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 Guide to UNIX Using Linux Fourth Edition
Chapter 6 Solutions

Answers to the Chapter 6 Review Questions

1. Your organization routinely uses scripts, but as some employees have left, there are scripts that
contain only command lines and no one is certain of their purpose. What steps can be taken to
ensure a way for others to know the purpose of a script?
Answer: c. Require that script writers place comment lines inside the scripts using the #
symbol to begin each comment line.

2. Which of the following shells enables the use of scripts? (Choose all that apply.)
Answer: a. Bash, b. csh, and d. zsh

3. You frequently use the command ls -a and want to save time by just entering l to do the same
thing. Which of the following commands enables you to set your system to view hidden files by
only entering l?
Answer: d. alias l=”ls -a”

4. You have written a script, but when you run it there is an error. Which of the following commands
can you use to debug your script? (Choose all that apply.)
Answer: b. sh -v and d. sh -x

5. You have written a shell program that creates four temporary files. Which of the following
commands can you use to remove these files when the script has completed its work?
Answer: a. trap

6. Which of the following commands works well for menus used in a script? (Choose all that apply.)
Answer: b. case

7. You are currently in the source directory, which is the new directory you have just created for
storing and running your scripts. You want to make certain that the source directory is in your
default path. Which of the following commands enables you to view the current default path
settings?
Answer: d. echo $PATH

8. You have created a script for use by your entire department in a commonly accessed directory.
Only you are able to run the script, which works perfectly. Which of the following is likely to be
the problem?
Answer: b. You did not give all users in your department execute permission for that
script.

9. Your current working directory contains a series of files that start with the word “account”
combined with a, b, c, d, and e, such as accounta, accountb, and so on. Which of the following
commands enables you to view the contents of all of these files? (Choose all that apply.)
Answer: c. more account[a,b,c,d,e]

10. For which of the following logic structures used within a script is fi the final line for that logic
structure? (Choose all that apply.)
Answer: d. if

11. Which of the following are examples of arithmetic or relational operators? (Choose all that apply.)
Answer: a. !, b. <, c. %, and d. *

1
12. You have created a series of scripts that use the same environment variables. However, when you
run these scripts, some of them do not seem to recognize the environment variables you have set.
What is the problem?
Answer: a. You need to use the export command so these variables have global use.

13. You have spent the last two hours creating a report in a file and afterwards you use cat to create a
new file. Unfortunately the new file name you used was the same as the name you used for the
report, and now your report is gone. What should you do next time to prevent this from
happening?
Answer: b. Enter the command, set -o noclobber before you start.

14. You have remotely logged into a computer running UNIX or Linux, but you are not certain about
which operating system you are using. However, when you display the contents of the
______________ variable it shows which operating system you are using.
Answer: d. OSTYPE

15. What command can you use to view the environment and configuration variables already
configured on your system?
Answer: c. printenv

16. Which of the following are valid expressions? (Choose all that apply.)
Answer: a. let x=5*9, b. let x=y+10, c. let m=12/4, and d. let r=128-80

17. When you type for wood maple spruce oak pine at the command line and then press Enter, what
should you type next at the > prompt?
Answer: a. do

18. You want to store a long listing of your files in a variable called myfiles. Which of the following
commands enables you to do this?
Answer: c. myfiles=`ls –l`

19. What error is in the following script code?

case “selection” in
“i.”) ./listscript ;;
“ii”) ./numberscript ;;
“iii”) ./findscript ;;
esac

Answer: b. There should be a dollar sign in front of selection, as in “$selection”

20. You are working with a colleague on a script called value that updates several files. You want to
test the script, but not update the files. Which of the following commands can you use?
Answer: d. sh -n value

21. You only have to enter the name of a script to have it run, such as entering myscript. What setting
enables you to do this?
Answer: d. You have placed the directory from which you run the scripts in your PATH
variable.

22. What would you expect to find in the HOME environment variable?
Answer: The HOME environment variable identifies the path name for the user’s home
directory.

23. What is the difference between a compiler and an interpreter?

2
 Answer: A compiler takes code from a program language, such as C or C++ and converts
the code into machine language instructions in a separate file to be executed later. An
interpreter takes commands or code, such as from a script and translates them into
executable instructions that run on the spot.

24. What command would you use to place the cursor in row 10 and column 15 on the screen or in a
terminal window?
Answer: Use the command tput cup 10 15.

25. What is the purpose of a login script?

Answer: The login script runs each time you log into your account and can include
commands, such as aliases and the set -o noclobber command, that take effect as soon as
the script runs and that last for the duration of the login session. (unless they are manually
changed by the user later during the login session).

Hands-On Projects Tips and Solutions for Chapter 6

Project 6-1
In this project, students view a listing of their environment variables.

In Step 2, a sampling of variables that students might record are:

▪ HOSTNAME
▪ SHELL
▪ TERM
▪ HISTSIZE
▪ USER
▪ SESSION_MANAGER
▪ MAIL
▪ PATH
▪ INPUTRC
▪ PWD
▪ LANG
▪ HOME
▪ LOGNAME.

Project 6-2
This project enables students to learn how to assign a shell variable, how to view the contents of a
variable, how to use double quotes and single quotes when manipulating shell variables, and how to
use backquotes to execute a command and store the result in a shell variable.

Project 6-3
In this project, students practice using the let command with constants and with a shell script variable
so they become familiar with this capability before they build more advanced scripts in later projects in
this chapter.

At this point, if you have students who are out of practice using basic mathematical and algebraic
concepts, you might spend a classroom session reviewing variables, expressions, and so on.

3
Project 6-4
In this project, students learn to export a shell variable to make it universally accessible as an
environment variable.

Project 6-5
For this project, students learn how to determine the contents of the PATH environment variable and
then how to add the current working directory to the PATH variable so they can execute scripts
without using the ./ characters.

Project 6-6
In this project, students create a short script to demonstrate sequential logic and to get additional
practice in using the let command as well as building expressions using constants, variables, and
arithmetic operators.

Project 6-7
Students use if statement decision logic in this project. In the first set of steps they create a script using
a basic if statement and in the second set of steps they modify their script to include an if statement
nested within an if statement.

Project 6-8
In this project, students first create a shell script containing a for loop that prints the names of six users
on individual lines. Next, students learn how to execute the same for loop logic directly from the
command line.

In Step 4 of the second set of steps, students should see the following list displayed to the screen:
▪ john
▪ ellen
▪ tom
▪ becky
▪ eli
▪ jill

Project 6-9
For this project, students practice using the brackets wildcard format to run a for loop.

Project 6-10
For this project, students create two scripts to practice using the while statement. The first script uses a
simple while statement to guess the favorite color and the second script is a more complex data input
form.

Project 6-11
This project enables students to practice using case logic in a simple script. They will learn much more
about using case logic in upcoming projects.

4
Project 6-12
In this project, students first practice the tput command from the command line to get an instant idea of
how the command works. In the second set of steps, students create a simple menu that runs via a shell
script.

Project 6-13
For this project, students use the sh -u and sh -v commands to learn about debugging. By now, students
will have likely made some mistakes in creating scripts and will understand the importance of these
commands. Because shell scripts are now getting more complex, it is important for students to have
this tool available from this point on.

Project 6-14
In this project, students learn how to create an alias. Consider using this project as an opportunity to
discuss aliases that you like to use in your work or that you have incorporated into a login script.

Project 6-15
This project is the first in a series of projects in which students create a telephone list application that
simulates one that might be used in an organization. In the first set of steps, students make sure they
have a source subdirectory in which to store their application files. Next, they create a beginning menu
application.

Project 6-16
Students will need a data file with some practice data already in it for testing their application as they
go along. In this project, they delete the former versions of the corp_phones files created for practice in
Chapter 4 to make sure that they are starting with known data. Then they create a new corp_phones file
in their source directory. This project also helps ensure that students begin with some familiarity of the
data. Note that to ensure they start fresh, there are some differences between the contents of this file
and the files they created in Chapter 4.

