POWER QUALITY ENHANCEMENT IN ELECTRIC

VEHICLE CHARGING USING A MODIFIED LUO

CONVERTER
P.Maheshbabu1, K.Vijaya kumar Reddy2, K.Premkumar3
1
Professor, EEE, Misrimal Navajee Munoth Jain Engineering college, Thoraipakkam,
Chennai.
2
Director General, National institute of Wind Energy, Chennai.
3
Associate Professor, Department of EEE, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Chennai
Email id : [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Article Received: 09 Dec 2024 Article Accepted: 12 Dec 2024 Article Published: 31 Dec 2024

Citation
Pranati Katyal, Rajesh Katyal, K.Premkumar, “PV, Wind powered Electric Vehicle Charging Station
with Fuzzy and Perturb & Observe MPPT Control”, Journal of Next Generation Technology (ISSN:
2583-021X), 4(3), pp. 1-14. Dec 2024. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.14878993

Abstract
Electric vehicle charging stations that include renewable energy sources have drawn a lot of
interest as a sustainable way to cut greenhouse gas emissions and fulfill the world's expanding
energy needs. This paper presents the design and analysis of a hybrid renewable energy-based EV
charging station powered by PV and wind energy systems. The proposed system employs a dual
MPPT strategy: Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) for PV units and the Perturb and Observe (P&O)
technique for wind turbines, ensuring optimal power extraction under varying environmental
conditions. A detailed performance evaluation highlights the reliability, efficiency, and adaptability
of the system. Simulation results demonstrate the system’s ability to handle partial shading
conditions, wind speed variations, and dynamic EV charging demands. The combination of FLC and
P&O significantly enhances tracking accuracy and response time compared to traditional methods.
This study underscores the feasibility of renewable energy-powered EV charging stations as a
robust, eco-friendly alternative to grid-dependent systems.
Keywords: Electric Vehicle Charging Station (EVCS), Photovoltaic , Wind Energy, Fuzzy Logic
Controller MPPT.
 CHAPTER 1
RECTIFIERS AND CONVERTERS
1.1 Introduction
The use of rectifiers in industrial applications started at the era of mercury converters
with the Electro mechanical contact converter. DC machines are common in day to day use.
But the supply that we get from power companies is AC. To use those machines AC supply
has to be turned into DC supply by the use of a rectifier. A rectifier is an electrical device
that converts the incoming AC (alternating current) from a transformer or any other ac
power source to pulsating DC (direct current). Rectifier may be made of diodes, solid
states, vacuum tube, mercury arc valves and other components. All rectifier circuits
may be classified into one of two categories, i) half wave rectifiers and ii) full wave
rectifier. Rectifiers are also used for 3-phase inputs. Rectifiers can further be classified into
two categories i. e. controlled and uncontrolled rectifier.
The dc output always remain constant if ac input voltage is constant in an
uncontrolled rectifier whereas the output voltage can be controlled in a controlled rectifier.
Rectifiers are widely used in nonlinear loads which are connected with distribution systems
which plays an important role in power system network (ex: UPS, discharge lamp,
television, computer, fax machines, ferromagnetic devices, arc furnaces, energy savers
etc.).
A further application of the rectifier is driving a DC motor. Speed control in
DC motor is an important issue. With time the need of flexible speed control for motor is
becoming essential. One way to control the speed of the motor is by varying its input voltage.

1.2 AC-DC Converters:

One of the first and most widely used application of power electronic devices have
been in rectification. Rectification refers to the process of converting an ace voltage or
current source to dc voltage and current. Rectifiers specially refer to power electronic
converters where the electrical power flows from the ac side to the dc side. In many situations
the same converter circuit may carry electrical power from the dc side to the ac side where
upon they are referred to as inverters. In this lesson and subsequent ones the working
principle and analysis of several commonly used rectifier circuits supplying different types of
loads (resistive, inductive, capacitive, back emf type) will be presented.

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  Waveforms and characteristic values (average, RMS etc.) of the rectified voltage and
current.
 Influence of the load type on the rectified voltage and current.
 Harmonic content in the output.
 Voltage and current ratings of the power electronic devices used in the rectifier
circuit.
 Reaction of the rectifier circuit upon the ac network, reactive power requirement,
power
 Factor, harmonics etc.
 Rectifier control aspects (for controlled rectifiers only) in the analysis, following
simplifying assumptions will be made.
The first assumption will be relaxed in a latter module. However, unless specified
otherwise, the second assumption will remain in force. Rectifiers are used in a large variety
of configurations and a method of classifying them into certain categories (based on common
characteristics) will certainly help one to gain significant insight into their operation.
Unfortunately, no consensus exists among experts regarding the criteria to be used for such
classification.

1.3 Applications
With the wide spread of electronics and technology the necessary of DC power has
increased as the used of DC electronics has increased over the decades. Here comes an AC-
DC converter in play. With the wide spread of DC power needs, the application of AC-DC
converter has covered a range from milli-watts to megawatts. Some applications of AC-DC
converter is given below.
 Use in detection of amplitude modulated radio signal
 Use to supply polarized voltage for welding
 Use in Uninterruptible power supplies
 Use in Induction heating
 Use in HVDC power transmission
 Use in Variable-frequency drives
 Use in Electric vehicle drive Application
 Use in vacuum cleaners
 Use in Air conditioning
 Use in cordless telephone

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  Use in DC motor control
 Use in rice cookers
 Use in electric carpets
 Use in washing basket
 Use in washing machine
 Use in air cleaner

1.4 Study of Rectifiers

Classification of Rectifiers
I) Single phase
a) Half-wave: i) Controlled ii) Uncontrolled
b) Full-wave: i) Controlled ii) Uncontrolled
II) Three Phase
a) Half-wave: i) Controlled ii) Uncontrolled
b) Full-wave: i) Controlled ii) Uncontrolled

1.5 Single phase rectifier

(a) Half-Wave Rectifier: In half-wave rectifier, half of the ac cycle (either
positive or negative) pass, while during the other half cycle the diode blocks the
current from flowing. Basic half-wave rectifier circuit may be constructed with a single
diode in a one phase supply, or three diodes with a three-phase supply. Such circuits are
known as half wave rectifier as they only work on half of the incoming ac wave.

