Integrated Waste Management for a smart city

Module-1
Introduction to Solid Waste Management Municipal Solid Waste Characteristics and Quantities
generation rates and waste composition; Integrated waste management issues, collection,
recovery, reuse, recycling, energy-from-waste, and land-filling.

Introduction :
Solid Waste :-
1) Discarded as useless or unwanted things or material arising from human & animal activities
that are normally solid.
2) Substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required
to be disposed of by the provisions of the law.
3) Mismanaged things.
4) United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD):- Wastes are materials that are not prime products
(prime product - products produced for the market) for which the generator has no further use in
terms of his own purposes of production, transformation or consumption, and of which he wants
to dispose. Wastes may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of
raw materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products, and other
human activities. Residuals recycled or reused at the place of generation are excluded.

Classification of Solid Waste on the source of generation:-

1) Domestic/ Residential/ House Waste: Solid waste originates from domestic or residential
area. Waste generated as consequences of household activities such as cooking, cleaning,
repairing, etc.
2) Commercial Waste: Waste originates from offices, stores, hotels, markets, etc.
3) Institutional Waste: Waste originates from institutes, schools, universities, colleges, etc.
4) Municipal Waste: Waste originates from municipal activities. Includes street waste,
commercial waste, & market waste, etc. Term commonly applied in a wider sense to incorporate
domestic, institutional & commercial waste.
5) Street Waste: Waste that originates from street, walkways, alleys & vacant areas. Includes
paper, plastic, leaves & other matter discarded by road users.
6) Construction & Demolition Waste: Waste generated by construction, repairing & demolition
of building. Consist of earth stones, concrete, bricks, & other material.
7) Industrial Waste: Waste arising from industrial activities .Cover vast range of substances
which are unique to each industry.
8) Sewage Waste: Waste generated from treatment plant .Mostly organic in nature.
9) Hazardous waste: Waste that poses great danger to human, animal & Plant because of its
toxicity, reactivity, corrosivity & ignitability. Requires special handling & good management.
10) Biomedical waste: Waste arising from hospital & pathological lab. Comes under category
of hazardous waste.
11) Garbage: Contains putrescible organic matter. Decomposes quickly.
12) Rubbish: Dry non-putrescible solid waste excluding ash & garbage.
13) Agricultural Waste: Agricultural waste are plant residues from agriculture that are not used
for food.

Classification of Wastes according to their Properties:

Bio-degradable : can be degraded (paper, wood, fruits and others)
Non-biodegradable: cannot be degraded (plastics, bottles, old machines, cans, containers and
others)

Classification of Wastes according to their Effects on Human Health and the Environment
Hazardous wastes: Substances unsafe to use commercially, industrially, agriculturally, or
economically and have any of the following properties:- 1) ignitability, 2) corrosivity, 3)
reactivity & 4) toxicity.
Non-hazardous: Substances safe to use commercially, industrially, agriculturally, or
economically and do not have any of those properties mentioned above.

Classification of wastes according to their origin and type:

1) Municipal Solid wastes: Solid wastes that include household garbage, rubbish, construction &
demolition debris, sanitation residues, packaging materials, trade refuges etc. are managed by
any municipality.
2) Bio-medical wastes: Solid wastes including containers, intermediate or end products generated
during diagnosis, treatment & research activities of medical sciences.
3) Industrial wastes: wastes that are generated by manufacturing & processing units of various
industries like chemical, petroleum, coal, metal gas, sanitary & paper etc.
4) Agricultural wastes: Wastes generated from farming activities. These substances are mostly
biodegradable.
5) Radioactive wastes: Waste containing radioactive materials. Usually these are byproducts of
nuclear processes. Sometimes industries that are not directly involved in nuclear activities may
also produce some radioactive wastes, e.g. radio-isotopes, chemical sludge etc.
6) E-wastes: Electronic wastes generated from any modern establishments. They may be
described as discarded electrical or electronic devices. Some electronic scrap components, such
as CRTs, may contain contaminants such as Pb, Cd, Be or brominated flame retardants.

Useful Options
1) Resource recovery
2) Composting
3) Vermi-composting
4) Energy recovery
5) Incineration
6) Pyrolysis
7) Gasification
8) Bio-methanation or anaerobic digestion
Solid Waste Management should be environmentally feasible considering principles of economy,
aesthetics, energy & other considerations. The activities involved with the management of solid
wastes from the point of generation to final disposal have been grouped into a six functional
elements.
1) Generation
2) Storage
3) Collection
4) Transport
5) Processing
6) Disposal.
Six Functional Elements of Solid Waste Management:- 1) Generation:- Activities in which
materials are generated and identified as useless or unwanted materials. Average generation rate
is 0.33 kg/Person/Day. (0.3 to 0.6)
2) Storage:- The generated wastes are stored near the point of generation for short period & then
transfer to community storage bin.
3) Collection:- Gathering of stored solid waste & then transfer to community storage bin.
4) Transport:- The material collected in community bin is transferred to the processing or
disposal site by transport vehicles.
5) Processing:- It is the process to reduce its potential nuisance value (strength) and to recover
usable material or energy from solid waste before its final disposal.
6) Disposal:- It is ultimate disposal of solid waste. After transportation or processing solid
waste can be disposed on land or water logged areas for reclamation or low laying area or into
sea etc.