It is common for application developers to use practice data files with a few known data entries when
they develop an application. Consider holding a discussion about why these files are important and
discuss practice data files you may have used when you have developed applications for an
organization.

Project 6-17
In this project, students edit the phmenu script so that it can call applications..

Project 6-18
For this project, students again edit the phmenu script to be able to print raw data to view for
verification of the data.

Project 6-19
For this project, students create and test the phlist1 script to display a listing of telephone number
information. This script can be run from the phmenu script as well.

5
 Project 6-20
In this project, students create the phoneadd script from which to add new records to the corp_phones
file.

Discovery Exercises
1. Use two different commands to display the contents of the HOME variable

Answer: Type printenv HOME and press Enter. Also, type echo $HOME and press Enter.

2. Assign the variable t the value of 20. Next, assign the variable s the value of t+30. Finally, display
the contents of t and s to verify you have correctly defined these variables.
Answer: Type t=20 and press Enter. Next, type let s=t+30 and press Enter. To verify the
contents of t type echo $t and press Enter. Next to verify the contents of s type echo $s
and press Enter.

3. Make the s variable you assigned in Exercise 2 an environment variable and use the command to
verify it is recognized as an environment variable.

Answer: Type export s and press Enter. Next, type printenv or printenv s and press Enter
to verify that s is now recognized as an environment variable.

4. Switch to your source directory. Display the contents of the PATH variable. Next, use the
command to add your current working directory to the PATH variable.

Answer: Type cd source and press Enter. Next, type echo $PATH or printenv PATH and
press Enter. Finally, type PATH=$PATH:. and press Enter.

5. After completing Exercise 4, run the phmenu program in the easiest way.

Answer: Because the source directory is now in the path, you simply type phmenu and
press Enter.

6. Create a variable called iam and assign the results of the whoami command to it. Display the
contents of the variable to verify your results.

Answer: Type iam=`whoami` and press Enter. Next, type echo $iam and press Enter.

7. Change back to your home directory, if you are not in it. Use the set command to set up your
working environment to prevent you from overwriting a file.

Answer: Type set -o noclobber and press Enter.

8. Create an alias called var that displays your environment variables.

Answer: Type alias var=” printenv” and press Enter.

9. At the command line use a for loop that uses the variable sandwiches and then displays a line at a
time the following sandwiches: chicken, ham, hummus, tomato.

Answer: Type the following at the command line:

for sandwiches in chicken ham hummus tomato <Enter>

6
 >do <Enter>
>echo $sandwiches <Enter>
>done <Enter>

10. Create a script that uses case logic to have someone guess your favorite sandwich, such as tuna.

Answer: The lines of code in the script should be, for example:
echo -n "Guess my favorite sandwich: "
read guess
case “$guess” in
“tuna”) echo “Tuna is my favorite sandwich” ;;
* ) echo “Nope, actually I like tuna” ;;
esac

11. Display the contents of .bashrc file. Next, use the vi editor to edit that file and put in an alias so
that every time you type list you see a long file listing of a directory.

Answer: Make sure you are in your home directory (enter pwd and then enter cd if you
are not in your home directory). Type less .bashrc and press Enter (or students can use
more or cat) to see the contents of the .bashrc file. Next, use vi or Emacs to place the line
alias list=”ls –l” under the # User specific aliases and functions section in the file.

12. Use a command to simulate how you would troubleshoot a problem with the sandwich script you
created in Exercise 10.

Answer: Type sh -x sandwich or sh -v sandwich and press Enter.

13. What is wrong with the following lines of code?

While [ “$value” = “100” ; do
Echo “That’s a large number.” read value
fi

Answer: 1) there should be a closing bracket after “100”, 2) Echo should not have an
initial capital letter, 3) there should be a semicolon on the second line to separate
number.” and read value, and the third line should have done instead of fi.

14. Use the let command to store the value 1024 in the variable ram. Display the contents of ram.

Answer: Type let ram=1024 and press Enter. Next, type echo $ram and press Enter.

15. Temporarily change your home directory environment variable to /home and then use one
command to go to your home directory. Change the home directory environment variable back to
your regular home directory and switch to it.

Answer: Type HOME=”/home” and press Enter. Next, type cd and press Enter. To go
back to the default, type HOME=”/home/username” and press Enter. Next, type cd and
press Enter

16. Use the tput command to clear the screen and then to place the cursor in row 7, column 22:

Answer: Type tput clear and press Enter. Next type tput cup 7 22 and press Enter.

17. Write a script that creates the following menu:

Soup Menu
==========

7
 (t)omato
(b)ean
(s)quash
Select a soup … (q) to quit

Answer: Here is some example code:

loop=y
while [ "$loop" = y ]
do
clear
tput cup 3 12; echo "Soup Menu"
tput cup 4 12; echo "========="
tput cup 6 9; echo "(t)omato"
tput cup 7 9; echo "(b)bean”"
tput cup 8 9; echo "(s)squash"
tput cup 10 9; echo "Select a soup … (q) to quit”
tput cup 11 9
read choice || continue
done

18. List all of the signal numbers and designations for the trap command. What is the designation for
signal 31?

Answer: Type trap -l and press Enter. The designation for signal 31 is SIGSYS.

19. Modify your script from Exercise 17 so that there is a beep when the menu is ready to take the
user’s input.

Answer: Use the line near the end as follows:

tput cup 10 9; echo -e "Select a soup … (q) to quit \a”

20. Is there a command that you can use to prevent shell variables from being assigned new values? If
so, what is it?

Answer: Yes. Use the readonly command in the Bash shell.