Fig. 1.1: Half Wave Rectifier

(b) Full-Wave Rectifier: A full-wave rectifier converts the whole incoming ac wave
so that both halves are used to cause the output current to flow in same direction (either
positive or negative). Full-wave rectification is more efficient because it converts both
polarities of input waveform to DC. A full-wave rectifier circuit requires four diodes instead

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of one needed for half-wave rectification. For the arrangement of four diodes the circuit is
called a diode bridge or bridge rectifier.

Fig. 1.2: Full Wave Rectifier

1.6 Three-phase half wave rectifier

Fig. 1.3: phase half wave rectifier

Fig. 1.4: 3-phase full wave rectifier

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 Fig. 1.5: Input and output voltage waveform for 3 phase full wave rectifier

1.7 Power Factor:

The power factor is defined as the ratio of the average power to the apparent power at
an AC terminal. Assuming an ideal sinusoidal input voltage source, the power factor can be
expressed as the product of two factors, the distortion factor and the displacement factor. The
distortion factor kd is the ratio of the fundamental root-mean-square (RMS) current to the
total RMS current. The displacement factor kq is the cosine of the displacement angle
between the fundamental input current and the input voltage.

(1.1)
When a converter has less than unity power factor, it means that the converter absorbs
apparent power higher than the real power it consumes. This implies that the power source
should be rated with higher VA ratings than the load needs. In addition, the current
harmonics the converter produces deteriorate the power source quality, which eventually
affect the other equipment. The simple solution to improve the power factor is to add a
passive filter, which is usually composed of a capacitor and an inductor. However, this
passive filter is bulky and inefficient since it operates at the line frequency. Therefore, a
power factor correction stage has to be inserted to the existing equipment to achieve a good
power factor. Usually, two types of power factor correction methods are used: The
VAR/harmonics compensation method employs a switch-mode power converter in parallel
with the nonlinear load to supply a reactive power and/or line current harmonics to cancel the

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displacement and the line current harmonics created by the nonlinear load. This method
cannot cancel all the line current harmonics, however, and this additional line current
harmonics compensator cannot regulate the output to the load. The high frequency switch
mode power factor correction converter called a PFC stage, is usually inserted in the
equipment to shape the line input current into a sinusoidal waveform and its line current is in
phase with the line voltage.

1.7.1 SOURCES OF POOR PF

 Poor power factor caused by reactive linear circuit elements results as the current
either leads or lags the voltage, depending on whether the load looks capacitive or
inductive.
 Less than acceptable power factor typically associated with electronic power
conversion equipment is caused by nonlinear circuit elements.
In most off-line power supplies, the AC-DC front end consists of a bridge rectifier
followed by a large filter capacitor.

Fig.1.6 Traditional poor power factor—the current either leads or lags the voltage

Fig. 1.7 Improvement of power factor

In this circuit, current is drawn from the line only when the peak voltage on the line
exceeds the voltage on the filter capacitor. Since the rate of rise and fall of current is greater

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than that of line voltage, and the current flows discontinuously, a series of predominantly odd
harmonics are generated. It is these harmonics that cause problems with the power
distribution system. The power factor of the system can be improved slightly by either adding
series inductance with the line or decreasing the value of the holdup capacitor, which will
lengthen the conduction angle. However, both these methods severely limit the amount of
power that can be drawn from the line.

Fig. 1.8 Current drawn from the line only when line voltage exceeds the voltage across the
capacitor

1.8. POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

1.8.1 Power Factor Correction (PFC)

Power factor correction is the method of improving the power factor of a system by
using suitable devices. The objective of power factor correction circuits is to make the input
to a power supply behave like purely resistive or a resistor. When the ratio between the
voltage and current is a constant, then the input will be resistive hence the power factor will
be 1.0. When the ratio between voltage and current is other than one due to the presence of
non-linear loads, the input will contain phase displacement, harmonic distortion and thus, the
power factor gets degraded.

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1.8.2 Need of PFC

The rise in the industrial, commercial and residential applications of electronic

equipment’s has resulted in a huge variety of electronic devices requiring mains supply.
These devices have rectification circuits, which is the prominent reason of harmonic
distortion. These devices convert AC to DC power supply which causes current pulses to be
drawn from the ac network during each half cycle of the supply waveform. Even if a single
device for example, a television may not draw a lot of reactive power nor it can generate
enough harmonics to affect the supply system significantly, but within a particular phase
connection, there may exist several such devices connected to the same supply phase
resulting in production of a large amount of reactive power flow and harmonics in line
current.

With improvement in the field of semiconductors, the size and weight of control
circuits have drastically reduced. This has also affected their performance and thus power
electronic converters have become increasingly popular in industrial, commercial and
residential applications. However this mismatch between power supplied and power used
cannot be detected by any kind of meter meant for charging the domestic consumers, and
hence, results in direct loss of revenues.
Moreover, since different streets are supplied with different phases, a 3-phase
unbalanced condition may also arise within a housing scheme. The unbalance current flows
in the neutral line of a star connected network causing undesirable heating and burning of the
conductor.
This pulsating current contains harmonics which results in additional losses and
dielectric stresses in capacitors and cables, increasing currents in windings of rotating
machinery (e.g., induction motors) and transformers and noise emissions in many
equipment’s. The rectifier used in the AC input side is the prime source of this problem.
Thus, in order to decrease the effect of this distortion, power factor correction circuits are
added to the supply input side of equipment’s used in industries and domestic applications to
increase the efficiency of power usage.