Impacts of Waste:-
1) Chemical poisoning through chemical inhalation.
2) Cancer.
3) Neurological disease.
4) Nausea and vomiting.
5) Increase in hospitalization of diabetic residents living near hazard waste sites.
6) Mercury toxicity from eating fish with high levels of mercury.
7) Uncollected waste can obstruct the storm water runoff resulting in flood.
8) Low birth weight.
9) Congenital malformations.
10) Increase in mercury level in fish due to disposal of mercury in the rivers.
11) Resulted in high algal population in rivers and sea.
Impacts of waste on Environment
12) Waste breaks down in landfills to form methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
13) Change in climate and destruction of ozone layer due to waste biodegradable.
14) Littering, due to waste pollutions, illegal dumping, Leaching: is a process by which solid
waste enter soil and ground water and contaminating them.

Municipal Solid Waste Characteristics:

Physical characteristics:
• Density: Density of waste, i.e., its mass per unit volume (kg/m3), is a critical factor in the
design of a SWM system, e.g., the design of sanitary landfills, storage, types of collection and
transport vehicles, etc. To explain, an efficient operation of a landfill demands compaction of
wastes to optimum density.
• Moisture content: Moisture content is defined as the ratio of the weight of water (wet weight -
dry weight) to the total weight of the wet waste. Moisture increases the weight of solid wastes,
and thereby, the cost of collection and transport. In addition, moisture content is a critical
determinant in the economic feasibility of waste treatment by incineration, because wet waste
consumes energy for evaporation of water and in raising the temperature of water vapor.
• Size: Measurement of size distribution of particles in waste stream is important because of its
significance in the design of mechanical separators and shredders. Generally, the results of size
distribution analysis are expressed in the manner used for soil particle analysis.

Chemical characteristics:
• Knowledge of the classification of chemical compounds and their characteristics is essential for
the proper understanding of the behavior of waste, as it moves through the waste management
system.
• The products of decomposition and heating values are two examples of chemical
characteristics. If solid wastes are to be used as fuel, or are used for any other purpose, we must
know their chemical characteristics, including the following:
(i)Lipids: This class of compounds includes fats, oils and grease, and the principal sources of
lipids are garbage, cooking oils and fats. Lipids have high heating values, about 38,000 kJ/kg
(kilojoules per kilogram), which makes waste with high lipid content suitable for energy
recovery. Since lipids become liquid at temperatures slightly above ambient, they add to the
liquid content during waste decomposition. Though they are biodegradable, the rate of
biodegradation is relatively slow because lipids have a low solubility in water.
(ii) Carbohydrates: These are found primarily in food and yard wastes, which encompass sugar
and polymer of sugars (e.g., starch, cellulose, etc.) with general formula (CH2O)x.
Carbohydrates are readily biodegraded to products such as carbon dioxide, water and methane.
Decomposing carbohydrates attract flies and rats, and therefore, should not be left exposed for
long duration.
(iii) Proteins: These are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, and
consist of an organic acid with a substituted amine group (NH2). They are mainly found in food
and garden wastes. The partial decomposition of these compounds can result in the production of
amines that have unpleasant odours.
(iv)Natural fibres: These are found in paper products, food and yard wastes and include the
natural compounds, cellulose and lignin, that are resistant to biodegradation. (Note that paper is
almost 100% cellulose, cotton over 95% and wood products over 40%.) Because they are a
highly combustible solid waste, having a high proportion of paper and wood products, they are
suitable for incineration.
(v)Synthetic organic material (Plastics): Accounting for 1 – 10%, plastics have become a
significant component of solid waste in recent years. They are highly resistant to biodegradation
and, therefore, are objectionable and of special concern in SWM. Hence the increasing attention
being paid to the recycling of plastics to reduce the proportion of this waste component at
disposal sites. Plastics have a high heating value, about 32,000 kJ/kg, which makes them very
suitable for incineration. But, you must note that polyvinyl chloride (PVC), when burnt,
produces dioxin and acid gas. The latter increases corrosion in the combustion system and is
responsible for acid rain.
(vi)Non-combustibles: This class includes glass, ceramics, metals, dust and ashes, and
accounts for 12 – 25% of dry solids.
(vii) Heating value: An evaluation of the potential of waste material for use as fuel for
incineration requires a determination of its heating value, expressed as kilojoules per kilogram
(kJ/kg). The heating value is determined experimentally using the Bomb calorimeter test, in
which the heat generated, at a constant temperature of 25C from the combustion of a dry sample
is measured. Since the test temperature is below the boiling point of water (100C), the
combustion water remains in the liquid state. However, during combustion, the temperature of
the combustion gases reaches above 100C, and the resultant water is in the vapour form.
(vii)Ultimate analysis: This refers to an analysis of waste to determine the proportion of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur, and the analysis is done to make mass balance
calculation for a chemical or thermal process. Besides, it is necessary to determine ash fraction
because of its potentially harmful environmental effects, brought about by the presence of toxic
metals such as cadmium, chromium, mercury, nickel, lead, tin and zinc. Note that other metals
(e.g., iron, magnesium, etc.) may also be present but they are non-toxic.
(viii) Proximate analysis: This is important in evaluating the combustion properties of wastes
or a waste or refuse derived fuel. The fractions of interest are: moisture content, which adds
weight to the waste without increasing its heating value, and the evaporation of water reduces
the heat released from the fuel; ash, which adds weight without generating any heat during
combustion; volatile matter, i.e., that portion of the waste that is converted to gases before 
and during combustion; fixed carbon, which represents the carbon remaining on the surface
grates as charcoal. A waste or fuel with a high proportion of fixed carbon requires a longer
retention time on the furnace grates to achieve complete combustion than a waste or fuel with a
low proportion of fixed carbon.
Quantities generation rates and waste composition:

1. Municipal Waste Generation

Municipal waste quantities are typically measured in tons or kilograms per capita per year. This
varies significantly based on factors like economic development, population density, cultural
practices, and the efficiency of waste management systems.

