the angle which OP makes with positive direction of Re(z) axis.

Im(z)

Re(z)
 Modulus & Argument of Complex Numbers
Argument: If P denotes z = x + iy in Argand plane then argument is defined as
the angle which OP makes with positive direction of Re(z) axis.

NOTE

● If θ is argument of z then 2nπ + θ is also an argument ; where n is integer.

● The value of argument which lies in (-π, π] is called principal value of
argument
● Argument of purely imaginary number is
● Argument of purely real number is 0 or π
 Modulus & Argument of Complex Numbers
Properties of Argument Eg. z and ω are complex numbers such
that
then arg(z) is equal to ____.

Ans: 𝞹/2

Eg.
Representation of Complex Numbers in various forms
 Representation of Complex Numbers in various forms

Z=x+iy Eg. (1 + i )10 = ____.

Polar form Euler form

Z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) Z = reiθ

Eg. (i )i = ____.

NOTE
If we know |z| & arg(z) then we can write z
Euler’s form is very efficient in handling big
& bad powers of a complex number
Representation of Complex Numbers in various forms

Eg. If |z1| = |z2| and arg (z1) + arg (z2) =

then z1z2 is purely___
 De-Moivre’ Theorem
JEE Main 5th Sept, 2020

Eg. If sin ⍺ + sin β + sin γ = 0 = cos ⍺ + cos β + cos γ,

then sin 3⍺ + sin 3β + sin 3γ is equal to

Ans: 3 sin(⍺ + β + γ)

Eg. If , where

Then z1 z2 z3 . . . . infinity is equal to _____.

Ans: i
Cube Roots of Unity
 Cube Roots of Unity JEE Main 2021

Consider, z3 = 1 Eg. The sum of 162th power of the roots of

Roots of this equation are called cube the equation x3 - 2x2 + 2x - 1 = 0 is
roots of unity.
Ans: 3
z3 = 1
(z - 1) (z2 + z + 1) = 0

Properties of
1. 𝜔3 = 1 Eg.The value of (1 + 2ω + ω2)3n - (1 + ω + 2ω2)3n is:
2. 1 + 𝜔 + 𝜔2 = 0
3. 𝜔3k + 𝜔3k+1 + 𝜔3k+2 = 0; k ∊ Z

NOTE
Roots of z2 + z + 1 = 0 are 𝜔 & 𝜔2
and roots of z2 - z + 1 = 0 are -𝜔 & -𝜔2
 Geometrical Interpretation of Modulus

|z1| ⟶ distance of z1 from origin.

|z2 - z1|⟶ distance between z1 & z2

 Geometrical Interpretation of Modulus

Eg. If ‘z’ be any complex number such

Let A(z1) & B(z2) be fixed points and P(z) moves in
that |3z - 2| + |3z + 2| = 4, then identify
plane such that the locus of ‘z’.

|z - z1| + |z - z2| = k

k > |z - z2| k = |z1 - z2| k < |z1 - z2|

Ellipse line AB No locus
 Geometrical Interpretation of Modulus

Let A(z1) & B(z2) be fixed points and P(z) Eg. Find Locus of z, if: |z - 3 + 4i| - |z + 2 - i| = 1

moves in plane such that

|z - z2| - |z - z1| = k

k < |z1 - z2|

k > |z1 - z2|
Hyperbola
k = |z1 - z2| No locus
line Joining AB but
excluding segment AB
 Arithmetic & Geometric Progression
Sequence

AP GP

an = a + (n - 1) d

OR
 Arithmetic & Geometric Progression
Sequence JEE Main 22nd Jan 2025, S1

Eg. Let a1 , a2, a3 , . . . . be a GP of increasing

positive terms. If a1a5 = 28 and a2 + a4 = 29,
then a6 is equal to:

AP GP A 628

B 812
an = a + (n - 1) d an = arn - 1 C 526

D 784

OR
Arithmetic & Geometric Progression
JEE Main 31st Jan 2024, S2

Eg. Let 2nd, 8th and 44th terms of a non-constant A.P. be

respectively 1st, 2nd and 3rd terms of a G.P. If the first term
of the A.P. is 1, then the sum of its first 20 terms is equal to

A 970

B 980

C 960

D 990
 Key Points of Arithmetic Progression
1. Common terms of two AP’s, form an AP. Eg. The sum of the common terms of the
2. If a1, a2, a3 ➝ AP, then following three arithmetic progressions.
5, 11, 17, 23, ………………………, 305
(i) ka1, ka2, ka3 ➝ AP &
3, 5, 7, 9, 11, ………………………., 199
(ii) a1 ± k, a2 ± k, a3 ± k ➝ AP 6, 11, 16, 21, …………………….., 301
1. Sum of the terms equidistant from beginning
Ans: 707
and end is same
1. Assuming terms:
3 terms → a - d, a , a + d
4 terms → a - 3d, a - d, a + d, a + 3d
5 terms → a - 2d, a - d, a, a + d, a + 2d

1. nth odd number is 2n - 1

2. Sum of first n odd numbers is n2
 Key Points of Geometric Progression
1. If a1, a2, a3 ➝ GP, then for k ≠ 0
(i) ka1, ka2, ka3 ➝ GP
(ii) (a1)k, (a2)k, (a3)k ➝ GP
1. If a, b, c, d ➝ GP, then a ± b, b ± c, c ± d ➝ GP
2. Product of terms equidistant from beginning
and end is same
3. Assuming terms:
3 terms → a/r, a, ar
4 terms → a/r3 , a/r , ar, ar3
5 terms → a/r2, a/r, a , ar, ar2
 Arithmetic & Geometric Mean
Arithmetic Mean

AM of Numbers AM’s between two numbers

1) ‘A1’ is called one AM between
a & b if a, A1, b → AP
2) A1 & A2 are called two AM’s
between a & b if a, A1, A2, b → AP
 Arithmetic & Geometric Mean
Geometric Mean

GM of Numbers (+ve numbers) GM’s between two numbers

1) G1 is called one GM between a & b
if a, G1, b → GP
2) G1, G2 are called two GM’s
between a & b if a, G1, G2, b → GP
 Arithmetic & Geometric Mean

Result
● Sum of ‘n’ AM’s inserted between a & b
is equal to n times AM of a & b.
● Product of ‘n’ Gm’s between a & b is
equal to nth power of GM of a & b.
 Arithmetic & Geometric Mean
Eg. Between two numbers whose sum is 13/6, Eg. If m arithmetic means (A.Ms) and three (G.Ms)
an even number of A.M.s is inserted, the sum are inserted between 3 and 243 such that 4th A.M.
of these means exceeds their number by is equal to 2nd G.M., then m is equal to______.
unity. Find the number of means
Ans: 12 Ans: 39
Arithmetic & Geometric Mean
Eg. If A1, A2 are the two A.M.’s between two
numbers a and b and G1, G2 be two G.M.’s
between same two numbers, then

Ans:
 Relation between AM & GM
For any given +ve numbers:

AM = GM; if all the terms are equal.

AM ≥ GM
AM > GM; otherwise

NOTE

3 Hints to use AM ≥ GM
(1) If min value of some expression is asked
(2) Terms involved in expression are +ve.
(3) Product of terms involved in expression is good.
 Eg. Find the minimum value of
Eg. Find the minimum value of
4sec2𝜃 +9cosec2𝜃.
x, y, z are all positive.

Eg. If a, b, c, d are four positive real numbers,

such that abcd = 1, then prove that
(1 + a)(1 + b)(1 + c)(1 + d) ≥ 16
 Relation between AM & GM
Weighted AM and GM Eg. If a + 2b + 3c = 12, (a, b, c ∈ R+),
then ab2c3 ≤ ____.

Eg. If 2a + b + 3c = 1, and a, b, c > 0, then find

the greatest value of a4b2c2 and obtain the
corresponding values of a, b, c.
 Method of Difference
It’s a method to find the Kth term when the difference of consecutive
terms is good.

Eg. The nth terms of the seq :

2, 6, 22, 86, 342, …… is
Recursions

Eg. Let be a sequence such that a0 = a1 = 0

and an+2 = 3an+1 - 2an + 1, for all n ≥ 0. Then a23 - 2a22
is equal to ____.

Ans: 22
Recursions
JEE Main 28th Jan 2025, S1

A 3a99 - 100

B 3a100 - 100
C 3a99 + 100

D 3a100 + 100
 Notation nCr

Result

(a) nCr + nCr + 1 = n + 1Cr + 1

(b)

(c) nCx = nCy x = y or x + y = n

(d)
Binomial Theorem for positive Integral Index
 Binomial Theorem for positive Integral Index

Observation
(a) There are n + 1 terms in the expansion

(b) Sum of powers of x & y in each term is n.