8
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 In July, 1841, Mr. Payne patented his invention for sulphate of iron in
London; and in June and November, 1846, in France; and in 1846 in London,
for carbonate of soda.[13] The materials employed in Payne’s process are
sulphate of iron and sulphate of lime, both being held in solution with water.
The timber is placed in a cylinder in which a vacuum is formed by the
condensation of steam, assisted by air pumps; a solution of sulphate of iron is
then admitted into the vessel, which instantly insinuates itself into all the
pores of the wood, previously freed from air by the vacuum, and, after about
a minute’s exposure, impregnates its entire substance; the sulphate of iron is
then withdrawn, and another solution of sulphate of lime thrown in, which
enters the substance of the wood in the same manner as the former solution,
and the two salts react upon each other, and form two new combinations
within the substance of the wood—muriate of iron, and muriate of lime. One
of the most valuable properties of timber thus prepared is its perfect
incombustibility: when exposed to the action of flame or strong heat, it simply
smoulders, and emits no flame. We may also reasonably infer that with such a
compound in its pores, decay must be greatly retarded, and the liability to
worms lessened, if not prevented. The greatest drawback consists in the
increased difficulty of working. This invention has been approved by the
Commissioners of Woods and Forests, and has received much approbation
from the architectural profession. Mr. Hawkshaw, C.E., considers that this
process renders wood brittle. It was employed for rendering wood
uninflammable in the Houses of Parliament (we presume, in the carcase; for
steaming was used for the joiner’s work), British Museum, and other public
buildings; and also for the Royal Stables at Claremont.
In 1842, Mr. Bethell stated before the Institute of Civil Engineers, London,
that silicate of potash, or soluble glass, rendered wood uninflammable.
In 1842, Professor Brande proposed corrosive sublimate in turpentine, or oil
of tar, as a preservative solution.
In 1845, Mr. Ransome suggested the application of silicate of soda, to be
afterwards decomposed by an acid in the fibre of the wood; and in 1846, Mr
Payne proposed soluble sulphides of the earth (barium sulphide, &c.), to be
also afterwards decomposed in the woods by acids.
In 1855, a writer in the ‘Builder’ suggested an equal mixture of alum and
borax (biborate of soda) to be used for making wood uninflammable. We have
no objection to the use of alum and borax to render wood uninflammable,
providing it does not hurt the wood.
 Such are the principal patents, suggestions, and inventions, up to the year
1856; but there are many more which have been brought before the public,
some of which we will now describe.
Dr. Darwin, some years since, proposed absorption, first, of lime water,
then of a weak solution of sulphuric acid, drying between the two, so as to
form a gypsum (sulphate of lime) in the pores of the wood, the latter to be
previously well seasoned, and when prepared to be used in a dry situation.
Dr. Parry has recommended a preparation composed of bees-wax, roll
brimstone, and oil, in the proportion of 1, 2, and 3 ounces to ¾ gallon of
water; to be boiled together and laid on hot.
Mr. Pritchard, C.E., of Shoreham, succeeded in establishing pyrolignite of
iron and oil of tar as a preventive of dry rot; the pyrolignite to be used very
pure, the oil applied afterwards, and to be perfectly free from any particle of
ammonia.
Mr. Toplis recommends the introduction into the pores of the timber of a
solution of sulphate or muriate of iron; the solution may be in the proportion
of about 2 lb. of the salt to 4 or 5 gallons of water.
An invention has been lately patented by Mr. John Cullen, of the North
London Railway, Bow, for preserving wood from decay. The inventor proposes
to use a composition of coal-tar, lime, and charcoal; the charcoal to be
reduced to a fine powder, and also the lime. These materials to be well mixed,
and subjected to heat, and the wood immersed therein. The impregnation of
the wood with the composition may be materially aided by means of
exhaustion and pressure. Wood thus prepared is considered to be proof
against the attacks of the white ant.
The process of preserving wood from decay invented by Mr. L. S. Robins, of
New York, was proposed to be worked extensively by the “British Patent Wood
Preserving Company.” It consists in first removing the surface moisture, and
then charging and saturating the wood with hot oleaginous vapours and
compounds. As the Robins’ process applies the preserving material in the form
of vapour, the wood is left clean, and after a few hours’ exposure to the air it
is said to be fit to be handled for any purposes in which elegant workmanship
is required. Neither science nor extraordinary skill is required in conducting
the process, and the treatment under the patent is said to involve only a
trifling expense.
Reference has already been made to the use of petroleum. The almost
unlimited supply of it within the last few years has opened out a new and
almost boundless source of wealth. An invention has been patented in the
name of Mr. A. Prince, which purports to be an improvement in the mode of
preserving timber by the aid of petroleum. The invention consists, firstly, in
the immersion of the timber in a suitable vessel or receptacle, and to exhaust
the air therefrom, by the ordinary means of preserving wood by saturation.
The crude petroleum is next conveyed into the vessel, and thereby caused to
penetrate into every pore or interstice of the woody fibre, the effect being, it
is said, to thoroughly preserve the wood from decay. He also proposes to mix
any cheap mineral paint or pigment with crude petroleum to be used as a
coating for the bottom of ships before the application of the sheathing, and
also to all timber for building or other purposes. The composition is
considered to render the timber indestructible, and to repel the attacks of
insects. Without expressing any opinion upon this patent as applied to wood
for building purposes, we must again draw attention to the high inflammability
of petroleum.
The ‘Journal’ of the Board of Arts and Manufactures for Upper Canada
considers the following to be the cheapest and the best mode of preserving
timber in Canada: Let the timbers be placed in a drying chamber for a few
hours, where they would be exposed to a temperature of about 200°, so as to
drive out all moisture, and by heat, coagulate the albuminous substance,
which is so productive of decay. Immediately upon being taken out of the
drying chamber, they should be thrown into a tank containing crude
petroleum. As the wood cools, the air in the pores will contract, and the
petroleum occupy the place it filled. Such is the extraordinary attraction
shown by this substance for dry surfaces, that by the process called capillary
attraction, it would gradually find its way into the interior of the largest pieces
of timber, and effectually coat the walls and cells, and interstitial spaces.
During the lapse of time, the petroleum would absorb oxygen, and become
inspissated, and finally converted into a bituminous substance, which would
effectually shield the wood from destruction by the ordinary processes of
decay. The process commends itself on account of its cheapness. A drying
chamber might easily be constructed of sheet iron properly strengthened, and
petroleum is very abundant and accessible. Immediately after the pieces of
timber have been taken out of the petroleum vat, they should be sprinkled
with wood ashes in order that a coating of this substance may adhere to the
surface, and carbonate of potash be absorbed to a small depth. The object of
this is to render the surface incombustible; and dusting with wood ashes until
quite dry will destroy this property to a certain extent.
 The woodwork of farm buildings in this country is sometimes subjected to
the following: Take two parts of gas-tar, one part of pitch, one part half
caustic lime and half common resin; mix and boil these well together, and put
them on the wood quite hot. Apply two or three coats, and while the last coat
is still warm, dash on it a quantity of well-washed sharp sand, previously
prepared by being sifted through a sieve. The surface of the wood will then
have a complete stone appearance, and may be durable. It is, of course,
necessary, that the wood be perfectly dry, and one coat should be well
hardened before the next is put on. It is necessary, by the use of lime and
long boiling, to get quit of the ammonia of the tar, as it is considered to injure
the wood.
Mr. Abel, the eminent chemist to the War Department, recommends the
application of silicate of soda in solution, for giving to wood, when applied to
it like paint, a hard coating, which is durable for several years, and is also a
considerable protection against fire. The silicate of soda, which is prepared for
use in the form of a thick syrup, is diluted in water in the proportion of 1 part
by measure of the syrup to 4 parts of water, which is added slowly, until a
perfect mixture is obtained by constant stirring. The wood is then washed
over two or three times with this liquid by means of an ordinary whitewash
brush, so as to absorb as much of it as possible. When this first coating is
nearly dry, the wood is painted over with another wash made by slaking good
fat lime, diluted to the consistency of thick cream. Then, after the limewash
has become moderately dry, another solution of the silicate of soda, in the
proportion of 1 of soda to 2 of water, is applied in the same manner as the
first coating. The preparation of the wood is then complete; but if the lime
coating has been applied too quickly, the surface of the wood may be found,
when quite dry, after the last coating of the silicate, to give off a little lime
when rubbed with the hand; in which case it should be once more coated
over with a solution of the silicate of the same strength as in the first
operation. If Mr. Abel had been an architect or builder, he would never have
invented this process. What would the cost be? and would not a special clerk
of the works be necessary to carry out this method in practice?
The following coating for piles and posts, to prevent them from rotting, has
been recommended on account of its being economical, impermeable to
water, and nearly as hard as stone: Take 50 parts of resin, 40 of finely
powdered chalk, 300 parts of fine white sharp sand, 4 parts of linseed oil, 1
part of native red oxide of copper, and 1 part of sulphuric acid. First, heat the
resin, chalk, sand, and oil, in an iron boiler; then add the oxide, and, with
care, the acid; stir the composition carefully, and apply the coat while it is still
hot. If it be not liquid enough, add a little more oil. This coating, when it is
cold and dry, forms a varnish which is as hard as stone.
Another method for fencing, gate-posts, garden stakes, and timber which is
to be buried in the earth, may be mentioned. Take 11 lb. of blue vitriol
(sulphate of copper) and 20 quarts of water; dissolve the vitriol with boiling
water, and then add the remainder of the water. The end of the wood is then
to be put into the solution, and left to stand four or five days; for shingle,
three days will answer, and for posts, 6 inches square, ten days, Care should
be taken that the saturation takes place in a well-pitched tank or keyed box,
for the reason that any barrel will be shrunk by the operation so as to leak.
Instead of expanding an old cask, as other liquids do, this shrinks it. This
solution has also been used in dry rot cases, when the wood is only slightly
affected.
It will sometimes be found that when oak fencing is put up new, and tarred
or painted, a fungus will vegetate through the dressing, and the interior of the
wood be rapidly destroyed; but when undressed it seems that the weather
desiccates the gum or sap, and leaves only the woody fibre, and the fence
lasts for many years.
About fifteen years ago, Professor Crace Calvert, F.R.S., made an
investigation for the Admiralty, of the qualities of different woods used in ship-
building. He found the goodness of teak to consist in the fact that it is highly
charged with caoutchouc; and he considered that if the tannin be soaked out
of a block of oak, it may then be interpenetrated by a solution of caoutchouc,
and thereby rendered as lasting as teak.
We can only spare the space for a few words about this method.
1st. We have seen lead which has formed part of the gutter of a building
previous to its being burnt down: lead melts at 612° F.; caoutchouc at 248°
F.; therefore caoutchouc would not prevent wood from being destroyed by
fire. At 248° caoutchouc is highly inflammable, burns with a white flame and
much smoke.
2nd. We are informed by a surgical bandage-maker of high repute, that
caoutchouc, when used in elastic kneecaps, &c., will perish, if the articles are
left in a drawer for two or three years. When hard, caoutchouc is brittle.
Would it be advisable to interpenetrate oak with a solution of caoutchouc?
In 1825, Mr. Hancock proposed a solution of 1½ lb. of caoutchouc in 3 lb. of
essential oil, to which was to be added 9 lb. of tar. Mr. Parkes, in 1843, and M.
Passez, in 1845, proposed to dissolve caoutchouc in sulphur: painting or
immersing the wood. Maconochie, in 1805, after his return from India,
proposed distilled teak chips to be injected into fir woods.
Although England has been active in endeavouring to discover the best and
cheapest remedy for dry rot, France has also been active in the same
direction.
M. le Comte de Chassloup Lambat, Member of the late Imperial Senate of
France, considers that, as sulphur is most prejudicial to all species of fungi,
there might, perhaps, be some means of making it serviceable in the
preservation of timber. We know with what success it is used in medicine. It is
also known that coopers burn a sulphur match in old casks before using them
—a practice which has evidently for its object the prevention of mustiness,
often microscopic, which would impart a bad flavour to the wine.
M. de Lapparent, late Inspector-General of Timber for the French Navy,
proposed to prevent the growth of fungi by the use of a paint having flour of
sulphur as a basis, and linseed oil as an amalgamater. In 1862 he proposed
charring wood; we have referred to this process in our last chapter (p. 96).
The paint was to be composed of:

Flour of sulphur 200 grammes 3,088 grains.

Common linseed oil 135 ” 2,084 ”
Prepared oil of manganese 30 ” 463 ”

He considered that by smearing here and there either the surfaces of the
ribs of a ship, or below the ceiling, with this paint, a slightly sulphurous
atmosphere will be developed in the hold, which will purify the air by
destroying, at least in part, the sporules of the fungi. He has since stated that
his anticipations have been fully realized. M. de Lapparent also proposes to
prevent the decay of timber by subjecting it to a skilful carbonization with
common inflammable coal gas. An experiment was made at Cherbourg, which
was stated to be completely successful. The cost is only about 10 cents per
square yard of framing and planking.[14] M. de Lapparent’s gas method is
useful for burning off old paint. We saw it in practice (April, 1875) at Waterloo
Railway Station, London, and it appeared to be effective.
At the suggestion of MM. Le Châtelier (Engineer-in-chief of mines) and
Flachat, C.E.’s, M. Ranee, a few years since, injected in a Légé and Fleury
cylinder certain pieces of white fir, red fir, and pitch pine with chloride of
sodium, which had been deprived of the manganesian salts it contained, to
destroy its deliquescent property. Some pieces were injected four times, but
the greatest amount of solution injected into pitch pine heart-wood was from
3 to 4 per cent., and very little more was injected into the white and red fir
heart-wood. It was also noticed that sapwood, after being injected four times,
only gained 8 per cent. in weight in the last three operations. The
experiments made to test the relative incombustibility of the injected wood
showed that the process was a complete failure; the prepared wood burning
as quickly as the unprepared wood.
M. Paschal le Gros, of Paris, has patented his system for preserving all kinds
of wood, by means of a double salt of manganese and of zinc, used either
alone or with an admixture of creosote. The solution, obtained in either of the
two ways, is poured into a trough, and the immersion of the logs or pieces of
wood is effected by placing them vertically in the trough in such a manner
that they are steeped in the liquid to about three-quarters of their length. The
wood is thus subjected to the action of the solution during a length of time
varying from twelve to forty-eight hours. The solution rises in the fibres of the
wood, and impregnates them by the capillary force alone, without requiring
any mechanical action. The timber is said to become incombustible, hard, and
very lasting.
M. Fontenay, C.E., in 1832, proposed to act upon the wood with what he
designated metallic soap, which could be obtained from the residue in
greasing boxes of carriages; also from the acid remains of oil, suet, iron, and
brass dust; all being melted together. In 1816 Chapman tried experiments
with yellow soap; but to render it sufficiently fluid it required forty times its
weight of water, in which the quantity of resinous matter and tallow would
scarcely exceed ⅟80th; therefore no greater portion of these substances could
be left in the pores of the wood, which could produce little effect.
M. Letellier, in 1837, proposed to use deuto-chloride of mercury as a
preservative for wood.
M. Dondeine’s process was formerly used in France and Germany. It is a
paint, consisting of many ingredients, the principal being linseed oil, resin,
white lead, vermilion, lard, and oxide of iron. All these are to be well mixed,
and reduced by boiling to one-tenth, and then applied with a brush. If applied
cold, a little varnish or turpentine to be added.
Little is known in England of the inventions which have arisen in foreign
countries not already mentioned.
M. Szerelmey, a Hungarian, proposed, in 1868, potassa, lime, sulphuric
acid, petroleum, &c., to preserve wood.
 In Germany, the following method is sometimes used for the preservation of
wood: Mix 40 parts of chalk, 40 parts of resin, 4 of linseed oil; melting them
together in an iron pot; then add 1 part of native oxide of copper, and
afterwards, carefully, 1 part of sulphuric acid. The mixture is applied while hot
to the wood by means of a brush, and it soon becomes very hard.[15]
Mr. Cobley, of Meerholz, Hesse, has patented the following preparation. A
strong solution of potash, baryta, lime, strontia, or any of their salts, are
forced into the pores of timber in a close iron vessel by a pump. After this
operation, the liquid is run off from the timber, and hydro-fluo-silicic acid is
forced in, which, uniting with the salts in the timber, forms an insoluble
compound capable of rendering the wood uninflammable.
About the year 1800, Neils Nystrom, chemist, Norkopping, recommended a
solution of sea salt and copperas, to be laid upon timber as hot as possible, to
prevent rottenness or combustion. He also proposed a solution of sulphate of
iron, potash, alum, &c., to extinguish fires.
M. Louis Vernet, Buenos Ayres, proposed to preserve timber from fire by
the use of the following mixture: Take 1 lb. of arsenic, 6 lb. of alum, and 10
lb. of potash, in 40 gallons of water, and mix with oil, or any suitable tarry
matters, and paint the timber with the solution. We have already referred to
the conflicting evidence respecting alum and water for wood: we can now
state that Chapman’s experiments proved that arsenic afforded no protection
against dry rot. Experiments in Cornwall have proved that where arsenical
ores have lain on the ground, vegetation will ensue in two or three years after
removal of the ore. If, therefore, alum or arsenic have no good effect on
timber with respect to the dry rot, we think the use of both of them together
would certainly be objectionable.
The last we intend referring to is a composition frequently used in China,
for preserving wood. Many buildings in the capital are painted with it. It is
called Schoicao, and is made with 3 parts of blood deprived of its febrine, 4
parts of lime and a little alum, and 2 parts of liquid silicate of soda. It is
sometimes used in Japan.
It would be practically useless to quote any further remedies, and the
reader is recommended to carefully study those quoted in this chapter, and of
their utility to judge for himself, bearing in mind those principles which we
have referred to before commencing to describe the patent processes. A large
number of patents have been taken out in England for the preservation of
wood by preservative processes, but only two are now in use,—that is, to any
extent,—viz. Bethell’s and Burnett’s. Messrs. Bethell and Co. now impregnate
timber with copper, zinc, corrosive sublimate, or creosote; the four best
patents.
We insert here a short analysis of different methods proposed for seasoning
timber:—
Vacuum and Pressure Processes generally.

Bréant’s.
Bethell’s.
Payne’s.
Perin’s.
Tissier’s.