• Key Factors Affecting Waste Generation:

o Population Size: More people produce more waste.
o Income and Consumption Patterns: Higher-income societies tend to produce more
waste due to higher consumption rates.
o Urbanization: Cities generate more waste per capita due to higher population
densities and commercial activities.
o Packaging and Consumer Goods: The type of products available and the amount
of packaging they come in impact waste generation.
o Waste Management Systems: Well-organized systems might reduce waste
generation through practices like composting or recycling.

Generation rates:-
1) Rate may vary widely from place to place.
2) In US – 2 Kg/C/Day
3) Japan – 1 Kg/C/Day
4) Canada – 3 Kg/C/ Day
5) India – 0.3 to 0.5 Kg/C/Day (per kg per capita per day)
6) Data includes refuse from residential, commercial, institutional & industrial sources.
7) Actual generation tare must be carefully determined for management.
8) Generation rate expected to be double by 2025.
9) Higher the income level greater will be generation rate.
Factors causing variation:
• As we know, wastes cause pollution. While the nature of wastes determines the type and
intensity of pollution, it also helps us decide on the appropriate application, engineering design
and technology for management.
• For example, the nature of wastes has implications for collection, transport and recycling. For
effective SWM, therefore, we not only need information about the present but also the expected
future quantity and composition of wastes.
• There are several factors, which affect the present as well as the future waste quantity and
composition (Tchobanoglous, et al., 1977), and some of which are listed below:
• Geographic location: The influence of geographic location is related primarily to different
climates that can influence both the amount of certain types of solid wastes generated and the
collection operation.
• Seasons: Seasons of the year have implications for the quantities and composition of certain
types of solid wastes. For example, the growing season of vegetables and fruits affect the
quantities of food wastes.
• Collection frequency: A general observation is that in localities, where there are ultimate
collection services, more wastes are collected. Note that this does not mean that more wastes are
generated.
• Population diversity: The characteristics of the population influence the quantity and
composition of waste generated. The amount of waste generated is more in low-income areas
compared to that in high-income areas. Similarly, the composition differs in terms of paper and
other recyclables, which are typically more in high-income areas as against low-income areas
• Extent of salvaging and recycling: The existence of salvaging and recycling operation within
a community definitely affects the quantity of wastes collected.
• Public attitude: Significant reduction in the quantity of solid waste is possible, if and when
people are willing to change – on their own volition – their habits and lifestyles to conserve the
natural resources and to reduce the economic burden associated with the management of solid
wastes.
• Legislation: This refers to the existence of local and state regulations concerning the use and
disposal of specific materials and is an important factor that influences the composition and
generation of certain types of wastes. The Indian legislation dealing with packing and beverage
container materials is an example.

2. Municipal Waste Composition

Waste composition refers to how the waste is categorized based on materials, and it can vary
widely across regions. Here’s a general breakdown of typical municipal waste compositions:
a) Organic Waste (40–60%)
• Examples: Food scraps, yard waste, paper (if not recycled), textiles.
• Key Points: This is usually the largest portion of municipal waste, and much of it can be
composted or converted to biogas. Cities with effective composting programs can
significantly reduce landfill use.
b) Recyclable Materials (25–35%)
• Examples: Paper, cardboard, plastics, metals, glass.
• Key Points: These materials are valuable for recycling and should be separated from
regular trash to reduce environmental impact. Many cities have programs to collect
recyclables separately.
c) Non-Recyclable Plastics (10–15%)
• Examples: Single-use plastics, plastic bags, Styrofoam.
• Key Points: These plastics often end up in landfills or are incinerated. Some regions have
bans or restrictions on certain types of single-use plastics to reduce this waste stream.
d) Construction and Demolition Debris (5–10%)
• Examples: Wood, concrete, metals, and other materials from building construction or
renovation.
 • Key Points: This is often not included in regular household waste statistics but can be a
significant source of municipal waste, especially in rapidly developing areas.
e) E-waste (1–5%)
• Examples: Old electronics such as computers, smartphones, televisions.
• Key Points: E-waste can contain valuable materials like gold, silver, and rare earth
metals, but it also contains harmful substances like mercury and lead. Specialized
recycling programs are necessary for e-waste.
f) Hazardous Waste (less than 1%)
• Examples: Batteries, chemicals, paints, fluorescent light bulbs.
• Key Points: Though small in quantity, hazardous waste requires special disposal methods
due to the risk to human health and the environment.