(c) Coefficients of the terms equidistant from
beginning & end are equal.
 General term of Binomial Expansion

(x + y)n = nC0xn + nC1xn-1y +….+ nCn-1xyn-1 + nCnyn

General term, Tk+1 = nCk xn - k yk

Eg. Given the coefficient of x21 in the expansion of

is 3640, then find the value of 3a.

Ans: 2
 General term of Binomial Expansion

Eg. Find the sum of all rational terms in Eg. Number of rational terms in the expansion of
the expansion of (31/4 + 41/3)12.

Ans: 283

Ans: 3
 Application of Binomial Theorem
There are two particular cases which are used very frequently.

(a) (1 + x)n = nC0 + nC1x + nC2x2 +....+ nCnxn

Eg. Find remainder when 22021 is divided by 17
(b) (1 - x)n = nC0 - nC1x + nC2x2 - nC3x3 +....+ (-1)n nCnxn
Ans: 15

NOTE

(1) (1 + x)n -1 is divisible by x

(2) (1 + x)n -1 - nx is divisible by x2 JEE Main 9th Apr 2024, S1

Eg. Remainder when (428)2024 is divided by 21, is ___.

 R-f factor Theorem

In this section we will deal with numbers of the form:

Primarily we will be required to comment upon [R] & {R}

 R-f factor Theorem

In this section we will deal with numbers of the form:

Primarily we will be required to comment upon [R] & {R}

Approach in these problems will be algorithmic

Step 1: Define G be replacing ‘+’ by ‘–’ sign in the value of R, (0 < G < 1)
Step 2: Either add or subtract G from R so that the value (i.e. RHS is an integer)
Step 3: If G is added, you will always get f + G = 1 while if G is subtracted, you will
always get f = G
 R-f factor Theorem
JEE Main 30th Jan, 2023
Eg. If n is any positive integer, show that
Eg.
, where [.] is GIF, is odd.

A [x] + [y] is even

B [x] is odd but [y] is even

C [x] is even but [y] is odd

D [x] and [y] both are odd

 Greatest term in the expansion of (a + bx)n

To find greatest term in the expansion of (a + bx)n, Eg. Find numerically greatest term in

use the following algorithm expansion of (3 - 5x)15 at

Step 1: Solve
Ans: 455 x 312
Step 2: If k comes out to be non integer then
Greatest term is T[k] + 1 where [.] is GIF,
while if k comes out to be an integer then Tk = Tk + 1
both are greatest terms
 Binomial theorem for any Index

Let ‘n’ be a rational number & ‘x’ be a real Eg. The coefficient of x2 in the expansion of

number such that |x| < 1, then: will be ___, given |2x| < 1.

Ans: 7
 Binomial theorem for any Index
Some special Cases

(a) (1 + x)−1 = 1 − x + x2 − x3 +...+ (-1)r xr +...

(b) (1 − x)−1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 +...+ xr +...

(c) (1 + x)−2 = 1 − 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 +...

(d) (1 − x)−2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 +...

 Multinomial theorem

where r, s & t are non-negative integers

NOTE

Number of terms in expansion of (x + y + z)n is n + 2C2.

Multinomial theorem

Eg. The Coefficient of x7 in (1 + 3x - 2x3)10 is ___.

Ans: 62640
 Binomial Coefficient Problems

Result
Eg.
(1) nC0 + nC1 + nC2 +...+ nCn = 2n

(2) nC0 + nC2 + nC4 +... = nC1 + nC3 + nC5 +...

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)
 Binomial Coefficient Problems

Result

❖
In the above, if Signs are alternate, then
● The value is (-1)K/2 .nCK / 2 , if K is even,
● The value is zero, if K is odd,
Allied Angles
 Allied Angles

Remark

1. Sine of supplementary angles are same.

2. Cosines of supplementary angles are negative of each other.
3. sin(-θ) = -sinθ and cos(-θ) = cosθ

Eg. Find the value of

 Compound Angles

1. sin(A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB

Eg. If A = B + C, then tanA tanB tanC = ___.

2. sin(A - B) = sinA cosB - cosA sinB

3. cos(A + B) = cosA cosB - sinA sinB

4. cos(A - B) = cosA cosB + sinA sinB

Eg. If A + B + C = π, then tan A tan B tan C = __.

Value of Trigonometric functions at some special angles
Multiple Angle Formulae
 Multiple Angle Formulae

Remark

1. sin 2θ and cos 2θ can be expressed in terms of tanθ as

&
 Multiple Angle Formulae

Remark

1. sin 2θ and cos 2θ can be expressed in terms of tanθ as

&

2. sin(A + B) × sin(A - B) = sin2A - sin2B

cos(A + B) × cos(A - B) = cos2A - sin2B = cos2B - sin2A
 Multiple Angle Formulae
List of most commonly used formulae and expressions
 Eg.
Expressing in terms of sine only.

a sin θ + b cos θ

Expressing in terms of cosine only.

 Transformation Formulae
Transformation of sum and difference into product
 Transformation Formulae

Transformation of product into sum and difference

Eg. sin 20o sin 40o sin 80o = ____
2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A - B)
2 cos A sin B = sin(A + B) - sin(A - B)
2 cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A - B)
2 sin A sin B = cos(A - B) - cos(A + B)

Recall
sin θ sin(60° - θ) sin(60° + θ)
 Two trigonometric series

1.

Eg.

2.
Result
 Conditional Identities
Eg. If A, B, C are acute positive angles
Result such that A + B + C = π and
cot A cot B cot C = k, then
If A + B + C = 𝜋, then :
A B
(a) sin2A + sin2B + sin2C = 4sinA sinB sinC
C D
(b) cos2A + cos2B + cos2C = -1 -4 cosA cosB cosC

(d) tanA + tanB + tanC = tanA tanB tanC

 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1. Eg. Find the range of following:

(a) f(x) = 2 cos−1(−x2) − π
2. (b)

3.

4.

5.

6.
Remark
You can group sin−1 x, cosec−1 x, tan−1 x together and cos−1
x, sec−1 x, cot−1 x together as far as outputs are concerned
corresponding to −ve inputs
 Composition of trigonometric & Its inverse function

1. sin(sin-1 x) = cos(cos-1 x) = ________ = cot(cot-1 x) = x

∀ x ∈ Domain (i.e., it’s always true)

2. sin-1(sin x) = cos-1(cos x) = _______ = cot-1(cot x) = x

only if x ∈ principal domain
Eg. cos-1(cos 6) = ______

Eg. Find : tan2 (sec-1 3) + cot2 (cosec-1 4).

 Composition of trigonometric & Its inverse function

Graph of: y = sin-1 (sin x)

 Composition of trigonometric & Its inverse function

Graph of: y = cos-1 (cos x)

Y

𝜋/2

X
-2𝜋 -𝜋 -𝜋/2 0 𝜋/2 𝜋 2𝜋
 Composition of trigonometric & Its inverse function

Graph of: y = tan-1 (tan x)

X
-2𝜋 -3𝜋/2 -𝜋 -𝜋/2 0 𝜋/2 𝜋 3𝜋/2 2𝜋

-𝜋/2
 Some Important Results

Inverse trigonometric function at ‘-x’

Eg. Evaluate: tan-1 (tan(-6)).
 Some Important Results
ITF of Complementary Functions JEE Main 2013

Eg. Solve for x : sin-1x > cos-1x ; x ∈ (0, 1)

A B

C D

Eg. The minimum value of (sin−1 x)3 + (cos−1 x)3 is

A B C D
 Some Important Results

Inverse trigonometric functions at ‘ ’

Eg. Evaluate:
ITF in terms of Each Other
ITF in terms of Each Other
JEE Main 26th June 2022 Shift 2

Eg. If the inverse trigonometric functions take principal values,

then = ___

A 0

D
ITF in terms of Each Other

Eg. If x takes all permissible negative values, then

cos-1 x is equal to

D
 Sum & Difference of ITF

Eg. Evaluate:

Eg. tan-1 2 + tan-1 3 = ____.

NOTE
Sum & Difference of ITF
Sum & Difference of ITF

JEE Main 24th Jan 2025, S2

Eg.