Vacuum by Condensation of Steam.

Tissier.
Bréant.
Payne.
Renard Perin, 1848.
Brochard and Watteau, 1847.

Separate Condenser.

Tissier.

Employ Sulphate of Copper in closed vessels.

Bethell’s Patent, 11th July, 1838.

Tissier, 22nd October, 1844.
Molin’s Paper, 1853.
Payen’s Pamphlet.
Légé and Fleury’s Pamphlet.

Current of Steam.

Moll’s Patent, 19th January, 1835.

Tissier’s ” 22nd October, 1844.
Payne’s ” 14th Nov., 1846.
Meyer d’Uslaw, 2nd January, 1851.
Payen’s Pamphlet.

Hot Solution.
 Tissier’s Patent, 22nd October, 1844.
Knab’s Patent, 8th September, 1846.

Most solutions used are heated.

The following are the chief ingredients which have been recommended, and
some of them tried, to prevent the decomposition of timber, and the growth
of fungi:—

Acid, Sulphuric.
” Vitriolic.
” of Tar.
Carbonate of Potash.
” Soda.
” Barytes.
Sulphate of Copper.
” Iron.
” Zinc.
” Lime.
” Magnesia.
” Barytes.
” Alumina.
” Soda.
Salt, Neutral.
Salt, Selenites.
Oil, Vegetable.
” Animal.
” Mineral.
Muriate of Soda.
Marcosites, Mundic.
” Barytes.
Nitrate of Potash.
Animal Glue.
” Wax.
Quick Lime.
Resins of different kinds.
Sublimate, Corrosive.
Peat Moss.

For the non-professional reader we find we have three facts:

 1st. The most successful patentees have been Bethell and Burnett, in
England; and Boucherie, in France: all B’s.
2nd. The most successful patents have been knighted. Payne’s patent was,
we believe, used by Sirs R. Smirke and C. Barry; Kyan’s, by Sir R. Smirke;
Burnett’s, by Sirs M. Peto, P. Roney, and H. Dryden; while Bethell’s patent can
claim Sir I. Brunel, and many other knights. We believe Dr. Boucherie received
the Legion of Honour in France.
3rd. There are only at the present time three timber-preserving works in
London, and they are owned by Messrs. Bethell and Co., Sir F. Burnett and
Co., and Messrs. Burt, Boulton, and Co.: all names commencing with the letter
B.
For the professional reader we find we have three hard facts:
The most successful patents may be placed in three classes, and we give
the key-note of their success.
1st. One material and one application.—Creosote, Petroleum. Order—Ancient
Egyptians, or Bethell’s, Burmese.
2nd. Two materials and one application.—Chloride of zinc and water; sulphate
of copper and water; corrosive sublimate and water. Order—Burnett,
Boucherie, Kyan.
3rd. Two materials and two applications.—Sulphate of iron and water;
afterwards sulphate of lime and water. Payne.
We thus observe there are twice three successful patent processes.
Any inventions which cannot be brought under these three classes have had
a short life; at least, we think so.
The same remarks will apply to external applications for wood—for
instance, coal-tar, one application, is more used for fencing than any other
material.
We are much in want of a valuable series of experiments on the application
of various chemicals on wood to resist burning to pieces; without causing it to
rot speedily.
 CHAPTER VI.
ON THE MEANS OF PREVENTING DRY ROT IN
MODERN HOUSES; AND THE CAUSES OF THEIR
DECAY.