1.8.3 Types of Power Factor Correction (PFC)

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Power Factor Correction can be classified as two types:
 Passive Power Factor Correction
 Active Power Factor Correction

1.8.3.1 Passive Power Factor Correction

In Passive PFC, in addition to the diode bridge rectifier, passive elements are
introduced to improve the nature of the line current. By using this, power factor can be
increased to a value of 0.7 to 0.8 approximately. As the voltage level of power supply
increases, the sizes of PFC components increase. The idea of passive PFC is to filter out the
harmonic currents by use of a low pass filter and only allow the 50 Hz power frequency wave
to increase the power factor.
Advantages of Passive PFC:
 It has a simple structure.
 It is reliable and rugged.
 The cost is very low because only a filter is required.
 The high frequency switching losses are absent and it is not sensitive to noises and
surges.
 The equipment’s used in this circuit don’t generate high frequency EMI.
Disadvantages of Passive PFC:
 For achieving better power factor the size of the filter increases.
 Due to the time lag associated with the passive elements it has a poor dynamic
response.
 The voltage cannot be regulated and the efficiency is low.
 Due to presence of inductors and capacitors interaction may take place between the
passive elements and the system resonance may occur at different frequencies.
 Although by filtering the harmonics can be filtered out, the fundamental component
may get phase shifted thus reducing the power factor
 The shape of input current is dependent upon what kind of load is connected.

1.8.3.2 Active Power Factor Correction

An active PFC is a power electronic device designed to control the amount of power
drawn by a load and obtains a power factor as close as possible to unity. Commonly any

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active PFC design functions by controlling the input current in order to make the current
waveform follow the supply voltage waveform closely (i.e. a sine wave). A combination of
the reactive elements and some active switches increase the effectiveness of the line current
shaping and to obtain controllable output voltage. The switching frequency differentiates the
active PFC solutions into two classes.

 Low frequency active PFC:

Switching takes place at low-order harmonics of the line-frequency and it is synchronized
with the line voltage.
 High frequency active PFC:
The switching frequency is much higher than the line frequency. The power factor value
obtained through Active PFC technique can be more than 0.9. With a suitable design even a
power factor of 0.99 can be achieved easily. Active PFC power supply can detect the input
voltage automatically, supports 110V to 240V alternative current, its size and weight is
smaller than passive PFC power supply.
Advantages of Active PFC:
 The weight of active PFC system is very less.
 The size is also smaller and a power factor value of over 0.95 can be obtained through
this method.
 It reduces the harmonics present in the system.
 Automatic correction of the AC input voltage can be obtained.
 It is capable of operating in a full range of voltage
Disadvantages of Active PFC:
 The layout design is somewhat more complex than passive PFC.
 It is very expensive since it needs PFC control IC, high voltage MOSFET, high
voltage ultra-fast choke and other circuits

1.9 Electromagnetic interference (EMI):

Electromagnetic interference (EMI), also called radio-frequency interference (RFI)
when in the radio frequency spectrum, is a disturbance generated by an external source that
affects an electrical circuit by electromagnetic induction, electrostatic coupling, or
conduction. The disturbance may degrade the performance of the circuit or even stop it from
functioning. In the case of a data path, these effects can range from an increase in error rate to
a total loss of the data. Both man-made and natural sources generate changing electrical

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currents and voltages that can cause EMI: automobile ignition systems, cell phones, thunder
storms, the Sun, and the Northern Lights. EMI frequently affects AM radios. It can also affect
cell phones, FM radios, and televisions.

There are many forms of electromagnetic interference, EMI that can affect circuits
and prevent them from working in the way that was intended. This EMI or radio frequency
interference, RFI as it is sometimes called can arise in a number of ways, although in an ideal
world it should not be present.

EMI - electromagnetic interference can arise from many sources, being either man
made or natural. It can also have a variety of characteristics dependent upon its source and
the nature of the mechanism giving rise to the interference.

By the very name of interference given to it, EMI is an unwanted signal at the signal
receiver, and in general methods are sought to reduce the level of the interference.

1.10 Types of EMI - Electromagnetic Interference

EMI - Electromagnetic Interference can arise in many ways and from a number of
sources. The different types of EMI can be categorised in a number of ways.

One way of categorising the type of EMI is by the way it was created:

 Man-made EMI: This type of EMI generally arises from other electronics circuits,
although some EMI can arise from switching of large currents, etc.

 Naturally occurring EMI: This type of EMI can arise from many sources - cosmic
noise as well as lightning and other atmospheric types of noise all contribute.

Another method of categorising the type of EMI is by its duration:

 Continuous interference: This type of EMI generally arises from a source such as a
circuit that is emitting a continuous signal. However background noise, which is
continuous may be created in a number of ways, either manmade or naturally
occurring.

 Impulse noise: Again, this type of EMI may be man-made or naturally occurring.
Lightning, ESD, and switching systems all contribute to impulse noise which is a
form of EMI.

It is also possible to categorise the different types of EMI by their bandwidth.

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  Narrowband: Typically this form of EMI is likely to be a single carrier source -
possibly generated by an oscillator of some form. Another form of narrowband EMI is
the spurious signals caused by intermodulation and other forms of distortion in a
transmitter such as a mobile phone of Wi-Fi router. These spurious signals will appear
at different points in the spectrum and may cause interference to another user of the
radio spectrum. As such these spurious signals must be kept within tight limits.

 Broadband: There are many forms of broadband noise which can be experienced. It
can arise from a great variety of sources. Man-made broadband interference can arise
from sources such as arc welders where a spark is continuously generated. Naturally
occurring broadband noise can be experienced from the Sun - it can cause sun-outs for
satellite television systems when the Sun appears behind the satellite and noise can
mask the wanted satellite signal. Fortunately these episodes only last for a few
minutes.