Ans: 𝞹
 Sum & Difference of ITF
JEE Main 2019 & IIT 2005
Result Eg. If cos-1 x - cos-1 (y/2) = 𝞪, then
4x2 - 4 xy cos 𝞪 + y2 is equal to _____.

under some good condition A 2 sin 2𝞪 B 4 C 4 sin2𝞪 D - 4 sin2𝞪

under some good condition

under some good condition

under some good condition

Summation of Series
JEE Main 2020

Eg. If S is the sum of the first 10 terms of the series

then tan(S) is equal to

Ans: 5/6
 Centres of Triangle

Result Eg. Let the circumcentre & centroid of a triangle

be A(3, 4) and B(3, 5) respectively. If C is the
orthocentre of this triangle and r be the radius
In any scalene triangle, of circle with BC as diameter , then √10r = ___

O
G
H

NOTE

In an equilateral triangle, G, I, O and H,

all coincide.
 Slope of a straight line
If a straight line makes an angle α with the x-axis, then it’s
slope m is defined as tan α, where 0 ≤ α < π.

NOTE
Here, α is the angle made by the line with the positive
direction of the X-axis in the anti-clockwise sense.

Remark
 Slope of a straight line

Remark

1. A line cutting same intercepts on the coordinate axes.

In both cases, observe that m = –1

 Slope of a straight line

Remark

2. A line cutting intercepts of equal length on 3. If a line is equally inclined to the axes,
the coordinate axes. then its slope is 1 or –1.

Try to observe that the slope is either 1 or –1.

 Equations of a straight line

1. Slope Intercept form

2. Point Slope form

3. Two Point form

4. Intercept form

5. Normal form

6. Parametric form

7. General form
 Equations of a straight line
1. Slope Intercept form 3. Two point form

slope = m

2. Point slope form 4. Intercept form

slope = m
Equations of a straight line

Eg. Find the equation of a straight line cutting

off an intercept -1 from y-axis and being
equally inclined to the axis.
 Equations of a straight line

5. Normal form
Y

p
X
O

x cos𝛼 + y sin𝛼 = p where, 0 ≤ 𝛼 < 360o

 Equations of a straight line
6. Parametric form Eg. Find the distance of the point (3, 5) from
m = tan θ the line 2x + 3y - 4 = 0 measured along the
line x − 2y - 1 = 0.

r (x, y) Ans:

(x1, y1) θ
 Equations of a straight line

6. Parametric form Eg. Slope of a line passing through P(2, 3) and

intersecting the line, x + y = 7 at a distance of
4 units from P, is a + b√7, then |a + b| = ___

Ans: 1
 Equations of a straight line

7. General form
Any linear equation in x and y represents a straight line,
that is, the equation ax + by + c = 0 is the general form
of the equation of a line.
 Relation between two slopes & Angle between them

Eg. Slope of line(s) which makes 30o

angle with y = √3x - 1 is _____.

where θ is the acute angle between the two lines

Eg. If the orthocentre of the triangle,

whose vertices are (1, 2), (2, 3) and (3, 1)
is (⍺, β), then 2⍺ - β = ____.
Relation between two slopes & Angle between them

JEE Main 23rd Jan 2025, S1

Eg. Two equal sides of an isosceles triangle are along

–x + 2y = 4 and x + y = 4. If m is the slope of its third side,
then the sum, of all possible distinct values of m, is :

A -6

B 12

C 6

D -2√10
Some Formulae
 Some Formulae

Distance of a Point from a Line Eg. Find the coordinates of a point on x + y + 1 = 0,

whose distance from 3x + 4y + 2 = 0 is 1/5.
(x 1 , y 1 )
Ans: (-3, 2) or (-1, 0)

Special case:
Distance of origin from ax + by + c = 0 is
 Some Formulae

Distance between two Parallel Lines

 Some Formulae
Foot of Perpendicular from a Point to a Line
Eg. Find foot of perpendicular of (2, 3)
(x1, y1) on x + y = 1 1.
 Some Formulae

Image of a Point in a Line Eg. Let the triangle ABC be the image of the
triangle with vertices (9, 11), (3, 4) and (5, 13) in the

(x1, y1) line 3x + 6y = 53. If the centroid of ∆ABC is the

point (𝞪, 𝞫), then |𝞪 - 𝞫| is equal to _____

Ans: 1
 Family of Straight Lines
Given any two lines L1 = 0 and L2 = 0, all the Eg. The straight lines x(a + 2b) + y(a + 3b) = a + b,
lines passing through their point of intersection for different values of a and b pass through a fixed
constitutes family of lines of L1 = 0 and L2 = 0. point ___.

NOTE
Any line through intersection point of
L1 = 0 and L2 = 0 (that is a member of
their family) has equation of the form
L1 + λL2 = 0 Eg. If 3a + 2b + 6c = 0 then the variable
straight line ax + by + c = 0 always
passes through the point _____.
Family of Straight Lines

Eg. Find the equation of a line which belongs to the family

the lines a(2x + y - 3) + b(3x + 2y - 5), that is farthest from
the point P (4, -3).
 Standard Equations of Circles

Equations of a Circle

(x - x1)2 + (y - y1)2 = r2 x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0

Centre : (x1, y1) Centre : (-g, -f)
Radius : r Radius :

NOTE

Diametric form : (x - α1)(x - α2) + (y - β1)(y - β2) = 0

where (α1, β1) & (α2, β2) are endpoints of diameter
 Some Special Circles
1. Circle touching X - axis 2. Circle touching Y - axis
Y

(0, b)
X
(a, 0)

3. Circle touching X - axis at origin 4. Circle touching Y - axis at origin

Y Y

X O X
O
 Some Special Circles

Eg. Radius of the circle touching

5. Circle touching both axes
both the axes and passing
Y Y through the point (1, 1) is ____.

O X

O X

Y Y
Eg. Find the equation of the circle which
X touches both the axes and whose centre
O lies on the line x - 2y = 3.

X
O
 Parametric form of a Circle

(a) x2 + y2 = r2

⇒ x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ

P(θ)
r
θ X
O

In particular, a general point on x2 + y2 = 1 is of

the form (cosθ, sinθ) for some θ.
 Parametric form of a Circle
Eg. Let P be a variable point on a circle C and Q be
(b) (x − x1)2 + (y − y1)2 = r2 a fixed point outside C. If R is the midpoint of the
line segment PQ, then find the locus of R.
⇒ x = x1 + r cosθ, y = y1 + r sin θ
 Intercepts made by a Circle
Whenever a circle makes an intercept Eg. Find equation of circle having centre
on a line, always refer to this figure. at (3, −1) and cutting intercept of length 6
units on line 2x − 5y + 18 = 0.

Eg. If the intercepts of the variable circle on the

x and y - axes are 2 and 4 units respectively, then
find the locus of the centre of the variable circle.
 Intercepts made by a Circle
Intercepts made by a circle on the axes

(1) Intercept made by x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 on the X - axis.

X
A B

(2) Intercept made by x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 on the Y - axis.

Y
B

A
Some Standard Notations
 Some Standard Notations

(1) S ≡ x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c

(2) For a point (x1, y1): Value of S at (x1, y1) is represented by S1, that is
S1 = x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c

(3) For a point (x1, y1): If we replace in S,

then we get T,

that is T
Position of a Point w.r.t. a Circle
 Position of a Point w.r.t. a Circle

Method 1
Find distance of point P from centre of circle O.
OP < r ⇒ P lies inside the circle

OP = r ⇒ P lies on the circle

OP > r ⇒ P lies outside the circle

Method 2
S1 < 0 ⇒ P lies inside the circle
S1 = 0 ⇒ P lies on the circle
S1 > 0 ⇒ P lies outside the circle
 Position of a Point w.r.t. a Circle

Result
Greatest and least distance of a point from a circle.

|OP - r| = least distance of point P from the circle

|OP + r| = greatest distance of point P from the circle
 Relative position of two circles
Try to observe how we can comment upon the positions of two circles
depending on their radii and the distance between their centres.

r1 r2 r1 r2
(1) C1 (2) C1 (3) C1 C2
C2 C2

(4) (5) C1
C1 C2 C2
 Relative position of two circles
Try to observe how we can comment upon the positions of two circles
depending on their radii and the distance between their centres.

r1 r2 r1 r2
(1) C1 (2) C1 (3) C1 C2
C2 C2

(4) (5) C1
C1 C2 C2
Relative position of two circles
JEE Main 2019

Eg. If the curves, x2 - 6x + y2 + 8 = 0

and x2 - 8y + y2 + 16 - k = 0, (k > 0)
touch each other at a point, then the
largest value of k is _____.

Ans : 36
 Family of circles
(1) S + L = 0 Eg. Find equation of circle passing through points of
intersection of the line x + y − 1 = 0 and the circle x2 + y2 = 9
S=0 L=0 and which also passes through the point (3, 4).

(2) S + λS’ = 0, λ ≠ -1
Eg. The circle passing through the intersection of the circles,
S=0
S’ = 0 x2 + y2 - 6x = 0 and x2 + y2 - 4y = 0, having its centre on the
line, 2x - 3y + 12 = 0, also passes through the point ___.