Although writers on dry rot have generally deemed it a new disease, there
is foundation to believe that it pervaded the British Navy in the reign of
Charles II. “Dry rot received a little attention” so writes Sir John Barrow,
“about the middle of the last century, at some period of Sir John Pringle’s
presidency of the Royal Society of London.” As timber trees were, no doubt,
subject to the same laws and conditions 500 years ago as they are at the
present day, it is indeed extremely probable that if at that time unseasoned
timber was used, and subjected to heat and moisture, dry rot made its
appearance. We propose in this chapter to direct attention to the several
causes of the decay of wood, which by proper building might be averted.
The necessity of proper ventilation round the timbers of a building has been
repeatedly advised in this volume; for even timber which has been naturally
seasoned is at all times disposed to resume, from a warm and stagnant
atmosphere, the elements of decay. We cannot therefore agree with the
following passage from Captain E. M. Shaw’s book on ‘Fire Surveys,’ which is
to be found at page 44:—“Circulation of air should on no account be
permitted in any part of a building not exposed to view, especially under
floors, or inside skirting boards, or wainscots.” In the course of this chapter,
the evil results from a want of a proper circulation of air will be shown.
In warm cellars, or any close confined situations, where the air is filled with
vapour without a current to change it, dry rot proceeds with astonishing
rapidity, and the timber work is destroyed in a very short time. The bread
rooms of ships; behind the skirtings, and under the wooden floors, or the
basement stories of houses, particularly in kitchens, or other rooms where
there are constant fires; and, in general, in every place where wood is
exposed to warmth and damp air, the dry rot will soon make its appearance.
All kinds of stoves are sure to increase the disease if moisture be present.
The effect of heat is also evident from the rapid decay of ships in hot
climates; and the warm moisture given out by particular cargoes is also very
destructive. Hemp will, without being injuriously heated, emit a moist warm
vapour: so will pepper (which will affect teak) and cotton. The ship ‘Brothers’
built at Whitby, of green timber, proceeded to St. Petersburgh for a cargo of
hemp. The next year it was found on examination that her timbers were
rotten, and all the planking, except a thin external skin. It is also an important
fact that rats very rarely make their appearance in dry places: under floors
they are sometimes very destructive.
As rats will sometimes destroy the structural parts of wood framing, a few
words about them may not be out of place. If poisoned wheat, arsenic, &c.,
be used, the creatures will simply eat the things and die under the floor,
causing an intolerable stench. The best method is to make a small hole in a
corner of the floor (unless they make it themselves) large enough to permit
them to come up; the following course is then recommended:—Take oil of
amber and ox-gall in equal parts; add to them oatmeal or flour sufficient to
form a paste, which divide into little balls, and lay them in the middle of the
infested apartment at night time. Surround the balls with a number of saucers
filled with water—the smell of the oil is sure to attract the rats, they will
greedily devour the balls, and becoming intolerably thirsty will drink till they
die on the spot. They can be buried in the morning.
Building timber into new walls is often a cause of decay, as the lime and
damp brickwork are active agents in producing putrefaction, particularly
where the scrapings of roads are used, instead of sand, for mortar. Hence it is
that bond timbers, wall plates, and the ends of girders, joists, and lintels are
so frequently found in a state of decay. The ends of brestsummers are
sometimes cased in sheet lead, zinc, or fire-brick, as being impervious to
moisture. The old builders used to bed the ends of girders and joists in loam
instead of mortar, as directed in the Act of Parliament, 19 Car. II. c. 3, for
rebuilding the City of London.
In Norway, all posts in contact with the earth are carefully wrapped round
with flakes of birch bark for a few inches above and below the ground.
Timber that is to lie in mortar—as, for instance, the ends of joists, door sills
and frames of doors and windows, and the ends of girders—if pargeted over
with hot pitch, will, it is said, be preserved from the effects of the lime. In
taking down, some years since, in France, some portion of the ancient
Château of the Roque d’Oudres, it was found that the extremities of the oak
girders were perfectly preserved, although these timbers were supposed to
have been in their places for upwards of 600 years. The whole of these
extremities buried in the walls were completely wrapped round with plates of
cork. When demolishing an ancient Benedictine church at Bayonne, it was
found that the whole of the fir girders were entirely worm eaten and rotten,
with the exception, however, of the bearings, which, as in the case just
mentioned, were also completely wrapped round with plates of cork. These
facts deserve consideration.
If any of our professional readers should wish to try cork for the ends of
girders, they will do well to choose the Spanish cork, which is the best.
In this place it may not be amiss to point out the dangerous consequences
of building walls so that their principal support depends on timber. The usual
method of putting bond timber into walls is to lay it next the inside; this bond
often decays, and, of course, leaves the walls resting only upon the external
course or courses of brick; and fractures, bulges, or absolute failures are the
natural consequences. This evil is in some degree avoided by placing the bond
in the middle of the wall, so that there is brickwork on each side, and by not
putting continued bond for nailing the battens to. We object to placing bond
in the middle of a wall: the best way, where it can be managed, is to corbel
out the wall, resting the ends of the joists on the top course of bricks; thus
doing away with the wood-plate. In London, wood bond is prohibited by Act
of Parliament, and hoop-iron bond (well tarred and sanded) is now generally
used. The following is an instance of the bad effects of placing wood bond in
walls: In taking down portions of the audience part and the whole of the
corridors of the original main walls of Covent Garden Theatre, London, in
1847, which had only been built about thirty-five years, the wood horizontal
bond timbers, although externally appearing in good condition, were found,
on a close examination by Mr. Albano, much affected by shrinkage, and the
majority of them quite rotten in the centre, consequently the whole of them
were ordered to be taken out in short lengths, and the space to be filled in
with brickwork and cement.
Some years since we had a great deal to do with “Fire Surveys;” that is to
say, surveying buildings to estimate the cost of reinstating them after being
destroyed by fire; and we often noticed that the wood bond, being rotten,
was seriously charred by the fire, and had to be cut out in short lengths, and
brickwork in cement “pinned in” in its place. Brestsummers and story posts
are rarely sufficiently burnt to affect the stability of the front wall of a shop
building.
In bad foundations, it used to be common, before concrete came into
vogue, to lie planks to build upon. Unless these planks were absolutely wet,
they were certain to rot in such situations, and the walls settled; and most
likely irregularly, rending the building to pieces. Instances of such kind of
failure frequently occur. It was found necessary, a few years since, to
underpin three of the large houses in Grosvenor Place, London, at an
immense expense. In one of these houses the floors were not less than three
inches out of level, the planking had been seven inches thick, and most of it
was completely rotten: it was of yellow fir. A like accident happened to Norfolk
House, St. James’s Square, London, where oak planking had been used.
As an example of the danger of trusting to timber in supporting heavy stone
or brickwork, the failure of the curb of the brick dome of the church of St.
Mark, at Venice, may be cited. This dome was built upon a curb of larch
timber, put together in thicknesses, with the joints crossed, and was intended
to resist the tendency which a dome has to spread outwards at the base. In
1729, a large crack and several smaller ones were observed in the dome. On
examination, the wooden curb was found to be in a completely rotten state,
and it was necessary to raise a scaffold from the bottom to secure the dome
from ruin. After it was secured from falling, the wooden curb was removed,
and a course of stone, with a strong band of iron, was put in its place.
It is said that another and very important source of destruction is the
applying end to end of two different kinds of wood: oak to fir, oak to teak or
lignum vitæ; the harder of the two will decay at the point of juncture.
The bad effects resulting from damp walls are still further increased by
hasty finishing. To enclose with plastering and joiners’ work the walls and
timbers of a building while they are in a damp state is the most certain means
of causing the building to fall into a premature state of decay.
Mr. George Baker, builder of the National Gallery, London, remarked, in
1835, “I have seen the dry rot all over Baltic timber in three years, in
consequence of putting it in contact with moist brickwork; the rot was caused
by the badness of the mortar, it was so long drying.”
Slating the external surface of a wall, to keep out the rain or damp, is
sometimes adopted: a high wall (nearly facing the south-west) of a house
near the north-west corner of Blackfriars Bridge, London, has been recently
slated from top to bottom, to keep out damp.
However well timber may be seasoned, if it be employed in a damp
situation, decay is the certain consequence; therefore it is most desirable that
the neighbourhood of buildings should be well drained, which would not only
prevent rot, but also increase materially the comfort of those who reside in
them. The drains should be made water-tight wherever they come near to the
walls; as walls, particularly brick walls, draw up moisture to a very
considerable height: very strict supervision should be placed over workmen
while the drains of a building are being laid. Earth should never be suffered to
rest against walls, and the sunk stories of buildings should always be
surrounded by an open area, so that the walls may not absorb moisture from
the earth: even open areas require to be properly built. We will quote a case
to explain our meaning. A house was erected about eighteen months ago, in
the south-east part of London, on sloping ground. Excavations were made for
the basement floor, and a dry area, “brick thick, in cement,” was built at the
back and side of the house, the top of the area wall being covered with a
stone coping; we do not know whether the bottom of the area was drained.
On the top of the coping was placed mould, forming one of the garden beds
for flowers. Where the mould rested against the walls, damp entered. The
area walls should have been built, in the first instance, above the level of the
garden-ground—which has since been done—otherwise, in course of time, the
ends of the next floor joists would have become attacked by dry rot.
Some people imagine that if damp is in a wall the best way to get rid of it is
to seal it in, by plastering the inside and stuccoing the outside of the wall; this
is a great mistake; damp will rise higher and higher, until it finds an outlet;
rotting in the meanwhile the wood bond and ends of all the joists. We were
asked recently to advise in a curious case of this kind at a house in Croydon.
On wet days the wall (stucco, outside; plaster, inside) was perfectly wet:
bands of soft red bricks in wall, at intervals, were the culprits. To prevent
moisture rising from the foundations, some substance that will not allow it to
pass should be used at a course or two above the footings of the walls, but it
should be below the level of the lowest joists. “Taylor’s damp course” bricks
are good, providing the air-passages in them are kept free for air to pass
through: they are allowed sometimes to get choked up with dirt. Sheets of
lead or copper have been used for that purpose, but they are very expensive.
Asphalted felt is quite as good; no damp can pass through it. Care must,
however, be taken in using it if only one wall, say a party wall, has to be built.
To lay two or three courses of slates, bedded in cement, is a good method,
providing the slates “break joint,” and are well bedded in the cement.
Workmen require watching while this is being done, because if any opening
be left for damp to rise, it will undoubtedly do so. A better method is to build
brickwork a few courses in height with Portland cement instead of common
mortar, and upon the upper course to lay a bed of cement of about one inch
in thickness; or a layer of asphalte (providing the walls are all carried up to
the same level before the asphalte is applied hot). As moisture does not
penetrate these substances, they are excellent materials for keeping out wet;
and it can easily be seen if the mineral asphalte has been properly applied. To
keep out the damp from basement floors, lay down cement concrete 6 inches
thick, and on the top, asphalte 1 inch thick, and then lay the sleepers and
joists above; or bed the floor boards on the asphalte.
The walls and principal timbers of a building should always be left for some
time to dry after it is covered in. This drying is of the greatest benefit to the
work, particularly the drying of the walls; and it also allows time for the
timbers to get settled to their proper bearings, which prevents after-
settlements and cracks in the finished plastering. It is sometimes said that it is
useful because it allows the timber more time to season; but when the
carpenter considers that it is from the ends of the timber that much of its
moisture evaporates, he will see the impropriety of leaving it to season after it
is framed, and also the cause of framed timbers of unseasoned wood failing at
the joints sooner than in any other place. No parts of timber require the
perfect extraction of the sap so much as those that are to be joined.
When the plastering is finished, a considerable time should be allowed for
the work to get dry again before the skirtings, the floors, and other joiners’
work be fixed. Drying will be much accelerated by a free admission of air,
particularly in favourable weather. When a building is thoroughly dried at first,
openings for the admission of fresh air are not necessary when the
precautions against any new accessions of moisture have been effectual.
Indeed, such openings only afford harbour for vermin: unfortunately, however,
buildings are so rarely dried when first built, that air-bricks, &c., in the floors
are very necessary, and if the timbers were so dried as to be free from water
(which could be done by an artificial process), the wood would only be fit for
joinery purposes. Few of our readers would imagine that water forms ⅕th
part of wood. Here is a table (compiled from ‘Box on Heat,’ and Péclet’s great
work ‘Traité de la Chaleur’):—
Wood.

Elements. Ordinary state.