Trends in Municipal Waste:

1. Increased Waste Generation: As global urbanization continues, municipal waste

generation has been on the rise, particularly in developing countries where
industrialization and consumption are increasing.
2. Focus on Recycling and Composting: Many cities are focusing on improving recycling
rates and encouraging composting to divert organic waste from landfills. This helps
reduce landfill use and the methane emissions associated with waste decomposition.
3. Circular Economy: The growing focus on a circular economy is encouraging waste
reduction, reuse, and recycling, leading to more sustainable approaches to waste
management.
4. Zero Waste Initiatives: Some municipalities aim for zero waste, which involves
maximizing waste diversion through recycling, composting, and redesigning products to
minimize waste production.

Integrated waste management issues:

Integrated waste management (IWM) refers to the coordinated approach of handling waste in a
way that minimizes environmental impact, maximizes resource recovery, and optimizes costs.
Despite its advantages, IWM faces several issues that need to be addressed for it to function
effectively. Here are some of the main issues:
1. Lack of Public Awareness
• Many communities lack sufficient understanding of waste segregation, recycling, and the
importance of waste reduction. This leads to improper waste disposal and less efficient
recycling programs.
2. Inadequate Infrastructure
• Many regions, especially in developing countries, face challenges in building and
maintaining the infrastructure needed for integrated waste management. This includes
waste collection systems, recycling facilities, composting sites, and waste-to-energy
plants.
3. Resource Constraints
• Financial and human resources are often insufficient to implement comprehensive waste
management systems. Developing countries, in particular, struggle to allocate the
necessary funds for the infrastructure and training needed to support waste management
initiatives.
4. Waste Composition
• Different types of waste (organic, recyclable, hazardous, etc.) need to be managed in
different ways. A significant challenge is sorting waste at the source and dealing with
mixed waste. For example, plastic contamination in paper and organic waste complicates
recycling processes.
5. Unregulated Informal Sector
• In many parts of the world, informal waste pickers are critical to recycling efforts.
However, this sector operates without regulation or adequate support, leading to health
and safety risks, and inefficiencies in waste collection.
6. Environmental Impact of Landfills
• Landfills are a common end-of-life solution for waste, but they have significant
environmental impacts, including greenhouse gas emissions (methane), soil and water
contamination, and loss of land. Overreliance on landfills contradicts the goal of reducing
waste.
7. Waste-to-Energy (WTE) Concerns
• While WTE technologies like incineration and anaerobic digestion are promoted as
alternatives to landfills, they come with their own issues. Incineration, for example, can
produce toxic emissions, and WTE facilities are often expensive to build and maintain.
8. E-Waste Management
• The rapid growth of electronic devices has led to an increase in electronic waste (e-
waste), which contains hazardous substances. Effective collection, recycling, and
disposal of e-waste are critical but often not well-managed.
9. Climate Change Implications
• Waste management is a key component in addressing climate change. Organic waste, for
instance, when sent to landfills, decomposes anaerobically, producing methane—a potent
greenhouse gas. Moving toward composting, recycling, and reducing waste at the source
can help mitigate climate change.
10. Policy and Regulatory Challenges
• Governments often struggle to implement and enforce waste management policies
effectively. There can be a lack of consistency in regulations across regions, weak
enforcement of recycling and waste reduction policies, and insufficient penalties for non-
compliance.
Collection :

Planning of Solid Waste Collection Program.

Routing system of collection

1. Micro-routing is: The routing of a vehicle within its assigned collection zone. ―concerned
with how to route a truck through a series of one or two way streets so that the total distance
traveled is minimized. very difficult to design and execute.
2. Macro-routing is: large scale routing to the disposal site and the establishment of the
individual route boundaries.
Labor requirements for the collection of solid waste depend on both the type of service
provided and the collection system used:

a)For hauled container system: • Collection systems in which the containers used for the storage
of wastes are hauled to the processing, transfer or disposal site, emptied and returned to either
their original location or some other location are defined as hauled container systems.

• One person, two for safety, and a driver to drive the vehicle load and unload containers and
empty the container at the disposal site.

b) For stationary container system : • Collection systems in which the containers used for the
storage of wastes remain at the point of waste generation, except when moved for collection are
defined as stationary container system.

• The labor requirement for mechanically loaded ones are essentially the same with hauled
container system. Occasionally, a driver and two helpers are used.

Modes of operation in solid waste collection : Unit operations

1. Pick-up - refers to the time spent driving to the next container after an empty container has
been deposited.
2. Haul - represents the time required to reach the disposal site starting after a container whose
contents are to be emptied has been loaded on the truck plus the time spent after leaving the
disposal site until the truck arrives at the location where the empty container is to be deposited.
3. At-site - refers to the time spent at the disposal site and includes the time spent waiting to
unload as well as the time spent in loading.
4. Off-site - includes the time spent on activities that are non-productive from the point of view
of the overall collection system.

Container location 1. Truck from dispatch station, to Haul empty container to original pickup
location Loaded container Drive to next container.

2. Haul loaded container (a) Hauled container. Empty container N Truck to dispatch station, t
Transfer station, processing station, or disposal site (contents of container emptied, s) 474860464
route Frequency of solid waste collection.

The frequency of collection depends on the quantity of solid waste, time of year, socioeconomic
status of the area served, and municipal or contractor responsibility.

In business districts, refuse, including garbage from hotels and restaurants, should be collected
daily except on Sundays.