NOTE
S - S’ = 0 is the equation of common chord
 Family of circles

(3) Family of circles passing through 2 points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2)
 Chords of circles

(1) Equation of CoC with respect to P(x1, y1)

Its equation is, T = 0

P (x1, y1)

S=0

(2) Equation of chord with given midpoint P(x1, y1)

P (x1, y1) Its equation given by T = S1

S=0
 Orthogonality of two circles
Condition for Orthogonality

r1 r2
C1
C2
d

Two circles intersect each other orthogonally if

or 2 g1 g2 + 2 f1 f2 = c1 + c2
 Standard Parabola & Its equations
Standard Parabolas having vertex at origin.
 Standard Parabola & Its equations
Standard Parabolas having vertex at origin.
 Standard Parabola & Its equations
Standard Parabolas having vertex at any point
Consider the following equations for a > 0 and remember their graphs.
 Standard Parabola & Its equations
Standard Parabolas having vertex at any point
Consider the following equations for a > 0 and remember their graphs.
 Standard Parabola & Its equations

Eg. Draw the following parabola and mark their Eg. Find equations of parabola whose focus
focus, directrix and length of LR : and vertex are the points (0, 2) and (0, 4)
(y - 1)2 = 4(x - 2) respectively.
 Standard Parabola & Its equations
JEE Main 24th Jan 2025, S2

Eg. If vertex of the parabola is (1/4, -7/4) and its Eg. If the equation of the parabola with
directrix is x + y + 3 = 0, then the length of latus vertex V(3/2, 3) and the directrix x + 2y = 0
rectum is ____. is 𝞪x2 + 𝞫y2 - 𝞬xy - 30x - 60y + 225 = 0, then
𝞪 + 𝞫 + 𝞬 is equal to:

A 6

B 8

C 7

D 9
 Standard Parabola & Its equations
JEE Main 24th Jan 2025, S2
Solution:
Eg. If the equation of the parabola with
vertex V(3/2, 3) and the directrix x + 2y = 0
is 𝞪x2 + 𝞫y2 - 𝞬xy - 30x - 60y + 225 = 0, then
𝞪 + 𝞫 + 𝞬 is equal to:

A 6

B 8

C 7

D 9
 Standard Ellipse & Its equations
Standard Ellipse having centre at origin
 Standard Ellipse & Its equations
Standard Ellipse having centre at origin
 Standard Ellipse & Its equations

Remark

is the equation of an ellipse having centre at (h, k).

 Standard Ellipse & Its equations

Eg. Draw the ellipse and mention its foci, LR, center Eg. In an ellipse, with centre at the origin, if the
and directrices : 4(x - 3)2 + 16(y - 1)2 = 64 difference of the lengths of major axis and
minor axis is 10 and one of the foci is at (0, 5√3)
then the length of its latus rectum is:____.
 Standard Hyperbola & Its equations
Standard hyperbolas having centre at origin
 Standard Hyperbola & Its equations

Remark

and are

hyperbolas having centre at (h, k)

Standard Hyperbola & Its equations
JEE Main 22nd Jan 2025, S1

Eg. Let the foci of a hyperbola be (1, 14) and (1, –12).
If it passes through the point (1, 6), then the length
of its latus-rectum is :

A 25/6

B 25/4

C 288/5

D 144/5
 Conjugate Hyperbola

Two hyperbolas, such that the transverse and

conjugate axes of one, are the conjugate and
transverse axes of the other, respectively, are called
conjugate hyperbolas.

Result
If e1 and e2 are the eccentricities of two conjugate
hyperbolas, then
 Rectangular Hyperbola

If a = b, i.e., lengths of transverse and conjugate

axes are equal, then the hyperbola is called
rectangular or equilateral.

Remark

1. Eccentricity of an equilateral hyperbola is always √2 .

2. ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 represents a

rectangular hyperbola if Δ ≠ 0 and a + b = 0.
 Parametric form of conics

(1) y2 = 4ax ⇒ (at2, 2at)

(2) x2 = 4ay ⇒ (2at, at2)

(3) y2 = - 4ax ⇒ (-at2, 2at)

(4) x2 = - 4ay ⇒ (2at, -at2)

(5)

(6)
 Position of a point w.r.t. a conic

For Parabola For Ellipse For Hyperbola

(1) S1 > 0 Point lies Outside Point lies Outside Point lies inside

(2) S1 = 0 Point lies on the conic Point lies on the conic Point lies on the conic

(3) S1 < 0 Point lies inside Point lies inside Point lies Outside
Focal Chord & Focal Distances
 Focal Chord & Focal Distances
Eg. If (1, 4) is an end of a focal chord of the
Result parabola y2 = 16x, then find the other end of
the chord.
(1) For y2 = 4ax, if P(t1) and Q(t2) are the
endpoints of a focal chord then t1t2 = − 1.

(2) Length of a focal chord of y2 = 4ax, making

an angle α with the X-axis, is 4a cosec2 α.
Eg. Let the length of the focal chord of the
(3) Length of focal chord whose one endpoint parabola y2 = 12x be 24 units. If the distance
is P(t) is a(t + 1/t)2 of PQ from the origin is k, then he value of 2k2
is equal to ____.
(4) If AB is a focal chord of y2 = 4ax, then

, where S is the focus.

 Focal Chord & Focal Distances

Focal Distances in Parabola

It is the distance of any point on the parabola from its focus.

Y
In particular, for y2 = 4ax,
PS = PM
M P (x1, y1)

O X
S

x = −a
 Focal Chord & Focal Distances

Focal Distances in Ellipse

Y

P
M’ M

X
S’(−ae, 0) O S(ae, 0)
 Focal Chord & Focal Distances

Focal Distances in Hyperbola Y

M P(x1, y1)

X
S’ O S
 Chords of a conic
JEE Main 23rd Jan 2025, S2
The formulae for the equation of the chord of
contact and a chord with given midpoint Eg.
remain the same for all conics, that is

Chord of Contact : T = 0
Chord with given midpoint : T = S1 A

D
 Chords of a conic
Solution: JEE Main 23rd Jan 2025, S2

Eg.

D
 Indeterminate Forms

(Here 0 is denoting a function tending to zero, similarly ∞ & 1 are denoting

functions tending to ∞ & 1 respectively).
In all indeterminate forms, we may only calculate limiting values.
Exact value at x = a is not defined.
 NOTE
Eg. If exists then a =__
If exists & g(x) → 0 as x → a, then f(x)
Ans: 15
must tends to 0 as x → 0
Methods of Evaluating Limits
 Methods of Evaluating Limits

L’Hospital Rule
Eg. The value of is
If f(x) & g(x) are differentiable functions

such that is of the format or Ans: -6

Then,
 Methods of Evaluating Limits

Limits tending to infinity

Eg. Evaluate the following:
Just take biggest terms in numerator
& denominator common
Trigonometric Limits
 Trigonometric Limits
IIT 1999 JEE Main 2017

Eg. Evaluate the following: Eg. equals

Ans: 1/16
Ans: 1/2
 Logarithmic & Exponential Limits

Logarithmic limits
Eg. The value of is

B
Exponential limits
C

D
 Form (1)∞
JEE Main 23rd Jan 2025, S2
NOTE
Eg.

where f(x) → 0 & g(x) → ∞ when x → a

A B C D

JEE Main 2020

Eg.
 Form (1)∞
JEE Main 23rd Jan 2025, S2
Solution:

Eg.

A B C D
 Limits using Expansion series

Eg. Evaluate:

Ans: -
1/2

Eg. Evaluate:

Ans: 1
Limits using Expansion series
JEE Main 31st Jan 2024, S2

Eg.

16(a2 + b2 + c2) is equal to _____.

 NOTE
Whenever the function under consideration has one
of the following traits, always check RHL & LHL for
existence of limit.

(a) It has , [.], {.} or mod

(b) Its piecewise defined

(c) It has and x ➝ 0

 Formats 0 × ∞, ∞0 and 00

Eg. Evaluate the following limits: Eg. Evaluate:

Ans: 0 Ans: 1
 Continuity at a Point

A function is said to be continuous at x = a

If
Eg. Discuss the continuity of
i.e.
at x = 0
Continuity at a Point

Eg. If is continuous

at x = 0, then the value of

Ans: 7.20
Continuity of composite functions
 Continuity of composite functions

Remark

● If g(x) is continuous at x = a and f(x) is continuous at g(a) then

f(g(x)) is continuous at x = a.
● If g(x) is discontinuous at x = a then f(g(x)) may or may not be
discontinuous at x = a.
● If g(x) is undefined at x = a then f(g(x)) is discontinuous at x = a.
Continuity of composite functions

Eg. Find the points of discontinuity of y = f(u), where

Continuity in an interval
 Continuity in an interval

(a) y = f(x) is said to be continuous in (a, b) if :

f(x) is continuous ∀ x ∊ (a, b)

(b) y = f(x) is said to be continuous in [a, b] if:

(i) its continuous in (a, b) a b

(ii) (i.e. left continuous at x = b)

(iii) (i.e. right continuous at x = a)

It’s continuous in [a, b], though it’s not continuous at x = b.