1.11 EMI coupling mechanisms

There are many ways in which the electromagnetic interference can be coupled from the
source to the receiver. Understanding which coupling method brings the interference to the
receiver is key to being able to address the problem.

 Radiated: This type of EMI coupling is probably the most obvious. It is the type of
EMI coupling that is normally experienced when the source and victim are separated
by a large distance - typically more than a wavelength. The source radiates a signal
which may be wanted or unwanted, and the victim receives it in a way that disrupts its
performance.

 Conducted: Conducted emissions occur as the name implies when there is a

conduction route along which the signals can travel. This may be along power cables
or other interconnection cabling. The conduction may be in one of two modes:

o Common mode: This type of EMI coupling occurs when the noise appears in
the same phase on the two conductors, e.g. out and return for signals, or +ve
and -ve for power cables.
o Differential mode: This occurs when the noise is out of phase on the two
conductors.

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 The filtering techniques required will vary according to the type of EMI coupling
experienced. For common mode lines are filtered together. For differential mode they may be
filtered together.

 Inductive coupling: What is normally termed inductive coupling can be one of two
forms, namely capacitive coupling and magnetic induction.
 Capacitive coupling: This occurs when a changing voltage from the source
capacitive transfers a charge to the victim circuitry.
 Magnetic coupling: This type of EMI coupling exists when a varying magnetic field
exists between the source and victim - typically two conductors may run close
together (less than λ apart). This induces a current in the victim circuitry, thereby
transferring the signal from source to victim.

By determining the form of coupling that exists and the way in which it is reaching
the victim, it may prove to be that the most effective method of reducing the EMI is by
putting measures in place to reduce the coupling and reduce the level of interference to an
acceptable level.

Electromagnetic interference, EMI is present in all areas of electronics. By

understanding the source, the coupling methods and the susceptibility of the victim, the level
of interference can be reduced to a level where the EMI causes no undue degradation in
performance.

1.12 High frequency (HF)

High frequency (HF) is the ITU designation for the range of radio frequency
electromagnetic waves (radio waves) between 3 and 30 MHz It is also known as the
decametre band or decametre wave as its wavelengths range from one to ten decametres (ten
to one hundred metres). Frequencies immediately below HF are denoted medium frequency
(MF), while the next band of higher frequencies is known as the very high frequency (VHF)
band. The HF band is a major part of the shortwave band of frequencies, so communication at
these frequencies is often called shortwave radio. Because radio waves in this band can be
reflected back to Earth by the ionosphere layer in the atmosphere – a method known as "skip"
or "sky wave" propagation – these frequencies are suitable for long-distance communication
across intercontinental distances. The band is used by international shortwave broadcasting
stations (2.310 - 25.820 MHz), aviation communication, government time stations, weather
stations, and amateur radio and citizens band services, among other uses.

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Conclusion : This chapter introduced the fundamental concepts of rectifiers, their
classifications, and their role in converting AC power to DC power. It also discussed the
significance of rectifiers in various applications, including motor control, power supplies, and
industrial electronics. The chapter covered single-phase and three-phase rectifiers, their
working principles, and waveforms.

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 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Introduction:

The charger in 7 requires a four switch AC-DC converter for PFC operation and a full bridge

DC-DC converter for CC/CV mode charging operation. The PFC controller is designed with

battery voltage and current references i.e. by making the control circuit more complex. A

level 2 charger combining bridgeless boost PFC converter as front-end converter and isolated

phase shifted full bridge DC-DC converter is presented in 8.To obtain high density and high-

efficiency silicon carbide power switches(SiC) are utilized. A maximum efficiency of 95 %

and minimum THD 4.2 % is obtained at a frequency of 200 kHz.

Smart Homes and Smart Grid based operation modes for EV is described in 9.Usually,

two modes of power transfer occur between EV and Grid i.e. Grid to Vehicle and Vehicle to

Grid. The literature proposes additional two modes namely Vehicle for Grid and home to

Vehicle. A Vehicle to Home operation is proposed. In H2V mode, the charger current is

controlled depending on the in home appliances and their consumption of power.V4G

operation is aimed for the reactive power compensation in the home itself with the utilization

of the vehicle charger. In V2H mode, the vehicle supplies power to a single home unlike in

V2G mode where the vehicle is supposed to supply power to the grid. A 3.6 kW charger

prototype is developed with bi-directional power flow capabilities to achieve all modes of

operations.

In10 an on-board battery charger for the electric scooter is developed. The charger is

designed for a lead-acid battery of 180 V and 12 Ah and the charger can charge the battery

from a 110 V, 60 Hz, single phase outlet. The concept of low voltage DC-DC converter

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(LDC) is proposed. In order to charge a 12 V auxiliary battery from the 180 V propulsion

battery, a DC-DC converter is proposed.

2.2 Single Phase Power Factor Correction: A Survey

Power supplies connected to ac mains introduce harmonic currents in the utility. It is

very well known that these harmonic currents cause several problems such as voltage
distortion, heating, noise and reduce the capability of the line to provide energy. This fact and
the need to comply with “standards” or “recommendations” have forced to use power factor
correction in power supplies.

Unity power factor and tight output voltage regulation are achieved with the very
well-known two stage approach, showing Fig.2.1. Since the power stage is composed by two
converters, size, cost and efficiency are penalized, mainly in low power applications.
However, this is probably the best option for ac-DC converters due to the following reasons.

1) Sinusoidal line current guarantees the compliance of any Regulation.

2) It gives good performance under universal line voltage.

3) It offers many possibilities to implement both the isolation between line and load, and the
hold-up time.

4) The penalty on the efficiency due to the double energy processing is partially compensated
by the fact that the voltage on the storage capacitor is controlled. The fact of having a
constant input voltage allows a good design of the second stage.

Although unity power factor is the ideal objective, it is not necessary for meeting the
Regulations. For example, both IEEE519 and IEC 1000-3-2, allow the presence of harmonics
in the line current1. This fact has led to the publication of great number of papers in the last
years, proposing solutions that obtain some advantages over the two stage approach. Some of
these circuits are practical but others are too complex to be worth changing.

