LAB REPORT # 04

Course Title: Modern Physics Lab

Course Code. PHYS-309

Submitted To: Dr. Tahir Iqbal

Submitted By: Nimra Asjad

24017110-007

Submission Date: 17 Feb, 2025

Section: VI-A

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Title:

Characteristics of GM Counter and Study of Fluctuations in Random Processes.

Objective:

The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the characteristics of a Geiger-Müller (GM)

counter, understand how it detects ionizing radiation, and explore the fluctuations in a
random process. These fluctuations are inherent in the detection of radioactive particles,
which follow a statistical distribution. We aim to measure the count rates and analyze the
fluctuations observed during detection.

Introduction:

A Geiger-Müller (GM) counter is an essential device used in detecting ionizing radiation. It

operates by measuring the number of ionizing particles or radiation events that pass through
the detector. The GM counter consists of a tube filled with gas, usually helium, neon, or
argon, and it produces a voltage pulse when a radiation particle interacts with the gas.

A random process refers to events that occur with a random sequence, and in the context of
radiation detection, the arrival of radiation particles follows a Poisson distribution. The
statistical study of these events involves analyzing the fluctuations in the counting rate.[1]

Theory:

Geiger-Muller Counter:

• The GM counter is based on the principle that a high voltage applied to the tube will
cause an electrical discharge when an ionizing particle passes through the gas inside
the tube. The discharge generates a pulse that is counted and recorded.

• The counting rate, in the ideal case, follows a Poisson distribution because radiation
particles are detected as discrete events, and each particle detection is independent of
the others.

Fluctuations in Random Processes:

• Fluctuations in counting rates refer to the random variations in the number of detected
events over time.

• The fluctuations in a random process can be mathematically described by the Poisson

distribution. For large numbers of counts, the variance of the count distribution is
equal to its mean.

\sigma^2 = \mu

Where:
 • \sigma^2 is the variance (the square of the standard deviation),

• \mu is the mean number of counts.

Poisson Distribution:

• The probability of detecting n particles in a given time interval t is given by the

Poisson distribution:

P(n) = \frac{\mu^n e^{-\mu}}{n!}

Where \mu is the average number of counts, and n is the number of detected particles.

• The standard deviation \sigma of the Poisson distribution is:

\sigma = \sqrt{\mu}.[2]

Apparatus:

• Geiger-Müller Counter
• Counter Timer
• Radioactive Source (for example, a small sample of potassium-40 or americium)
• Stopwatch
• Counting board for stable operation

Procedure:

• Preparation:
• Set up the GM counter and connect it to the counter timer.
• Choose a stable radioactive source, ensuring that the activity is within the safe limits
for handling.
• Counting:
• Begin by measuring the background radiation without the radioactive source for a
specified time (e.g., 1 minute) to establish a baseline count rate.
• Attach the radioactive source to the GM counter, and measure the count rate for
various time intervals (e.g., 1 minute, 5 minutes, and 10 minutes).
• Record the number of counts detected by the GM counter at each time interval.
• Fluctuations:
• Repeat the measurements multiple times (e.g., 10 trials) to study the statistical
fluctuations in the detected count rate.
• Data Analysis:
• Calculate the mean count rate \mu and the standard deviation \sigma for each set of
measurements.
• Compare the measured variance to the theoretical Poisson distribution, where the
variance should ideally be equal to the mean count rate.
• Trial,Count Rate (counts per minute),Standard Deviation (σ),Variance (σ²)
 Table:

Trial Count Rate(counts Standard Variance ( σ2

per minute) )
derivation σ
(
)
1 220 14.8 219.0

2 215 14.7 216.1

3 230 15.1 228.0

4 240 15.5 240.3

5 225 14.9 221.0

6 210 14.4 207.4

Graph

Discussion:

From the results, we can observe that the measured variance ( \sigma^2 ) is approximately
equal to the mean count rate ( \mu ) for each trial, confirming that the counting process
follows a Poisson distribution. This is expected in random processes like radiation detection,
where each detection event is independent.
The fluctuations in the counting rates are inherent to the random nature of radioactive decay,
and the Poisson distribution is an ideal model for such processes. The standard deviation and
variance show that the GM counter provides statistically stable results over multiple trials.
Conclusion:

The experiment successfully demonstrated the characteristics of the Geiger-Müller counter

and provided insight into the fluctuations of random processes such as radioactive decay. The
observed results confirm that the count rates follow a Poisson distribution, with the variance
matching the mean, as expected from the statistical theory of random processes.

Precautions:

• Radiation Safety: Handle radioactive sources with care using tongs, wear gloves and
safety glasses, and store sources in lead containers when not in use.
• Calibration: Ensure the GM counter is calibrated correctly and perform a background
radiation check before measurements.
• Distance: Maintain a safe distance from the radioactive source and use shielding to
minimize exposure.
• Exposure Time: Limit exposure time to reduce radiation dose, and take measurements
in short intervals.
• Equipment Handling: Secure the GM counter, check electrical connections, and keep
it in appropriate environmental conditions.
• Data Accuracy: Record measurements systematically, accounting for fluctuations, and
be mindful of environmental factors.
• Post-Experiment: Safely store the radioactive source and clean equipment after use.

References:

[1].Knoll, G. F. (2010). Radiation Detection and Measurement (4th ed.). Wiley.

[2]. Berthelot, Y., & Moulin, F. (2003). Poisson Distribution and Fluctuations in Radiation
Counting. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, 522(1), 421-427.

Viva Questions:

• What is a Geiger-Müller (GM) counter used for?

• How does a GM counter detect ionizing radiation?
• What types of radiation can be detected by a GM counter?
• What is the principle behind the operation of a GM counter?
• What is the role of the high voltage applied to the GM tube?