Types of Discontinuity
 Types of Discontinuity

DISCONTINUITY

Removable Irremovable

Discontinuity Discontinuity
of 1st Kind of 2nd Kind
 Types of Discontinuity
Removable discontinuity

exists but is not equal to f(a)

(Also called isolated (Also called missing point

point discontinuity) discontinuity)
 Types of Discontinuity

Discontinuity of 1st Kind

LHL and RHL exists but are not equal

m
(Also called jump discontinuity)
LHD & RHD at x = a
 LHD & RHD at x = a

For a function y = f(x) its Right Hand Derivative and Left Hand
Derivative are defined as:

RHD|x = a = f’(a+) = ;h>0

LHD|x = a = f’(a-) = ;h>0

LHD & RHD at x = a

Eg. If f ’(a+) = 5 then

Differentiability of a point
 Differentiability of a point

A function is said to be differentiable at x = a if:

LHD|a = RHD|a = finite

Geometrically
(a) LHD = RHD = finite there exists a unique tangent at x = a,
so the graph is smooth.
(b) f(x) has a sharp point, if LHD and RHD exist, but are not equal.
 Differentiability of a point

Remark

(a) Differentiable function is always continuous

(vice-versa need not be true).
(b) If function is discontinuous at x = a then function
has to be non-differentiable at x = a.

NOTE

If RHD|a and LHD|a are finite then f(x) is continuous

at x = a, even if they are not equal.
 Differentiability of a point

Remark

(x − a)|x − a| is differentiable at x = a
Differentiability of a point

Eg. Check differentiability of the following :

 Differentiability of a point

Now, shortcut does not work always, there are few exceptions. There
are two cases where you should not use shortcut.
 Eg. Check differentiability at x = 2 for

(a)

(b)

NOTE
Check continuity before applying shortcut.
Shortcut may give wrong conclusion in case
of discontinuous function.
 Differentiability of a point

Remark

If f(x) is differentiable at x = a and g(x) is not differentiable at

x = a then f(x) + g(x) is always non-differentiable at x = a.
Nothing can be said about their product and division. Product
of two non-differentiable functions can be differentiable.
Differentiability of a point
IIT 1999

Eg. The function f(x) = (x2 - 1) |x2 - 3x + 2| + cos(|x|)

is not differentiable at

A -1

B 0

C 1

D 2

Recall
(x − a)|x − a| is differentiable at x = a
Differentiability in an Interval
 Differentiability in an Interval

(a) f(x) is said to be differentiable in (a, b) if:

It is differentiable x (a,b)

(b) f(x) is said to be differentiable in [a, b] if:

(i) it is differentiable in (a, b)
(ii) RHD|a exists at x = a
(iii) LHD|b exists at x = b
Increasing & Decreasing Functions
 Definitions

f(x) is said to be strictly increasing over an interval [a, b] if:

x2 > x1 ⇒ f(x2) > f(x1), ∀ x1, x2 ∈ [a, b]

While it is said to be increasing (or non-decreasing) if:

x2 > x1 ⇒ f(x2) ≥ f(x1), ∀ x1, x2 ∈ [a, b]

f(x) is said to be strictly decreasing over an interval [a, b] if :

x2 > x1 ⇒ f(x2) < f(x1), ∀ x1, x2 ∈ [a, b]

While it is said to be decreasing (or non-Increasing) if :

x2 > x1 ⇒ f(x2) ≤ f(x1), ∀ x1, x2 ∈ [a, b]
 Definitions

Monotonic Function
f(x) is said to be monotonic in an interval if it is either only
strictly increasing or only strictly decreasing in that interval,
i.e. it has single behaviour in that interval.

NOTE

(i) f(x) is not monotonic in [a, b]

(ii) f(x) is monotonic in [a, c]

(iii) f(x) is monotonic in [c, b]

(iv) f(x) is not monotonic in neighbourhood of x = c

 Intervals of Increase & Decrease

For a continuous function: Eg. Find the values of ‘a’ if the

function (a + 2)x3 − 3ax2 + 9ax - 1
(1) f’(x) ≥ 0 ⇒ f(x) is strictly increasing decreases monotonically for all
(if points for which f’ (x) = 0 do not form an interval) values of x.

(2) f’(x) ≤ 0 ⇒ f(x) is strictly decreasing

(if the points for which f’(x) = 0 do not form an interval)

Eg. Find the least value of k for which the

function x2 + kx + 1 is an increasing function
in the interval (1, 2)
 Intervals of Increase & Decrease

Eg. Is the following function monotonic

Eg. Is monotonic?

JEE Main 28th June, 2022

Eg. The number of real solutions of

x7 + 5x3 + 3x + 1 = 0 is equal to __.

Ans: 1
 Comparison using Calculus

Eg. Compare e1/e and 𝞹1/𝞹 . Eg. Compare 31/3 and 41/4 .
 Comparison using Calculus

Observation

(1) If f(a) = 0 and f(x) is strictly ↑ for x ≥ a

then f(x) will be positive for x > a
(2) If f(a) = 0 and f(x) is strictly ↓ for x ≥ a
then f(x) will be negative for x > a

Remark
Maxima & Minima
 Critical Points

It is collection of points where either f’(x) = 0 or f’ (x) fails to exist

NOTE Eg. For what values of ‘a’ following

function possess critical points:
● It is to be noted that critical points are the
(2a + 1)x + a cos x.
interior points of an interval.
● Critical points are contenders for giving Ans:

maxima and minima.

 First Derivative Test

For a continuous function:

(a) If f’(x) changes sign about a critical point,
then we have maxima or minima there.

(b) If f’ (x) does not change sign about a

critical point, then function does not have
maxima or minima there.
First Derivative Test
JEE Main 2019

Eg. If S1 and S2 are respectively the sets of local

minimum and local maximum points of the
function, f(x) = 9x4 + 12x3 - 36x2 + 25, x ∈ R.

A S1 = {–2}; S2 = {0, 1} B S1 = {–2, 0}; S2 = {1}

C S1 = {–2, 1}; S2 = {0} D S1 = {– 1}; S2 = {0, 2}

 First Derivative Test
JEE Main 2019
Solution:
Eg. If S1 and S2 are respectively the sets of local
minimum and local maximum points of the
function, f(x) = 9x4 + 12x3 - 36x2 + 25, x ∈ R.

A S1 = {–2}; S2 = {0, 1} B S1 = {–2, 0}; S2 = {1}

C S1 = {–2, 1}; S2 = {0} D S1 = {– 1}; S2 = {0, 2}

Here at –2 & 1, f ’(x) changes from negative
value to positive value.
⇒ –2 & 1 are local minimum points.
At 0, f ’(x) changes from positive value to
negative value.
⇒ 0 is the local maximum point
Hence, S1 = {–2, 1} and S2 = {0}
First Derivative Test
JEE Main 2020

Eg. If p(x) be a polynomial of degree three that has

a local maximum value 8 at x = 1 and a local
minimum value 4 at x = 2; then p(0) is equal to

A 12

B -24

C 6

D -12
 First Derivative Test
JEE Main 2020
Solution:
Eg. If p(x) be a polynomial of degree three that has
a local maximum value 8 at x = 1 and a local
minimum value 4 at x = 2; then p(0) is equal to

A 12

B -24

C 6

D -12
 Double Derivative Test

If f’(x) = 0 at x = a, then

(1) f”(a) > 0 ⇒ f(x) has local minima at x = a

(2) f”(a) < 0 ⇒ f(x) has local maxima at x = a

Remark

If f’(a) = 0 and also f”(a) = 0 then Double

Derivative Test is inconclusive.
 Analysis of Cubic

First let us pick a cubic f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

Clearly, f’(x) is a quadratic and hence has:

(i) Two distinct real roots or

(ii) Two equal real roots or
(iii) Non real roots
 Analysis of Cubic
JEE Main 22nd Jan 2025, S2

Eg. If the set of all values of a, for which the

Eg. If , then
equation 5x3 – 15x – a = 0 has three distinct

find ‘a’ for which f(x) has negative point of minima real roots, is the interval (𝞪, 𝞫), then 𝞫 – 2𝞪
(i.e., f(x) attains minima at negative value of x) is equal to ____

Ans: 30
Global Extreme Values

Eg. The maximum value of x3 - 6x2 + 9x + 5

for -1 ≤ x ≤ 5 is _____.
Nth Derivative Test
 Nth Derivative Test

If double derivative test is inconclusive (i.e. f”(x1) = 0 where x1 is a

stationary point) then we use nth derivative test. As per which we
go on differentiating f(x) at x1 till we get non-zero value
 Nth Derivative Test

Say we stopped at nth derivative then if n is even then we have

maxima and minima depending upon f(n) (x) is negative or positive
respectively, while if n is odd then we have point of inflection at x = x1
Observe y = x4 and y = x3
 Some Standard Integrals
Below is the list of some integrals which we know by our knowledge of differentiation.