The purpose of this paper is to classify and compare several converters proposed for
the ac–dc conversion with power factor correction, having the two stage approach as a
reference and focusing the study in the low power range.

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 Fig.2.1. Two stage ac-dc PFC converter

2.3 A Review of Single-Phase Improved Power Quality AC–DC Converters

[3]

Solid-state ac–dc conversion of electric power is widely used in adjustable-speed

drives (ASDs), switch-mode power supplies (SMPSs), uninterrupted power supplies (UPSs),
and utility interface with nonconventional energy sources such as solar PV, etc., battery
energy storage systems (BESSs), in process technology such as electroplating, welding units,
etc., battery charging for electric vehicles, and power supplies for telecommunication
systems, measurement and test equipment’s3. Conventionally, ac–dc converters, which are
also called rectifiers, are developed using diodes and thermistors to provide controlled and
uncontrolled dc power with unidirectional and bidirectional power flow. They have the
demerits of poor power quality in terms of injected current harmonics, caused voltage
distortion and poor power factor at input ac mains and slow varying rippled dc output at load
end, low efficiency and large size of ac and dc filters. In light of their increased applications,
a new breed of rectifiers has been developed using new solid state self-commutating devices
such as MOSFETs, insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs),gate turn-off thermistors
(GTO), etc., even some of which have either not been thought or not possible to be developed
earlier using diodes and thermistors. Such pieces of equipment are generally known as
converters, but specifically named as switch-mode rectifiers (SMRs), power-factor correctors
(PFCs), pulse width-modulation (PWM) rectifiers, multilevel rectifiers, etc. Because of strict
requirement of power quality at input ac mains several standards 3 have been developed and
are being enforced on the consumers. Because of severity of power quality problems some
other options such as passive filters, active filters (AFs), and hybrid filters along with
conventional rectifiers, have been extensively developed especially in high power rating and
already existing installations. However, these filters are quite costly, heavy, and bulky and
have reasonable losses which reduce overall efficiency of the complete system. Even in some

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cases the rating of converter used in AF is almost close to the rating of the load. Under these
observations, it is considered better option to include such converters as an inherent part of
the system of ac–conversion, which provides reduced size, higher efficiency, and well
controlled and regulated dc to provide comfortable and flexible operation of the system.
Moreover, these new types of ac–dc converters are being included in the new text books and
several comparative topologies are reported indecent publications. Therefore, it is considered
timely attempt to present a broad perspective on the status ofac–dc converters technology for
the engineers working on them dealing with power quality issues.

2.4 Opportunities and Challenges in Very High Frequency Power

Conversion [6]

The need for power electronics having greater compactness, better manufacturability,
and higher performance motivates pursuit of dramatic increases in switching frequencies.
Increases in switching frequency directly reduce the energy storage requirements of power
converters, improving achievable transient performance and — in principle — enabling
miniaturization and better integration of the passive components. Realizing these advantages,
however, requires devices, passive components, and circuit designs that can operate
efficiently at the necessary frequencies6.

To achieve dramatic increases in switching frequency, itis typically necessary to

mitigate frequency-dependent device loss mechanisms including switching loss and gating
loss. Zero-voltage switching can be used to reduce capacitive discharge loss and
voltage/current overlap losses at the switching transitions. Likewise, resonant gating can
diminish losses resulting from charging and discharging device gates, provided that the gate
time constants are short compared to the desired switching transition times. In this paper, we
will focus on designs compatible with zero-voltage switching and resonant gating such that
they can be scaled with good efficiency to very high switching frequencies.

2.5 A Technology Overview of the Power Chip Development Program [7]

Power electronics is a key technology for improving functionality and performance

and reducing energy consumption in many kinds of systems. However, the size, cost, and
performance constraints of conventional power electronics currently limit their applications
and ability to realize this potential. This is especially true in relatively high-voltage, low-
power applications (e.g., voltages of up to a few hundred volts and power levels of up to tens

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of watts), such as offline power supplies, light-emitting diode (LED) drivers, converters and
inverters for photovoltaic panels, and battery interface converters, among myriad other
applications. Advances in miniaturization and integration of energy-conversion circuitry in
this voltage and power range would have tremendous impact on many such applications and
are the topic of the work described here 7.

2.6 Two-Stage Power Conversion Architecture Suitable for Wide Range

Input Voltage [8]

The performance and size of power converters are important for many applications.
Achieving small size and high-performance is particularly challenging in high-voltage and
low-power applications (e.g., voltages up to a few hundred volts and powers up to several
tens of watts). In this paper, we explore improved design in this voltage and power range,
with a focus on LED driver circuits as an important application in this space. Light emitting
diode devices promise unprecedented reductions in energy consumption in comparison to
incandescent and fluorescent lights, but come with an as-yet unmet demand for high power
density, high efficiency, and high-power-factor LED driver circuitry 8.

Fig.2.2 A merged two-stage conversion architecture includes a switched capacitor

Converters having this architecture may be realized for operation either from wide-
range (e.g., 25–200 V) dc voltage or from a rectified 120 Vrms ac voltage.

Recently published academic designs are harder to fully evaluate and compare
because of large variation on LED output configurations (e.g., separation to multiple LED
loads or diverse LED voltage specifications), but appear to provide generally similar
performance with moderate improvements in individual aspects8. Overall, the volume of the
converters was uniformly dominated by magnetic components, and in each case the driver
circuit represented a major contribution to the LED system size. These examinations indicate
that power electronics continues to be a significant limitation in solid-state lighting and that

Dept of EEE, SACET Page | 19

there is a need for major improvements in miniaturization and performance in this voltage
and power range.