In residential areas, twice-a-week for refuse collection during warm months of the year and once
a week at other times should be the maximum permissible interval. Slum areas usually require at
least twice-a-week collection. The receptacle should be either emptied directly into the garbage
truck or carted away and replaced with a clean container.
 • Refuse transferred from container to container will cause spilling, which results in pollution of
the ground and attraction of flies. If other than curb pickup is provided, the cost of collection will
be high.
• Some property owners are willing to pay for this extra service. Bulky wastes should be
collected every 3 months.
• Garbage - should be collected at least two times weekly in residential sections in summer and
winter. However, most commercial establishments should be accorded daily collection service
throughout the year.
• Rubbish - is generally collected weekly in residential areas and daily in business sections.
• Mixed refuse - should be collected twice daily from most commercial concerns.
• The provision of frequent collection services is important in the prevention of fly breeding in
garbage, because irregular collections can contribute to the nuisances and hazards which result
under poor storage conditions and in chances the amount greater than the expected requirement
from households.

Collection equipment.
• Mechanical collection systems have been developed to reduce collection cost. The system
requires use of a special container, truck container pick-up equipment, and replacement of the
container.
• Collection equipment that simplifies the collection of refuse and practically eliminates cause
for legitimate complaint is available. The tight-body open truck with a canvas or metal cover has
been replaced in most instances by the automatic loading truck with packer to compact refuse
dumped in the truck during collection, except for the collection of bulky items. • Compaction-
type bodies have twice the capacity of open trucks and a convenient loading height. Low-level
closed-body trailers to eliminate the strain of lifting cans are also available.
• The number and size of the collection vehicles and the number of pickups in residential and
business areas for communities of different population will vary with location, affluence, and
other factors. The average refuse truck holds 6,000 to 8,000 kilograms.
• The solid waste collection vehicle should be covered and able to compact the refuse collected.
It may load from the rear, side, or top. The storage areas in these vehicles should be kept
relatively clean and water-tight. Organization of solid waste collection program
• Many cities and towns require homeowners to use certain types of receptacles. In some
neighborhoods the collectors pick up the receptacles in the backyard, as the people who live
there consider receptacles too bulky to handle and unsightly in front of their dwellings.
• Haul distance to the disposal facility must be taken into consideration in making a cost
analysis. In some highly urbanized areas it is economical to reduce haul distance by providing
large, specially designed trailers at transfer stations.
• In suburban and rural areas, container stations can be established at central locations. These
stations may include a stationary compactor for ordinary refuse and a bin for tires and bulky
items. Separate bins for paper, glass, and aluminum may also be provided.

Recovery
Resource Recovery
Resource recovery from waste is the process of extracting valuable materials, energy, or
substances from waste to be reused, recycled, or converted into other products. It’s an essential
part of the circular economy, focusing on reducing waste, conserving natural resources, and
minimizing environmental impact.
Resource recovery is a partial solid waste disposal and reclamation process. It can be expected to
achieve about 60% reductions in future landfill volume requirements. Resource recovery must
recognize what is worth recovering and the environmental benefits.
Resource recovery is complex, economical and technical system with social and political
implications, all of which require critical analysis and evaluation before a commitment is made.
They demand capital cost, operating cost, market value of reclaimed materials and material
quality, potential minimum reliable energy sales, assured quantity of solid wastes, continued
need for a sanitary landfill for the disposal of excess and remaining unwanted materials and
incinerator residue, a site location close to the center of the generators of solid wastes.
• Material Recovery: Items like plastics, paper, glass, and metals are separated, cleaned, and
processed to create new products, reducing the need for raw materials.
• E-waste Recycling: Electronics like phones, computers, and televisions are disassembled to
recover metals (gold, copper, etc.), plastics, and other reusable materials.

Resource Recovery from Construction and Demolition Waste: Concrete, metals,

wood, and other construction materials can be recovered, cleaned, and reused in new building
projects, reducing the need for virgin materials and lessening landfill waste.

Products That Can Be Recycled

1. Plastic 2. Tires 3. Paper
Obstacles to resource recovery
✓ Heterogeneity of the waste
✓ Putrescibility of the waste
✓ Location of the waste
✓ Low value of product
✓ Uncertainty of supply
✓ Unproven technology
✓ Administrative and industrial constraints
✓ Legal restriction
✓ Uncertain market
Resource recovery plays a crucial role in reducing environmental impact, conserving resources,
and moving toward more sustainable practices in industries, households, and municipalities. It’s
key in reducing the reliance on landfills, reducing pollution, and cutting greenhouse gas
emissions.

Reduce
1) The best way to manage waste is to not produce it. This can be done by shopping carefully
and being aware of a few guidelines:
2) Buy products in bulk. Larger, economy-size products or ones in concentrated form use less
packaging and usually cost less per ounce.
3) Avoid over-packaged goods, especially ones packed with several materials such as foil, paper,
and plastic. They are difficult to recycle, plus you pay more for the package.
4) Avoid disposable goods, such as paper plates, cups, napkins, razors, and lighters. Throwaways
contribute to the problem, and cost more because they must be replaced again and again.
5) Buy durable goods - ones that are well-built or that carry good warranties. They will last
longer, save money in the long run and save landfill space.
6) At work, make two-sided copies whenever possible.
7) Maintain central files rather than using several files for individuals.
8) Use electronic mail or main bulletin board.
9) Use cloth napkins instead of paper napkins.
10) Use a dish cloth instead of paper towels.