(1) (7)

(8)
(2)
(9)
(3)
(10)

(4) (11)

(5) (12)

(6) (13)
(14) (18)

(15) (19)

(20)
(16)

(17)

(21)

(22)

(23)
 Integration by substitution

Eg. Evaluate the following:

Ans:

Remark
Integration by substitution
JEE Main 28th Jan 2025, S2

Eg.

A 2 - loge2

B loge2 + 2

C 4(loge2 + 2)

D 4(loge2 - 2)
 Integration by substitution
JEE Main 28th Jan 2025, S2
Solution:

Eg.

A 2 - loge2

B loge2 + 2

C 4(loge2 + 2)

D 4(loge2 - 2)
Integration by substitution
JEE Main 8th Apr 2024

Eg.

Ans: 7
 Integration by substitution
JEE Main 8th Apr 2024
Solution:

Eg.

Ans: 7
Integration by substitution
JEE Main 12th Jan 2019

Eg.

D
 Integration by substitution
JEE Main 12th Jan 2019
Solution:
Eg.

D
 Integration of Algebraic Formats

Format 1: Eg. Evaluate:

Working strategy: Just complete the square in denominator

Format 2:

Working strategy: Create derivative of quadratic, in the numerator,

 Integration of Algebraic Formats

Format 3:

Working strategy: Use division algorithm to write P(x) in terms of ax2 + bx + c

 Integration of Algebraic Formats

Format 4: (Even powers of x)

Eg. If =

then 4k is equal to

Ans: 2

Working strategy:
Divide numerator & denominator by x2.’
 Integration of Algebraic Formats

Format 5:

(a)

(b)

(c)

Here, ϕ(x) is linear or a constant

 Integration of Algebraic Formats

Format 5:
Eg. If =a
(a)
then a2 is equal to ______.

(b) Ans: 4/3

(c)

Here, ϕ(x) is linear or a constant

Working strategy: (a) Put

(b) Put

(c) Put
 Integration by Partial Fractions

Formats: In a proper fraction we can represent

(a)

(b)

(c)
 Integration by Parts

Choosing first and second function:

Take that function as first function which

comes first in ILATE.

Eg. Evaluate: Eg. Evaluate:

Integration by Parts

Eg. The value of the integral = ___

C cot x(cos x)2019 + C

D - cot x(cos x)2019 + C

 Integration by Parts

Now lets see classic integral, which is very important

Eg. Evaluate:

General version:

Eg. Evaluate:
Integration by Parts

Eg. If then f(x) is __

Integration of Trigonometric Formats
 Integration of Trigonometric Formats

Format-1: JEE Main 9th Apr , 2019

Eg. The integral is equal to

A -¾ (tan-4/3 x) + c

B 3 tan-1/3 x + c

C -3 cot-1/3 x + c

D -3 tan-1/3 x + c
 Integration of Trigonometric Formats

Format-2:
Eg. Evaluate:

Working strategy:

Use &
 Integration of Trigonometric Formats

Format-3:
Eg. Evaluate:
(a)

(b)

Working strategy:

(a) Express

(b) Express
 Integration of Trigonometric Formats

Format-4:
Eg. Evaluate:

Working strategy:

Divide Nr and Dr by cos2 x & put tan x = t

Remark

Basically, when we have even powers of sin x

& cos x in addition then we prefer to divide by
some power of cos x to create tan x & sec x.
 Second Fundamental theorem of calculus

Let f(x) be a continuous function of x defined in [a, b]. Eg. Let [ . ] denote the GIF,
If F(x) is an anti-derivative or primitive of f(x), then
then the value of

Ans: 3/4
This is called the Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Remark

If f(x) is discontinuous at x = c, where a < c < b, then

we have to write
Geometrical Interpretation of Definite Integrals

Eg. Evaluate :
Result JEE Advanced 2022, P2

Eg. The greatest integer less than or equal to

Properties of Definite Integrals
 Properties of Definite Integrals

Eg. Evaluate :

Eg. Evaluate :
Properties of Definite Integrals
JEE Main 24th June, 2022

Eg. The value of is

A 2𝜋

B 0

C 𝜋

D
Properties of Definite Integrals
Properties of Definite Integrals
 Properties of Definite Integrals

Remark

(a) If f (UL − x) = f (x) or − f (x) , then we use prop (6)

(b) If f (UL − x) is something else, then we try using Prop (4)

Eg.

A π2
B 2π
C 2π2
D 4π
 Properties of Definite Integrals

Observation

If f (x) is a periodic function with period T,

 Properties of Definite Integrals

Observation
 Bounds of Definite Integrals

Eg. ___ ___

Eg. Prove that :

 Bounds of Definite Integrals

(c) Eg. Prove that:

(d)
 Equations in Definite Integrals

Eg. Find function f(x), continuous ∀ x and not identically

Eg.

zero, such that

Ans: 3
Equations in Definite Integrals

JEE Main 29th June, 2022

Eg. Let f be a real valued continuous function on [0, 1].

and Then which of the

following points (x, y) lies on the curve y = f(x)?

A (2, 4)

B (1, 2)

C (4, 17)

D (6, 8)
 Equations in Definite Integrals
Solution: JEE Main 29th June, 2022

Eg. Let f be a real valued continuous function on [0, 1].

and Then which of the

following points (x, y) lies on the curve y = f(x)?

A (2, 4)

B (1, 2)

C (4, 17)

D (6, 8)
 Walli’s Formula

Eg. Evaluate the following:

(a) (b)

When applying this formula,

1. 0 is taken as even.
2. In case m or n is 0 or 1, we can simply
write 1 as the corresponding factor.
 Observation
Type - I
Area of region bounded between
y = f (x) and y = g(x) and the
ordinates x = a to x = b
Eg. Find the area of the region bounded between
y = x2 - 4 and the line y = -x + 2 .
 Observation
Type - II
Area of region bounded between
y = f (y) and x = g(y) and the
abscissae y = a to y = b
Eg. The area of the region enclosed between the
parabolas y2 = 2x - 1 and y2 = 4x - 3 is ___
 Parabola related Areas

(1) (3)

(2) (4)
 Parabola related Areas

Eg. The area of the region bounded by the curves Eg. The area of the region bounded by the curves
y = x2 + 1 and x + y = 3 is ____ y2 = 12x and x2 = 12y is ____
 Result
Area of y = f(x) from x = a to x = b is equal to area of
y = f-1(x) from y = a to y = b
 Variable Separable form

If a differential equation can be expressed in the form f(x)dx + g(y)dy = 0 ,

then it is said to be in variable separable form.

Eg. Find the particular solution of the differential

equation (1 + e2x)dy + (1 + y2)ex dx = 0, given that
y(0) = 1.
 Reducible to Variable Separable form

Let’s consider first. JEE Main 2020

Eg. The solution of the differential equation
If a differential equation is of this form, then it
becomes variable separable on substituting is _____.
ax + by + c = t
(where C is a constant of integration.)

Eg. Solve : (x - y)(dx + dy) = dx - dy,

given that y(0) = -1.
 Reducible to Variable Separable form

Remark

Any equation of the form yf(xy)dx + xg(xy)dy = 0

can be reduced to variable separable form by
using the substitution xy = v.
 Reducible to Variable Separable form

Homogeneous Differential Equations

Eg. Solve:

A differential equation of the form

where f and g are homogeneous expressions of the

same degree, is called a homogeneous differential
equation.

Working Strategy
Eg. Solve: x(dy/dx) = y(logy - log x + 1)
This equation is reduced to the form
by dividing the numerator and the denominator
by power of x.
Then we put y = vx.
Reducible to Homogeneous Differential Equations

Eg. Solve the DE:

 Linear Differential Equation

A differential equation is said to be linear if the

dependent variable and its derivative occur in
degree 1 only and are not multiplied together.

Eg. Identify the linear differential equations.

1.

2.

3.