Miniaturization of power electronics requires reductions in magnetic components,

which can be realized through increases in the switching frequency. Recent work has shown
the potential of high-frequency (or very-high-frequency) operation in systems operating at
tens of watts and tens of volts, and there has been preliminary work at hundreds of watts and
volts. Other switched-capacitor (SC)based design efforts has shown the advantages of merged
operation of a switched capacitor (SC) transformation circuit and a high-frequency inductor
based regulation circuit, but has only been studied for low-voltage and low power levels (i.e.,
under 2 watts and ten volts). Thus, achieving the necessary frequency increases at high
voltages and modest powers (e.g., at up to hundreds of volts and tens of watts) and realizing
the desired miniaturization and performance stiller mains a major challenge.

Conclusion: This chapter provided a comprehensive literature survey on power factor

correction (PFC) techniques, single-phase AC-DC converters, and advancements in power
electronics. Various PFC topologies, including diode bridge rectifiers, boost converters, and
interleaved buck-boost designs, were analyzed for their efficiency and harmonic reduction
capabilities. The review also highlighted the importance of power electronics in applications
such as electric vehicle chargers, LED drivers, and smart grids. Additionally, the chapter
discussed recent innovations in high-frequency power conversion and miniaturization
techniques to improve system performance. These findings set the foundation for exploring
advanced converter designs in the subsequent chapters.

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 CHAPTER 3
FRONT-END AC-DC CONVERTER

3.1 Introduction

The Electric Vehicle can be charged from a suitable outlet via an OBC the AC-DC

converter or rectifier is the first stage of an OBC which converts the available AC supply into

DC.A constant voltage with less ripple at the output terminals of the AC-DC converter is

desired which can be further utilized by the load or any other converter. Most common

rectifier topology is Diode bridge rectifier with capacitive filter and phase controlled

rectifiers. The first one is preferred for low power applications where the later one is for high

power applications and three phase applications.

One most serious issue with the conventional rectifiers is the harmonics components

of the line current which are responsible for distorting the voltage at the point of common

coupling due to source inductance and produce some undesirable effects. Due to the presence

of harmonics, the power factor becomes worst. The effect of low PF and high THD are

described in section 3.2.

3.2 Basic Definitions

Power factor (pf) simply defined as the ratio of real power to apparent power. The

instantaneous product of voltage and current over one complete cycle gives the real power

where the product of RMS voltage and RMS current gives the apparent power.

The cosine of the angle between voltage phasor ad current phasor is defined as PF.

But this definition is not valid everywhere, especially at nonlinear loads. The definition is

limited up to resistive, inductive, or capacitive loads 15. Consider a non-linear load connected

with a sinusoidal voltage source. The voltage and current can be expressed as v (t) and i (t).

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𝑉𝑚 is the maximum value of supply voltage. 𝐼𝑛 is the maximum value of 𝑛𝑡ℎ harmonics

component of current and ∅𝑛is the 𝑛𝑡ℎ harmonic phase displacement.

RMS value of current can be expressed as

Power factor can be expressed as the product of displacement factor and distortion factor.

The displacement factor can be defined as the cosine of angle between fundamental

component of voltage and current and as denoted by 𝑘∅.

Where ∅ is the phase displacement between fundamental voltage and current.

The distortion factor can be defined as the ratio of fundamental component of current to the

RMS current and is denoted as 𝑘𝑑.

The Total Harmonic Distortion can be calculated as

Power factor can be defined as the product of displacement factor and distortion factor.

pf =𝑘𝑑×𝑘∅

When the fundamental component of current is in phase with the voltage, the displacement

factor is 1 and the PF =𝑘𝑑.

Effects of current Harmonics:

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  The current harmonics distorts the grid voltage at Point of Common Coupling (PCC)

via line impedance of the power system and the distorted voltage cause malfunction in

various electrical equipment connected to the grid.

 In AC machines, a fundamental component of current is useful and desired to produce

required amount of power. Harmonic current add to the fundamental and result in

increased current which in turn increases the losses in distribution transformer and AC

machines. Due to additional loss machines undergo overheating and cannot be used

up to their actual rating.

 Large neutral current flows in the power system due to triple harmonics.

 Malfunctions in protection system caused by the current harmonics.

Effects of low pf:

 At low pf, the load draws more current and the loss in the converter and the

transmission system increases and efficiency reduces.

 The Reactive power increases which increase the rating of the electrical components

and additional reactive power has to be supplied by shunt elements or generator.

3.3 Harmonic standards

Due to the adverse effects of the harmonics, various agencies have adopted standards

i.e. the maximum allowable harmonic current that can be injected into the power system by

any load. A few standards are listed below.

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IEC 61000-3-2 Standard:

Table 1

Table 3.1 IEC 61000-3-2 standard for Class A equipment

IEC stands for International Electro technical Commission and enforced in Europe. It

defines a limit for current harmonics of equipment with a maximum input current of 16 A.

The standard applies to both single phase, and three phase equipment, and the frequency may

be 50 Hz or 60 Hz. Harmonic limits for Class A equipment is shown in Table 3.1.Some

examples of class an equipment are rectifiers for office and computer.

IEEE Standard:

According to IEEE, the current harmonics are measured by the ratio of load current to

the short circuit current. This ratio can also define as the ratio of load kVA to short circuit

kVA at PCC.

The voltage harmonics distortion on the power system is limited to 5 % THD with

voltage rating up to 69 kV and the current harmonics depend on the short circuit capacity of

the line at PCC according to IEEE standard 51916.

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 Table 2

Table 3.2 Voltage harmonic limits

Table 3.3 Current harmonic limits

Where, 𝐼𝑆𝐶𝐼𝐿⁄maximum harmonic current distortion in percent of 𝐼𝐿.

h = the harmonic order (odd harmonics).

𝐼𝑆𝐶 = short circuit current at PCC.

𝐼𝐿 = fundamental component of load current at PCC.

TDD=Total demand distortion.