Carbon ·408
Hydrogen ·042
Oxygen ·334
Water ·200
Ashes ·016
1·000

Many houses at our seaport towns are erected with mortar, having sea-sand
in its composition, and then dry rot makes its appearance. If no other sand
can be obtained, the best way is to have it washed at least three times (the
contractor being under strict supervision, and subject to heavy penalties for
evasion). After each washing it should be left exposed to the action of the
sun, wind, and rain: the sand should also be frequently turned over, so that
the whole of it may in turn be exposed; even then it tastes saltish, after the
third operation. A friend of ours has a house at Worthing, which was erected a
few years since with sea-sand mortar, and on a wet day there is always a
dampness hanging about the house—every third year the staircase walls have
to be repapered: it “bags” from the walls.
In floors next the ground we cannot easily prevent the access of damp, but
this should be guarded against as far as possible. All mould should be
carefully removed, and, if the situation admits of it, a considerable thickness
of dry materials, such as brickbats, dry ashes, broken glass, clean pebbles,
concrete, or the refuse of vitriol-works; but no lime (unless unslaked) should
be laid under the floor, and over these a coat of smiths’ ashes, or of pyrites,
where they can be procured. The timber for the joists should be well
seasoned; and it is advisable to cut off all connection between wooden
ground floors and the rest of the woodwork of the building. A flue carried up
in the wall next the kitchen chimney, commencing under the floor, and
terminating at the top of the wall, and covered to prevent the rain entering,
would take away the damp under a kitchen floor. In Hamburg it is a common
practice to apply mineral asphalte to the basement floors of houses to prevent
capillary attraction; and in the towns of the north of France, gas-tar has
become of very general use to protect the basement of the houses from the
effects of the external damp.
Many houses in the suburbs (particularly Stucconia) of London are erected
by speculating builders. As soon as the carcase of a house is finished (perhaps
before) the builder is unable to proceed, for want of money, and the carcase
is allowed to stand unfinished for months. Showers of rain saturate the
previously unseasoned timbers, and pools of water collect on the basement
ground, into which they gradually, but surely, soak. Eventually the houses are
finished (probably by half a dozen different tradesmen, employed by a
mortgagee); bits of wood, rotten sawdust, shavings, &c., being left under the
basement floor. The house when finished, having pretty (!) paper on the
walls, plate-glass in the window-sashes, and a bran new brick and stucco
portico to the front door, is quickly let. Dry rot soon appears, accompanied
with its companions, the many-coloured fungi; and when their presence
should be known from their smell, the anxious wife probably exclaims to her
husband, “My dear! there is a very strange smell which appears to come from
the children’s playroom: had you not better send for Mr. Wideawake, the
builder, for I am sure there is something the matter with the drains.” Defective
ventilation, dry rot, green water thrown down sinks, &c., do not cause smells,
it’s the drains, of course!
There is another cause which affects all wood most materially, which is the
application of paint, tar, or pitch before the wood has been thoroughly dried.
The nature of these bodies prevents all evaporation; and the result of this is
that the centre of the wood is transformed into touchwood. On the other
hand, the doors, pews, and carved work of many old churches have never
been painted, and yet they are often found to be perfectly sound, after having
existed more than a century. In Chester, Exeter, and other old cities, where
much timber was formerly used, even for the external parts of buildings, it
appears to be sound and perfect, though black with age, and has never been
painted.
Mr. Semple, in his treatise on ‘Building in Water,’ mentions an instance of
some field-gates made of home fir, part of which, being near the mansion,
were painted; while the rest, being in distant parts of the grounds, were not
painted. Those which were painted soon became quite rotten, but the others,
which were not painted, continued sound.
Another cause of dry rot, which is sometimes found in suburban and
country houses, is the presence of large trees near the house. We are
acquainted with the following remarkable instance:—At the northern end of
Kilburn, London, stands Stanmore Cottage, erected a great many years ago:
about fifty feet in front of it is an old elm-tree. The owner, a few years since,
noticed cracks round the portico of the house; these cracks gradually
increased in size, and other cracks appeared in the window arches, and in
different parts of the external and internal walls. The owner became alarmed,
and sent for an experienced builder, who advised underpinning the walls.
Workmen immediately commenced to remove the ground from the
foundations, and it was then found that the foundations, as well as the joists,
were honeycombed by the roots of the elm-tree, which were growing
alongside the joists, the whole being surrounded by large masses of white
and yellow dry-rot fungus.
The insufficient use of tarpaulins is another frequent cause of dry rot. A
London architect had (a few years since) to superintend the erection of a
church in the south-west part of London; an experienced builder was
employed. The materials were of the best description and quality. When the
walls were sufficiently advanced to receive the roof, rain set in; as the clown
in one of Shakespeare’s plays observed, “the rain, it raineth every day;” it was
so, we are told, in this case for some days. The roof when finished was ceiled
below with a plaster ceiling; and above (not with “dry oakum without pitch”
but) with slates. A few months afterwards some of the slates had to be
reinstated, in consequence of a heavy storm, and it was then discovered that
nearly all the timbers of the roof were affected by dry rot. This was an air-
tight roof.
In situations favourable to rot, painting prevents every degree of
exhalation, depriving at the same time the wood of the influence of the air,
and the moisture runs through it, and insidiously destroys the wood. Most
surveyors know that moist oak cills to window frames will soon rot, and the
painting is frequently renewed; a few taps with a two-feet brass rule joint on
the top and front of cill will soon prove their condition. Wood should be a year
or more before it is painted; or, better still, never painted at all. Artificers can
tell by the sound of any substance whether it be healthy or decayed as
accurately as a musician can distinguish his notes: thus, a bricklayer strikes
the wall with his crow, and a carpenter a piece of timber with his hammer.
The Austrians used formerly to try the goodness of the timber for ship-
building by the following method: One person applies his ear to the centre of
one end of the timber, while another, with a key, hits the other end with a
gentle stroke. If the wood be sound and good, the stroke will be distinctly
heard at the other end, though the timber should be fifty feet or more in
length. Timber affected with rot yields a particular sound when struck, but if it
were painted, and the distemper had made much progress, with no severe
stroke the outside breaks like a shell. The auger is a very useful instrument
for testing wood; the wood or sawdust it brings out can be judged by its
smell; which may be the fresh smell of pure wood: the vinous smell, or first
degree of fermentation, which is alcoholic; or the second degree, which is
putrid. The sawdust may also be tested by rubbing it between the fingers.
According to Colonel Berrien, the Michigan Central Railroad Bridge, at Niles,
was painted before seasoning, with “Ohio fire-proof paint,” forming a glazed
surface. After five years it was so rotten as to require rebuilding.
Painted floor-cloths are very injurious to wooden floors, and frequently
produce rottenness in the floors that are covered with them, as the painted
cloth prevents the access of air, and retains whatever dampness the boards
may absorb, and therefore soon causes decay. Carpets are not so injurious,
but still assist in retarding free evaporation.
Captain E. M. Shaw, in ‘Fire Surveys,’ thus writes of the floors of a building,
“They might with advantage be caulked like a ship’s deck, only with dry
oakum, without pitch.” Let us see how far oil floor-cloth and kamptulicon will
assist us in obtaining an air-tight floor.
 In London houses there is generally one room on the basement floor which
is carefully covered over with an oiled floor-cloth. In such a room the dry rot
often makes its appearance. The wood absorbs the aqueous vapour which the
oil-cloth will not allow to escape; and being assisted by the heat of the air in
such apartments, the decay goes on rapidly. Sometimes, however, the dry rot
is only confined to the top of the floor. At No. 106, Fenchurch Street, London,
a wood floor was washed (a few years since) for a tenant, and oil-cloth was
laid down. Circumstances necessitated his removal a few months afterwards;
and it was then found that the oil-cloth had grown, so to speak, to the wood
flooring, and had to be taken off with a chisel: the dry rot had been
engendered merely on the surface of the floor boards, as they were sound
below as well as the joists: air bricks were in the front wall.
We have seen many instances of dry rot in passages, where oiled floor-cloth
has been nailed down and not been disturbed for two or three years.