4.
 Linear Differential Equation

Linear in y and Linear in x and

(where P and Q are functions of x) (where P and Q are functions of y)

Solution is given by Solution is given by

where is called
where is called the
the integrating factor.
integrating factor.
 Linear Differential Equation

Eg. Solve : (1 + y + x2y)dx + (x + x3)dy = 0

Eg. Solve the DE:
 Reducible to Linear Differential Equation

Equations reducible to LDE

Try to observe that in any equation of the form

putting f(y) = t will make it LDE.

For example, in the differential equation

Putting tan y = t will make it LDE in t and

 Reducible to Linear Differential Equation

Special Case
Bernoulli’s Equation :

Here, if we divide by yn and then put , we get LDE in t and

Reducible to Linear Differential Equation
JEE Main 31st Jan 2024, S2

Eg. Let y = y(x) be the solution of the differential equation

then e8𝞪 is equal to ____.

Ans: 9
Solution:
 Exact Form

Try to remember the following JEE Main 2019

Eg. The general solution of the differential
1.
equation (y2 - x3)dx - (xy)dy = 0 (x ≠ 0)

2. is: (where c is a constant of integration)

Ans: y2 + 2 x3 + cx2 = 0
3.

4.

5.

6.
Exact Form

Eg. Solve:
 Square Matrix

In Square Matrix

(i) aii are called diagonal elements.

(ii) aij & aji are called conjugate elements.

(iii) is called trace of square matrix.

 Algebra of Matrix

Multiplication of Matrix by a scalar:

NOTE
If An is a square matrix of order n & K is a
constant then |K × An| = Kn |An|
 Algebra of Matrix

Properties of Multiplication of Matrices Eg. Suppose a square matrix A satisfies

A2 = 5A - 7I. If A4 = aA + bI, then the
1. It’s not commutative. value of a - b is _____.
i.e. AB ≠ BA (in general)
Ans: 181

2. Its Associative
i.e. (A × B) × C = A × (B × C)

3. It distributes over addition.

i.e. A × (B + C) = A × B + A × C
Eg. If A2 = A then (I - A)5 = ____
or (B + C) × A = B × A + C × A
 Transpose & Its Properties
Matrix obtained by interchanging rows & columns
is called transpose of matrix, denoted by AT or A .

Properties

1. (AT)T = A
2. (A + B)T = AT + BT
3. (KA)T = K(AT) ; K is Constant
4. (AB)T = BT AT

Remark

1. (ABC)T = CT BT AT 2. (An)T = (AT)n

 Symmetric & Skew Symmetric Matrix

Symmetric matrix Skew Symmetric matrix

If AnT = An then square matrix An is called If AnT = -An then square matrix An is called
symmetric matrix. skew symmetric matrix.
i.e. aij = aji ∀ i & j i.e. aij = -aji ∀ i & j
Clearly, aii = 0 ∀ i

Remark
Determinant of Skew-symmetric matrix
of odd order is zero.
 Symmetric & Skew Symmetric Matrix

Remark

Every square matrix A can be represented as a sum

of symmetric & skew symmetric matrix.
Symmetric & Skew Symmetric Matrix

Eg. Let X3×3 & Y3×3 are non zero skew symmetric matrices
and Z 3×3 is a non-zero symmetric matrix then prove that :
X4Z3 - Z3X4 is skew-symmetric matrix
 Some Special Matrices

Orthogonal Matrix Eg.

A square matrix is called orthogonal if AAT = I

Eg. Let . If AAT = I3 , then | p | is

Some Special Matrices

Eg.
 Some Special Matrices
Orthogonal Matrix
A square matrix is called orthogonal if AAT = I

Idempotent Matrix Result

A square matrix is called idempotent if A2 = A. If AB = A and BA = B, then A and B are

idempotent.

Involutory Matrix

A square matrix is called involutory if A2 = I.

Nilpotent Matrix

A square matrix is called nilpotent matrix of order

m if :
 Relation between Matrices & Determinants

(a) We find determinant of a square matrix.

Eg. If A and B are squares matrices such that
(b) If A & B are two square matrices of same A2006 = O and AB = A + B, then det(B) equals

order then |A × B| = |A| × |B|

(c) If An is a square matrix of order n & K is a

constant then:
|K × An| = Kn |An|

Eg.
Remark

Clearly, |An| = |A|n Ans: 105

 Properties of Determinants

Property 1: The value of the determinant remains unchanged

if its rows and columns are interchanged.

Property 2: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinants

are interchanged, then sign of determinant changes.

Property 3: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant

are identical (all corresponding elements are proportional),
then value of determinant is zero.
 Properties of Determinants

Property 4: If all the elements of any row (column) be

multiplied by a number ‘K’ then value of determinant is
multiplied by ‘K’.

Property 5: If some or all elements of a row (or a column)

of a determinant are expressed as sum of two (or more)
terms, then the determinant can be expressed as sum of
two (or more) determinants of the same order.

i.e.
 Properties of Determinants

If any two rows (columns) remain same, then

determinants are added along third row
(column).
 Properties of Determinants

Property 6: The value of determinants is not altered by

adding or subtracting the multiple of any row (column)
in other row (column)
 Properties of Determinants

Standard Determinants

(i)

(ii)

(iii)
 Maximum & Minimum value of Determinant of order 3

Given that a1, a2, a3, b1, b2, b3, c1, c2, c3 ∈ {⍺1, ⍺2, ⍺3, …., ⍺n}
Maximum value of determinant happen when
Diagonal elements = min {⍺1, ⍺2, ⍺3, …., ⍺n}
Non-diagonal elements = max {⍺1, ⍺2, ⍺3, …., ⍺n}

Remark

For a determinant of order 3,

Min. value of determinant = - Max. value of determinant.
 Differentiation of Determinants

Also,
 Differentiation of Determinants

Also,
Differentiation of Determinants

Eg.

is an identity, then t + s is equal to

Ans: 71
 Properties of adjoint of Matrix
For square matrix A & B of order n, we have:

1. |adj A| = |A|n-1 5. adj(KA) = Kn - 1 adj A ; K is constant

2. adj (adj A) = |A|n - 2 A 6. adj(Am) = (adj A)m ; m ∈ n

3. 7. adj(AB) = (adj B) (adj A)

4. adj(AT) = (adj A)T i.e. reversal law holds

Remark

For any square matrix An × n :

A × (adj A) = |A|In = (adj A) × A
 Properties of adjoint of Matrix
JEE Main 22nd Jan 2025, S1

Eg. Let A be a square matrix of order 3 such that Eg. Let A be a matrix of order 3 × 3 and |A| = 1.
|A| = –2 and det(3adj( – 6adj (3A))) = 2m+n . 3mn, Then det (det(A) adj (5 adj (A3)) = k x 103, then
k/25 is equal to _____.
m > n. Then 4m + 2n is equal to __________

Ans: 34 Ans: 5
 Inverse of Matrix

Eg. Let M be a 3 × 3 invertible matrix with real

entries and I denote the 3 × 3 identity matrix
M-1 = adj(adj M) then adj (M2) = ___

Ans: I
Properties of Inverse

i.e. reversal law holds.

 System of Linear Equations
Number of solutions of system of linear equations
Δ

Δ≠0 Δ=0
Unique solution

Δx = Δy = Δz = 0 Not all of Δx, Δy, Δz are zero

Infinite number of solutions. No solution

[Provided not all cofactors
of Δ are zero]

NOTE

If Δ = Δx = Δy = Δz = 0 & all the cofactors of Δ are zero,

then system has no solution.
 System of Linear Equations

NOTE
Eg. If the system of equations: x = cy + bz,
y = az + cx, z = bx + ay has non-zero
1. Homogeneous system is always consistent
solution, then value of a2 + b2 + c2 + 2abc
(as (0, 0, 0) always satisfies it).
is ______.
2. (0, 0, 0) is also called trivial solution.
Ans: 1
3. Homogeneous system has non-trivial
(i.e. non-zero) solution iff D = 0.
 Cayley Hamilton Theorem
Every Matrix satisfies its characteristic equation.

If A is any square matrix, then : Eg. If then A3 - 6A2 + 11A = ?

| A - xI | = 0
Ans: 6 I
is called its characteristic equation.

Eg. characteristic equation of is:

Using Cayley Hamilton then, we have A2 - 2A - 3I = 0.

Cayley Hamilton Theorem

Eg. If , where

, then find c and d.