Reuse: Reuse refers to the practice of using items or materials more than once for the same or
different purpose without significantly altering or processing them. Using them in the same form
for multiple times. It is a vital concept in the context of waste management, promoting
sustainability and reducing the need for new resources. Reusing helps minimize waste, conserve
energy, and reduce environmental impact. It makes economic and environmental sense to reuse
products.
Sometimes it takes creativity:
1) Reuse products for the same purpose. Save paper and plastic bags, and repair broken
appliances, furniture and toys.
2) Reuse products in different ways. Use a coffee can to pack a lunch; use plastic microwave
dinner trays as picnic dishes.
3) Sell old clothes, appliances, toys, and furniture in garage sales or ads, or donate them to
charities.
4) Use re-sealable containers rather than plastic wrap.
5) Use a ceramic coffee mug instead of paper cups.
6) Reuse grocery bags or bring your own cloth bags to the store. Do not take a bag from the store
unless you need one.

Benefits of Reuse

1. Resource Conservation: Reusing items reduces the demand for raw materials and energy
needed to create new products. This lessens environmental degradation caused by resource
extraction.
2. Waste Reduction: Reuse helps divert items from landfills, reducing the overall amount of
waste that needs to be disposed of, which also minimizes the pressure on waste management
systems.
3. Energy Savings: Reusing products typically requires less energy compared to producing new
ones from raw materials, thus helping in the reduction of carbon emissions.
4. Cost Savings: By reusing items, individuals and businesses can save money. For example,
reusing office supplies or purchasing second-hand goods can significantly reduce costs.
5. Creativity and Innovation: Reusing often requires creativity. This process can lead to
innovative products, like up cycled furniture or fashion, which might also have a unique
charm or design that new items do not have.

Examples of Reuse in Everyday Life

• Secondhand Stores: Thrift stores or online marketplaces (like eBay, Craigslist, or Poshmark)
allow items to be reused by someone else.
• Furniture Up cycling: Taking an old bookshelf and repainting or redesigning it into a new
and functional piece for a home or office.
• Jar and Bottle Repurposing: Glass jars or bottles from food can be cleaned and reused as
storage containers or even decorative pieces.
• Furniture and Appliance Refurbishing: Taking old furniture or appliances, repairing them,
and reselling or reusing them.

Reuse vs. Recycling

• Reuse is about finding new ways to use an item without significantly changing it, while
recycling typically involves processing the item (like melting, breaking down, or
chemically altering it) to make raw materials for new products.
• Reuse is often more sustainable than recycling because it avoids the energy-intensive
processes involved in recycling.

Recycle: is the process of converting waste materials into new products to prevent the
depletion of natural resources, reduce pollution, and minimize the amount of waste sent to
landfills or incinerators. It involves collecting and processing materials that would otherwise be
discarded and transforming them into new, useful items.
Recycling is a series of steps that takes a used material and processes, remanufactures, and sells
it as a new product. Begin recycling at home and at work:
1) Buy products made from recycled material. Look for the recycling symbol or ask store
managers or salesmen. The recycling symbol means one of two things - either the product is
made of recycled material, or the item can be recycled. For instance, many plastic containers
have a recycling symbol with a numbered code the identifies what type of plastic resin it is made
from. However, just because the container has this code does not mean it can be easily recycled
locally.
2) Check collection centers and curbside pickup services to see what they accept, and begin
collecting those materials. These can include metal cans, newspapers, paper products, glass,
plastics and oil.
3) Consider purchasing recycled materials at work when purchasing material for office supply,
office equipment or manufacturing.
4) Speak to store managers and ask for products and packaging that help cut down on waste,
such as recycled products and products that are not over packaged.
5) Buy products made from material that is collected for recycling in your community.
6) Use recycled paper for letterhead, copier paper and newsletters.

The Recycling Process

1. Collection and Sorting: Recyclable materials are collected from households, businesses,
or recycling centers. They are then sorted into different categories based on material type,
such as paper, plastic, glass, or metal.
2. Cleaning: Materials are cleaned to remove contaminants, such as food residue on plastic
containers or paper labels on bottles. This ensures the quality of the recycled materials.
3. Processing: After sorting and cleaning, materials are processed. This can involve
shredding, melting, or breaking down the material into smaller pieces. For example:
o Plastic: Melting and extruding plastic into pellets for reuse.
o Paper: Shredding and pulping it to form new paper products.
o Metals: Melting down metals to create new items or products.
4. Manufacturing: The processed material is then used to make new products, such as
recycled paper, aluminum cans, or clothing made from recycled fabrics.
5. Selling/Distribution: The new products are sold and distributed, completing the recycling
loop.

Benefits of Recycling

1. Conserves Natural Resources: Recycling reduces the need to extract raw materials from
the earth, such as timber, petroleum, and ores. This helps preserve ecosystems and
biodiversity.
2. Reduces Energy Consumption: Recycling typically uses less energy compared to
producing products from raw materials. For example, recycling aluminum saves up to
95% of the energy compared to making aluminum from bauxite.
3. Reduces Pollution: By recycling, we reduce air and water pollution caused by waste
incineration and land filling. It also decreases the harmful emissions produced during the
extraction and processing of raw materials.
4. Economic Benefits: Recycling creates jobs in the collection, sorting, processing, and
selling of recyclable materials. It also reduces costs for industries that rely on recycled
materials, rather than raw materials.
5. Waste Reduction: Recycling reduces the amount of waste sent to landfills and
incinerators, helping mitigate land and air pollution and the environmental impact of
waste.