In ordinary houses, where floor-cloth is laid down in the front kitchen, no
ventilation under the floors, and a fire burning every day in the stove, dry rot
often appears. In the back kitchen, where there is no floor-cloth, and only an
occasional fire, it rarely appears. The air is warm and stagnant under one
floor, and cold and stagnant under the other: at the temperature of 32° to 40°
the progress of dry rot is very slow.
And how does kamptulicon behave itself? The following instances of the
rapid progress of dry rot from external circumstances have recently been
communicated to us; they show that, under favourable circumstances as to
choice of timber and seasoning, this fungus growth can be readily produced
by casing-in the timber with substances impervious, or nearly so, to air.
At No. 29, Mincing Lane, London, in two out of three rooms on the first
floor, upon a fire-proof floor constructed on the Fox and Barrett principle (of
iron joists and concrete with yellow pine sleepers, on strips of wood bedded in
cement, to which were nailed the yellow pine floor-boards) kamptulicon was
nailed down by the tenant’s orders. In less than nine months the whole of the
wood sleepers, and strips of wood, as well as the boards, were seriously
injured by dry rot; whilst the third room floor, which had been covered with a
carpet, was perfectly sound.
At No. 79, Gracechurch Street, London, a room on the second floor was
inhabited, as soon as finished, by a tenant who had kamptulicon laid down.
This floor was formed in the ordinary way, with the usual sound boarding of
strips of wood, and concrete two inches thick filled in on the same, leaving a
space of about two inches under the floor boards. The floor was seriously
decayed by dry rot in a few months down to the level of the concrete
pugging, below which it remained sound, and could be pulled up with the
hand.
We will now leave oil-cloth and kamptulicon, and try what “Keene’s cement”
will do for an “air-tight” partition of a house.
At No. 16, Mark Lane, London, a partition was constructed of sound yellow
deal quarters, covered externally with “Keene’s cement, on lath, both sides.” It
was removed about two years after its construction, when it was found that
the timber was completely perished from dry rot; so much so, that the
timbers parted in the middle in places, and were for some time afterwards
moist.
It is still unfortunately the custom to keep up the old absurd fashion of
disguising woods, instead of revealing their natural beauties. Instead of
wasting time in perfect imitations of scarce or dear woods, it would be much
better to employ the same amount of time in fully developing the natural
characteristics of many of our native woods, now destined for decorative
purposes because they are cheap and common; although many of our very
commonest woods are very beautifully grained, but their excellences for
ornamentation are lost because our decorators have not studied the best
mode of developing their beauties. Who would wish that stained deal should
be painted in imitation of oak? or that the other materials of a less costly and
inferior order should have been painted over instead of their natural faces
being exposed to view? There are beauties in all the materials used. The
inferior serve to set off by comparison the more costly, and increase their
effect. The red, yellow, and white veins of the pine timber are beautiful: the
shavings are like silk ribbons, which only nature could vein after that fashion,
and to imitate which would puzzle all the tapissiers of the Rue Mouffetard, in
Paris.
Why should not light and dark woods be commonly used in combination
with each other in our joinery? Wood may be stained of various shades, from
light to dark. The dirt or dust does not show more on stained wood than it
does on paint, and can be as easily cleaned and refreshed by periodical coats
of varnish. Those parts subjected to constant wear and tear can be protected
by more durable materials, such as finger-plates, &c. Oak can be stained dark,
almost black, by means of bichromate of potash diluted with water. Wash the
wood over with a solution of gallic acid of any required strength, and allow it
to thoroughly dry. To complete the process, wash with a solution of iron in the
form of “tincture of steel,” or a decoction of vinegar and iron filings, and a
deep and good stain will be the result. If a positive black is required, wash the
wood over with gallic acid and water two or three times, allowing it to dry
between every coat; the staining with the iron solution may be repeated. Raw
linseed oil will stay the darker process at any stage.
Doors made up of light deal, and varied in the staining, would look as well
as the ordinary graining. Good and well-seasoned materials would have to be
used, and the joiners’ work well fitted and constructed. Mouldings of a
superior character, and in some cases gilt, might be used in the panels, &c.
For doors, plain oak should be used for the stiles and rails, and pollard oak for
the panels. If rose-wood or satin-wood be used, the straight-grained wood is
the best adapted for stiles and rails; and for mahogany doors, the lights and
shades in the panels should be stronger than in the stiles and rails.
Dark and durable woods might be used in parts most exposed to wear and
tear.
Treads of stairs might be framed with oak nosings, if not at first, at least
when necessary to repair the nosings.
Skirtings could be varied by using dark and hard woods for the lower part
or plinth, lighter wood above, and finished with superior mouldings. It must,
however, be remembered that, contrary to the rule that holds good with
regard to most substances, the colours of the generality of woods become
considerably darker by exposure to the light; allowance would therefore have
to be made for this. All the woodwork must, previously to being fixed, be well
seasoned.
The practice here recommended would be more expensive than the
common method of painting, but in many cases it would be better than
graining, and cheaper in the long run. Oak wainscot and Honduras mahogany
doors are twice the price of deal doors; Spanish mahogany three times the
price. When we consider that by using the natural woods, French polished, we
save the cost of four coats of paint and graining (the customary modes), the
difference in price is very small. An extra 50l. laid out on a 500l. house would
give some rooms varnished and rubbed fittings, without paint. Would it not be
worth the outlay? It may be said that spots of grease and stains would soon
disfigure the bare wood; if so, they could easily be removed by the following
process: Take a quarter of a pound of fuller’s earth, and a quarter of a pound
of pearlash, and boil them in a quart of soft water, and, while hot, lay the
composition on the greased parts, allowing it to remain on them for ten or
twelve hours; after which it may be washed off with fine sand and water. If a
floor be much spotted with grease, it should be completely washed over with
this mixture, and allowed to remain for twenty-four hours before it is
removed.
Let us consider how we paint our doors, cupboards, &c., at the present
time. For our best houses, the stiles of our doors are painted French white;
and the panels, pink, or salmon colour! For cheaper houses, the doors,
cupboards, window linings, &c., are generally two shades of what is called
“stone colour” (as if stone was always the same colour), and badly executed
into the bargain: the best rooms having the woodwork grained in imitation of
oak, or satin-wood, &c. And such imitations! Mahogany and oak are now even
imitated on leather and paper-hangings. Wood, well and cleanly varnished,
stained, or, better still, French polished, must surely look better than these
daubs. But French polish is not extensively used in England: it is confined to
cabinet pieces and furniture, except in the houses of the aristocracy. Clean,
colourless varnish ought to be more generally used to finish off our
woodwork, instead of the painting now so common. The varnish should be
clean and colourless, as the yellow colour of the ordinary varnishes greatly
interferes with the tints of the light woods.
In the Imperial Palace, at Berlin, one or two of the Emperor’s private rooms
are entirely fitted up with deal fittings; doors, windows, shutters, and
everything else of fir-wood. “Common deal,” if well selected, is beautiful,
cheap, and pleasing.
We have seen the offices of Herr Krauss (architect to Prince and Princess
Louis of Hesse), who resides at Mayence, and they are fitted up, or rather the
walls and ceilings are lined, with picked pitch pine-wood, parts being carved,
and the whole French polished, and the effect is much superior to any paint,
be it “stone colour,” “salmon colour,” or even “French white.”
The reception-room, where the Emperor of Germany usually transacts
business with his ministers, and receives deputations, &c., as well as the
adjoining cabinets, are fitted with deal, not grained and painted, but well
French polished. The wood is, of course, carefully selected, carefully wrought,
and excellently French polished, which is the great secret of the business. In
France, it is a very common practice to polish and wax floors.
The late Sir Anthony Carlisle had the interior woodwork of his house, in
Langham Place, London, varnished throughout, and the effect of the
varnished deal was very like satin-wood.
About forty years since, Mr. J. G. Crace, when engaged on the decoration of
the Duke of Hamilton’s house, in the Isle of Arran, found the woodwork of red
pine so free from knots, and so well executed, that instead of painting it, he