 Cayley Hamilton Theorem

NOTE JEE Main 8th Apr, 2023

In a characteristic equation of matrix A : Eg. If , A-1 = 𝞪A + 𝞫 I and 𝞪 + 𝞫 = -2,

(A) Sum of roots = Tr(A)
Then 4𝞪2 + 𝞫2 + 𝞴2 is equal to
(b) Product of roots = |A|
Ans: 14
 Section formulae

Internal Section Formula External Section Formula

m
n

O O
 Section formulae

NOTE
A
C
m n B

P
For example, in a ΔABC, if AD is the median to the side BC, then
A

B D C
 Section formulae

NOTE
A
C
m n B

P
For example, in a ΔABC, if AD is the median to the side BC, then
A

B D C
Section formulae
JEE Main 15th Apr, 2023

Eg. Let ABCD be a quadrilateral. If E and F are the

midpoints of the diagonals AC and BD respectively

and then k is equal to

A 4

B -4

C -2

D 2
 Section formulae

NOTE

b
c

1. Position vector of centroid is

2. Position vector of incentre is

Remark
Collinearity of Vectors
 Collinearity of Vectors

3 points (two vectors)

The moment we have three points, the concern is collinearity.
Three points will be collinear if
i.e.
JEE Main 8th Apr, 2023

Eg.

Ans: 36
1. Fundamental Theorem in 2D
Let be two given non-zero, non-collinear vectors, then any vector
coplanar with can be uniquely expressed as
for some scalars x and y.
2. Fundamental Theorem in 3D
Let be three given non-zero, non-coplanar vectors, then any vector in
space can be uniquely expressed as for some scalars x & y.

(that is, can be uniquely expressed as a linear combination of )

 Dot product of two vectors

Clearly, the angle between and is given by

 Dot product of two vectors

Properties
 Dot product of two vectors

NOTE
(a)

(b)

(c)
are perpendicular to each other

(d)

(e)

(f)
Dot product of two vectors
 Dot product of two vectors
Geometrical Significance of the Dot Product
Let’s look at the projection of a vector
along another vector.

NOTE

is called projection vector (or component

vector) of along
 Dot product of two vectors

Remark

If are any three mutually perpendicular

vectors then any vector can be expressed as
Cross product of two vectors
 Cross product of two vectors

Remark Eg. Find vector of length 3 units that is perpendicular

to each of the vector where
Properties of Cross Product

NOTE

●
●

●
Cross product of two vectors

JEE Main 24th June, 2022

Eg.

D
 Cross product of two vectors

Solution: JEE Main 24th June, 2022

Eg.

D
 Cross product of two vectors

Result
Lagrange’s Identity
 Cross product of two vectors
Geometrical Significance of the Cross Product
B C

O A

Area of parallelogram

NOTE

is the vector area of parallelogram OABC

 Cross product of two vectors
Geometrical Significance of the Cross Product
B C

O A

Area of parallelogram

Result
NOTE
The area of a quadrilaterals is ,
is the vector area of parallelogram OABC
where and are diagonal vectors.
 Direction cosine & Direction ratios
Direction cosine
If vector parallel to a given line makes angles α, β & γ with x, y & z axis respectively
then the triplet cos⍺, cos β, cos γ are called Direction cosine of line

Z
Direction cosine are generally denoted by (l, m, n)

𝜸
NOTE β
Y
l 2+ m 2+ n 2= 1

X
 Direction cosine & Direction ratios
Direction Ratios
Three numbers a, b, c proportional to DC (l, m, n) are known as DR.

Basically, if line is parallel to a vector then DR of line are

(a, b, c), or better to say DR (a, b, c)

 Straight Lines in 3D

Line through a given point & Parallel to Eg. Find the equation of a line which passes
a Given Vector through point and is 丄ar to the
straight lines and
= +λ
Straight Lines in 3D

Eg. Write the following in standard form & hence find their DR

(a) 4x - 2 = 2y + 1 = z -2 (b)

(c) x = 2z + 3; y = 4z - 4
 Straight Lines in 3D
JEE Main 25th Feb, 2021
Assuming a point on line
Eg. The equation of the line through the point (0, 1, 2) and

perpendicular to the line

A B

C D
A general point on this line is assumed
as ( x1 + aλ, y1 + bλ, z1 + cλ)
 Straight Lines in 3D

Remark

If we know foot of perpendicular of a point, we can

easily find image also using section formula.
 Distance between two lines

Shortest Distance Between Two Line is:

For skew lines: For parallel lines:

Distance between two lines

Eg. The shortest distance between the lines

&
is equal to

D
Conditional Probability & Independent Events
 Conditional Probability & Independent Events
Probability of occurrence of event A given that event B has
already occurred is known as conditional probability.

i.e. Eg. Two dice are thrown. Find the probability

that sum of the numbers coming up on them
is 9, if it is known that the number 5 always
occurs on the first die.
d
a c b
A B
Conditional Probability & Independent Events

Eg. If ,

then find
 Conditional Probability & Independent Events

Solution: Eg. If ,

then find
 Conditional Probability & Independent Events

Observation

(a)

This is called multiplication theorem.

General:

NOTE
Multiplication theorem comes into play
when order matters.
Eg. There are 10 cards, 5 of these have ‘I’ & other 5 have ‘T’ printed
on them. 3 cards are drawn one by one without replacement & are
kept in same order, then probability of making the word IIT is

D
 Remark

Drawing ‘r’ cards one by one without replacement & drawing ‘r’
cards randomly, are equivalent if order does not matter.
 Remark

Drawing ‘r’ cards one by one without replacement & drawing ‘r’
cards randomly, are equivalent if order does not matter.

Eg: There are 10 cards, 5 of them have ‘I’ & other five have ‘T’ printed
on them. 3 cards are draw one by one without replacement then
probability of getting 2 I’s & 1 T is:
 Conditional Probability & Independent Events

Observation Eg. Three students appear at an exam. Probabilities

Two events are independent if of their success are respectively. Find the

probability of success of at least two.

i.e.

NOTE
If A & B are independent events then
so are ,
Conditional Probability & Independent Events
JEE Main 24th Jan 2025, S1

Eg. A and B alternately throw a pair of dice. A

wins if he throws a sum of 5 before B throws a
sum of 8, and B wins if he throws a sum of 8
before A throws a sum of 5. The probability,
that A wins if A makes the first throw, is:

A 9/17

B 9/19

C 8/17

D 8/19
 Total Probability Law & Bayes’ Theorem

Total probability Law

Eg. Three bags contains white & black balls as per :

Probabilities of selecting Bag 1, Bag 2 & Bag 3
are 0.2, 0.3 & 0.5 respectively. A ball is randomly
selected. Find the probability that ball is white.
 Total Probability Law & Bayes’ Theorem

Bayes’ Theorem
 Total Probability Law & Bayes’ Theorem

Remark

(a) Bayes’ Theorem:

(b) Whenever the outcome of an experiment

is given & probability of it being occurring
through a particular path is asked, then
Bayes’ theorem is applied. Paths are denoted
by Ei’s & outcome is denoted by A.
Total Probability Law & Bayes’ Theorem
JEE Main 29th July, 2022

Eg. Bag I contains 3 red, 4 black and 3 white balls and

Bag II contains 2 red, 5 black and 2 white balls. One ball
is transferred from Bag I to Bag II and then a ball is draw
from Bag II. The ball so drawn is found to be black in
colour. Then the probability, that the transferred ball is
red, is:

D
Total Probability Law & Bayes’ Theorem

Eg. Shelf S1 contains 6 Maths and 4 Science books, Shelf S2

contains 4 Maths and 6 Science books, and Shelf S3 contains 5
Maths and 5 Science books. One of the shelves is selected at
random and a book is drawn from it. If the book is Maths, then
the probability, that the book is drawn from Shelf S2 , is k/15, then
k is equal to _____.

Ans: 4
Random Variable & Probability Distribution
 Random Variable & Probability Distribution

Random Variable:
Let S be the sample space associated with given experiment. The real
valued function ‘X’ whose domain is S is called a random variable.
Probability Distribution Function:
If a random variable takes value x1, x2, …., xn with respective probabilities P1,
P2, …., Pn. Then

is called Probability Distribution Function of ‘x’.

 Random Variable & Probability Distribution

Remark

(a) Mean (or Expectation) of X i.e.

Here,

(b) Variance of X i.e.

Here is nothing but mean value of ‘X’ i.e. E(X)

Random Variable & Probability Distribution
JEE Main, 13th Apr 2023

Eg. A coin is biased so that the head is 3 times as

likely to occur as tail. This coin is tossed until a
head or three tails occur. If X denotes the number
of tosses of the coin, then the mean of X is-

D
 Random Variable & Probability Distribution

Solution: JEE Main, 13th Apr 2023

Eg. A coin is biased so that the head is 3 times as

likely to occur as tail. This coin is tossed until a
head or three tails occur. If X denotes the number
of tosses of the coin, then the mean of X is-

x 1 2 3 A

P(X) B