Challenges in Recycling

1. Contamination: If recyclables are contaminated with non-recyclable materials (like food

residue or chemicals), they can’t be properly processed, which reduces the effectiveness
of recycling.
 2. Limited Recycling Infrastructure: In some areas, the infrastructure to support widespread
recycling is lacking, making it difficult to recycle large quantities of materials.
3. Market Demand for Recycled Materials: The market for certain recycled materials can
fluctuate, which impacts the profitability and sustainability of recycling programs.
4. Cost: In some cases, it may be more expensive to recycle than to dispose of waste in
landfills, particularly if there is no demand for recycled materials or if the recycling
infrastructure is inefficient.

Energy-from-waste

Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) refers to a series of processes designed

to convert waste materials into usable forms of energy, typically electricity or heat. As a form of
energy recovery, WtE plays a crucial role in both waste management and sustainable energy
production by reducing the volume of waste in landfills and providing an alternative energy
source.

The most common method of WtE is direct combustion of waste to produce heat, which can then
be used to generate electricity via steam turbines. This method is widely employed in many
countries and offers a dual benefit: it disposes of waste while generating energy, making it an
efficient process for both waste reduction and energy production.

In addition to combustion, other WtE technologies focus on converting waste into fuel sources.
For example, gasification and pyrolysis are processes that thermo-chemically decompose organic
materials in the absence of oxygen to produce syngas, a synthetic gas primarily composed of
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and small amounts of carbon dioxide. This syngas can be converted
into methane, methanol, ethanol, or even synthetic fuels, which can be used in various industrial
processes or as alternative fuels in transportation.

Furthermore, anaerobic digestion, a biological process, converts organic waste

into biogas (mainly methane and carbon dioxide) through microbial action. This biogas can be
harnessed for energy production or processed into biomethane, which can serve as a substitute
for natural gas.

Common Methods of Energy Recovery

1. Waste-to-Energy (WTE) Incineration

o Incineration involves burning waste at high temperatures to produce heat, which can
then be converted into electricity or used for district heating (providing heat to
buildings or facilities in a specific area).
o Process: Waste is burned in a furnace, and the heat produced is used to generate
steam. This steam drives a turbine connected to a generator, producing electricity.
The leftover ash may be disposed of or repurposed.
o Benefits: Reduces the volume of waste in landfills, generates electricity, and can
provide heat. Modern facilities have systems in place to capture harmful emissions,
such as dioxins and furans.
o Challenges: High upfront costs for facilities, air pollution if not properly managed,
and public opposition due to environmental concerns.
2. Anaerobic Digestion
o Anaerobic digestion is a biological process where microorganisms break down
organic matter (like food scraps, manure, and sewage) in the absence of oxygen to
produce biogas (mainly methane and carbon dioxide).
o Process: Organic waste is placed in sealed tanks (digesters), where microbes
decompose the material. The biogas produced can be used to generate electricity,
heat, or even be purified to produce biomethane (a substitute for natural gas).
o Benefits: Reduces methane emissions from landfills, produces renewable energy, and
results in nutrient-rich digestate that can be used as fertilizer.
o Challenges: Requires a consistent supply of organic waste, and it’s not suitable for all
types of waste. Also, there’s a need for careful management to prevent odors and
contamination.
3. Biomass Energy
o Biomass refers to any organic material (like wood, agricultural waste, or food scraps)
that can be burned directly or processed into fuel for energy production.
o Process: Biomass can be burned to produce heat or converted into biofuels like
ethanol or biodiesel. Alternatively, it can be converted into synthetic gas (syngas)
through processes like gasification.
o Benefits: Biomass is renewable and reduces the need for fossil fuels. It also helps
reduce waste by utilizing leftover organic materials.
o Challenges: Land use and resource consumption for growing biomass crops can raise
environmental concerns. Burning biomass can still produce pollutants if not managed
properly.
4. Landfill Gas Recovery
o Landfill gas recovery captures methane gas produced by the decomposition of
organic waste in landfills. This gas can be used as a fuel to generate electricity or
heat.
o Process: Pipes are installed in landfills to collect the methane gas, which is then
processed and used as an energy source. The collected gas can be converted into
electricity or used for heating purposes.
o Benefits: Provides renewable energy from waste that would otherwise contribute to
greenhouse gas emissions. Helps reduce the environmental impact of landfills.
o Challenges: Landfills may not always generate enough methane for energy
production, and managing landfill gas systems can be expensive.
5. Pyrolysis
o Pyrolysis is a high-temperature, oxygen-free process that breaks down organic
materials (such as plastics, tires, or biomass) into gases, liquids, and solid residues
(char).
o Process: Waste is heated in a sealed container (reactor), and the heat causes the
material to decompose into oil (bio-oil), gas (syngas), and solid carbon (char). The
bio-oil and syngas can be used as fuels for energy production.
o Benefits: Can process a wide variety of waste materials, including plastics that are
difficult to recycle. The process produces valuable energy products.
o Challenges: The technology is still developing and can be costly. It also requires a
stable feedstock of materials to ensure consistent energy production.
6. Gasification
o Gasification is a process where organic waste is heated at high temperatures in the
presence of limited oxygen to produce synthetic gas (syngas), which is a mixture of
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and other gases.
o Process: Organic waste is heated to create syngas, which can be burned directly to
generate electricity or converted into fuels like methanol or hydrogen.
o Benefits: Produces renewable energy from waste materials, reduces reliance on fossil
fuels, and helps reduce landfill use.
o Challenges: High energy input required for the process, and technology for gasifying
non-organic waste (such as plastics) can be expensive.
The Future of Energy Recovery : As waste management technologies continue to advance, there
is great potential for more efficient and environmentally friendly methods of energy recovery.
Innovations such as improved biogas production, advanced pyrolysis systems, and carbon
capture technologies could make energy recovery even more sustainable and cost-effective in the
future.