PCC=Point of common coupling.

3.4 Diode Rectifier

One of the commonly used AC-DC converters is a diode bridge rectifier for low

power applications. Fig 2.1(a) shows a diode bridge rectifier without any filter. The operation

of the converter is very simple. Diagonal diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 conduct for positive half cycle

of the supply voltage and similarly diodes 𝐷3and 𝐷4 conducts for negative half of the

supply voltage. The rectifier behaves as a pure resistive load to the input AC source and, the

input current is in phase with the voltage, providing unity power factor operation.

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 (a)

(b)

Fig 3.1 Diode bridge rectifier (a) power stage diagram (b) output voltage

In most cases the output of the rectifier is a DC-DC converter which accept an input

DC voltage of a ripple within permissible limit. To reduce the ripple of the output voltage

various filters are implemented which are discussed below.

3.4.1 with C filter

In order to minimize the ripple voltage at the output and maximize the average output

voltage, filters are added to the conventional rectifier. A capacitive filter is one of the basic

filters and widely used one. Fig 2.2(a) shows a diode bridge rectifier with C filter. Usually,

the value of the capacitor is decided by the amount of allowable ripple in output voltage.

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 (a)

(b)

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 (c)

Fig 3.2 Diode rectifier with C filter (a) power stage diagram(b)output voltage(c)input

current(𝑉𝑆=230 V RMS and C =200μF)

As shown in Fig 3.2 (b) the voltage is having a ripple of 60 V peak-to-peak. The ripple

can be minimized further by increasing the value of filter capacitor. The input current is not

sinusoidal, but it contains harmonics that can be verified from the FFT of the input current in Fig

3.3(a).The input current is discontinuous i.e. the diagonal diodes does not conduct for the entire

half cycle of the supply. With the increase in the capacitance value, the conduction period of the

diodes decreases and the input current peak increases with the increase in THD. The reason for

the momentary current is explained below.

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 (a)

(b)

Fig 3.3 Diode rectifier with C filter (a) input current FFT analysis (b) rectified voltage

capacitor voltage and input current (input current is magnified by ten times for better

visibility)

Fig 3.3(b) shows the steady state capacitor voltage and input current waveform. The

rectified voltage without any filter is shown in green colour. When the input voltage or

rectified voltage less than the voltage across capacitor the diodes are reverse biased and no

current flows into the converter and the load current is supplied by the capacitor. When the

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supply voltage more than the capacitor voltage the diodes become forward bias and the

capacitor draw charging current from the supply for a short duration. When the supply

voltage is less than the capacitor voltage simultaneously the four diodes, get reverse biased. If

the capacitor tends to infinity, the input current is an impulse current only. The power factor

of the converter is 0.657, and the THD is 144.5% which exceeds the standards.

3.4.2 With LC filter

With LC filter, the rectifier operates in two modes i.e. CCM and DCM. When the

inductor is very large as compared to the capacitor, the rectifier operates in CCM. The large

inductor does not allow a sudden change in current and hence the inductor current is constant.

The constant inductor current is supplied by the input diode rectifier with at least two diodes

conducting. The input current is in phase with the input voltage. Hence the displacement factor is

unity. However, the shape of current is not sinusoidal hence by introduces THD. In

Discontinuous Conduction Mode the inductance value is small as compared to the capacitor. Due

to the presence of inductor the input current width increases and inductor smoothens the current.

Several LC branches can be connected as a filter, and harmonic trap filter can be

implemented at the input side with a series branch of RLC. With the addition of inductor on the

output side of the diode rectifier the THD and PF improves. The results are shown in Fig 3.4.

(a)

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 (b)

Fig 3.4 Diode rectifier with LC filter (a) input current (b) FFT of input current(L= 20 mF and

C=200μF)

The THD reduces from 144 % to 74 % with the addition of filter inductance. With the

increase in L value, the THD decreases and at the same instance the output voltage decreases and

to maintain the desired output voltage another DC-DC converter with boost operation is

necessary. The THD gets better with the harmonic trap filter at the input side. Fig 3.5 shows a

graph between Inductance and THD. With infinite inductance, the pf cannot reach more than

0.917.

Passive filters cannot make power factor more than 0.75 and only applicable for low

power applications. Some disadvantages of passive filters are size, high THD, low pf, unwanted

resonance. Due to the disadvantages, active techniques are adopted at high power levels.

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 Fig 3.5 Filter inductance versus THD graph

3.5 Active PFC Converter

Due to various limitations of passive PFC techniques and to achieve unity power

factor with very less THD active PFC techniques are implemented. Various switching

converter topologies are used to force the input current to follow the shape of input voltage

thus by reducing the harmonics and improving the PF. With the implementation of active

PFC, the AC-DC converter behaves like a resistive load and draws sinusoidal input current.

Active PFC devices produce less ripple voltage and the size of reactive elements much

reduced because of high switching frequencies.

Fig 3.6 Block Diagram of Active PFC

The block diagram shows a basic AC-DC converter with power factor correction. The

Diode rectifier is suitable only for unidirectional power flow i.e. Grid to Vehicle in the case

of an On-Board EV charger. To achieve bi-directional power flow in G2V and V2G manner,

the diode is replaced by IGBT or MOSFET and the rectifier can operate as an inverter in

V2G mode of operation.

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 The DC-DC converter can be a Buck, Boost or Buck-Boost depending on the output

voltage requirement. Buck converter produce an output voltage lower than input supply

voltage whereas Boost converter produces a voltage higher than the supply voltage at the

output terminals. The output voltage can be higher or lower than the supply voltage in the

case of a Buck-Boost converter, but the component stress of Buck-boost converter is double

to that of Buck or Boost topology hence it is not recommended. The DC-DC converter stage

can be an isolated converter i.e. fly back or forward which can provide galvanic isolation

between the Grid and EV. Depending on the operation of these converters in CCM or DCM

the inductor current can be continuous or discontinuous. A discontinuous inductor current

reaches zero in each switching cycle whereas a continuous inductor current never touches

zero and have less ripple. Only in the case of Boost converter the input current is continuous

and in Buck and Boost it is discontinuous because of the interruption of the switch in each

switching cycle.