Land-filling

Land-filling is one of the most common methods of waste disposal and is part of waste
management systems around the world. The process of land-filling involves the burial of waste
materials in the ground.
Here's a breakdown of the typical land-filling process in waste management:

1. Site Selection
• Location: A suitable location for a landfill is selected based on several factors, including
proximity to populated areas, geological conditions (e.g., soil type, water table),
environmental impact, and local regulations.
• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Before a landfill is constructed, an EIA is often
conducted to assess potential risks to the environment, such as contamination of
groundwater, air pollution, and impact on local wildlife.
2. Design and Construction
• Liner System: To prevent contamination of the surrounding environment, landfills are
typically constructed with a liner system. This can include a combination of clay,
geomembranes, and other materials that form a barrier between the waste and the
surrounding soil.
• Leachate Collection System: Leachate is the liquid that percolates through the waste,
often containing harmful chemicals. A leachate collection system, which includes pipes
and tanks, is installed to capture and treat this liquid.
• Gas Collection System: Decomposing organic waste generates landfill gas, primarily
methane, which is collected through pipes and either flared off or used for energy
generation.
3. Waste Disposal and Compaction
• Waste Delivery: Waste is delivered to the landfill site, where it is dumped in layers.
• Compaction: After each load of waste is dumped, it is compacted using bulldozers or
other heavy machinery to reduce its volume and maximize the space available. This
process also helps to minimize the potential for odors and pests.
• Layering: Each layer of waste is typically covered with a layer of soil or other material to
help reduce odors, prevent wind-blown litter, and support compaction.
4. Covering the Waste
• Daily Cover: At the end of each day, a layer of soil or other material (such as tarps or
ash) is applied to the waste to minimize odors, pests, and other environmental concerns.
 • Intermediate Cover: For areas that will not be worked on for a while, a thicker layer of
cover may be used.
5. Monitoring and Management
• Leachate and Gas Monitoring: Continuous monitoring of the leachate and gas systems is
necessary to ensure they are functioning properly and that there is no contamination of
nearby groundwater or air. This includes regular testing of groundwater and surface
water.
• Odor Control: Landfills often use techniques such as vapor extraction systems or bio-
filters to manage odors from decomposing waste.
• Pest Control: Landfills are regularly monitored for pests such as rodents, birds, and
insects, which can be attracted by the waste.
6. Final Cover and Closure
• Final Cover System: Once a landfill reaches its capacity, it is closed with a final cover
system to minimize exposure to the elements and prevent infiltration of water. This cover
typically consists of a liner, a drainage system, and a layer of soil or vegetation to prevent
erosion.
• Post-Closure Care: Even after a landfill is closed, it requires ongoing monitoring and
maintenance for a period of years (often 30 years or more). This includes monitoring
leachate and gas emissions, as well as checking the integrity of the final cover.
7. Environmental and Health Considerations
• Leachate Treatment: Leachate, which can contain hazardous substances, must be treated
before being released into the environment. This is usually done through mechanical,
biological, or chemical processes.
• Landfill Gas Management: Methane gas is a byproduct of the decomposition of organic
matter in landfills. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, so it is often captured and used
for energy production (biogas) or flared off to reduce environmental impact.
• Long-Term Risks: Although landfills are carefully designed and monitored, there are
always long-term risks associated with them, such as groundwater contamination,
methane leaks, and subsidence (settling of the landfill over time).

Types of Land-fills:
1) Above Ground Landfill (Area Landfill): The area landfill is used when the terrain is
unsuitable for the excavation of trenches in which to place the solid waste. High-groundwater
conditions necessitate the use of area-type landfills.
2) Below Ground Landfill (Trench Landfill): The trench method of land-filling is ideally suited
to areas where an adequate depth of cover material is available at the site and where the
water table is not near the surface. Typically, solid wastes are placed in trenches excavated in
the soil.

3) Canyons and valleys are two landforms created by running rivers and erosion. A valley is a depressed
area of land between mountains or hills, while a canyon is a deep and narrow valley having steep
sides. Valley and canyon landfills are typically waste disposal sites located in valleys or
canyon areas. The geographical features of valleys and canyons can make them appealing
locations for landfills because they provide natural depressions that can contain waste
materials, potentially reducing the need for extensive excavation or construction.
Land-filling is an effective but environmentally challenging waste management method.
Although it remains one of the most common disposal techniques, advancements in waste
diversion, recycling, and waste-to-energy technologies are slowly reducing the reliance on
landfills. Properly managed landfills are designed to minimize environmental risks, but they still
present long-term concerns that need continuous monitoring and management.