3.6 Boost PFC Converter

Fig 3.7 Boost PFC converter

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 Fig 3.7 shows a power stage circuit diagram of a Boost PFC converter. The input

supply voltage is first rectified by a diode bridge rectifier and a Boost converter added at the

later stage to make soppy current sinusoidal.

3.6.1 Switching operation of Boost converter

The line voltage is converted into a rectified DC voltage via Diode rectifier before the

Boost converter. The input voltage to the Boost converter is the rectified voltage which

varying from zero to peak value of the supply voltage. The pulsating input DC voltage can be

assumed as a constant DC voltage source for the analysis and operation of the Boost

converter purpose. The Boost converter circuit configuration with both ON and OFF interval

equivalent circuits are shown in Fig 3.8.

(a)

(b)

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 (c)

Fig 3.8 (a) Boost converter and equivalent circuit during (b) ON interval (c) OFF interval

Fig 3.8 describes the ON and OFF interval circuit model of Boost converter. During

the time interval, 0≤t≤DTs the Boost switch SB is turned ON by gate pulse, where D is the

duty cycle Ts and is the switching period which is reciprocal of switching frequency. At this

interval, the boost inductor LB gets short-circuited via switch and input voltage V RECT .The

boost diode is reverse biased, and the load is supplied by the DC link capacitor. The inductor

current iL and capacitor voltage vc can be described by

During the interval DT, ≤t≤T, the switch is turned OFF while the boost diode is forward

biased. The load is connected across the supply via the inductor. The OFF stage of the circuit

is shown in Fig 3.8I. The dynamic equations of the inductor current and capacitor current can

be written as

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Both modes are repeated for every switching cycles.

3.6.2 Different modes of operation

Depending on the inductor current waveform boost converter operation is classified

into three types i.e. Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM), Discontinuous Conduction Mode

(DCM) and Critical Conduction Mode (CrCM) or Boundary Conduction Mode (BCM).

In CCM, the inductor current never reaches to zero. From Eq. 3.8 and 3.10 it can be

observed that the inductor current increases during ON time and decreases during OFF time.

During OFF time, there is a possibility of DCM if the inductor current reaches to zero. The

advantages of CCM is the higher efficiency of the converter and low current stress on

components. However, the disadvantage is a separate current controller is necessary for input

current shaping so that the input current will follow the input voltage.

In DCM, the inductor current goes to zero in OFF interval if each switching cycle.

The voltage and current stress on power devices are more in DCM but DCM has an

advantage of inherited wave shaping of the input current. No separate current controller is

required in case of DCM for input current shaping. In DCM, the inductor current is just

discontinuous.

The simulated inductor current waveform of both CCM and DCM mode are shown in

Fig 3.9.The DCM provides a sinusoidal input current whereas the input current in case of

CCM is non-sinusoidal and needs a further current controller. For CCM operation, the boost

inductance is taken as one mH whereas for DCM operation the inductance is chosen as

20𝜇H.

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 (a)

(b)

Fig 3.9 Inductor current in (a) CCM (b) DCM

Conclusion: This chapter explored the front-end AC-DC conversion process in electric

vehicle (EV) chargers, discussing various rectifier topologies and their impact on power

quality. The limitations of conventional diode bridge rectifiers, including high harmonic

distortion and low power factor, were analyzed. Passive power factor correction (PFC)

techniques, such as capacitor and LC filters, were reviewed for their ability to reduce

harmonics, though they come with drawbacks such as increased component size and limited

effectiveness.

Dept of EEE, SACET Page | 37

 CHAPTER 4
MODIFIED LUO CONVERTER

4.1 INTRODUCTION

THE widespread use of electronic devices from single-phase ac supplies necessitates

the increasing use of power factor corrected (PFC) power supplies in many applications
including electronic equipment, computer servers, and consumer products. PFC power
supplies provide low total harmonic distortion (THD) in the current drawn from the line and
this is an increasingly important requirement. Power factor correction techniques have been
researched widely in the literature 1, 2
and an active PFC using high frequency switching
techniques3 are now commonly used.

The overarching principle involves controlling the input current drawn from the mains
input to achieve the required current shape for low THD and high power factor. The power
supply must provide a regulated dc output voltage and for many applications, galvanic
isolation is also required. The basic boost or step-up converter 4 forms the core of most
architectures as it has an input inductor that allows input current control to be readily
achieved. The well-known fly back converter can be derived from the buck-boost converter,
but with a transformer for output voltage isolation4.

Traditionally for PFC supplies, fly back converters have been used for lower power
levels (≤100 W). For higher power levels (≥500 W), a separate boost converter for PFC and
separate dc to dc converter with transformer isolation for output dc voltage regulation is used.

4.1.1. Brief Review of PFC Converters

The significant development in battery technologies and power electronics, the
automotive industries such as electric vehicles (EVs) have provided a wider platform for
modern researchers to grab an opportunity for achieving the cleaner propelling power sources
1
. The high energy and fuel efficiency have become a great concern for both manufacturers
and EV consumers, which has accelerated the need for efficient battery chargers for EVs. To
obtain high efficiency and reliability during charging, the power factor correction (PFC)
converters have become a vital part of the modern EV chargers. The circuit for the existing
traditional EV charger with input full bridge diode rectifier (DBR) and dc–dc converter is
shown in Fig. 3.1(a).The performance of a conventional EV charger is measured as shown in
Fig. 3.1(b)–(d), which shows that the conventional charger without PF correction causes rich

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harmonic content in mains current and deteriorates the input power quality (PQ) indices such
as input power factor (PF), displacement PF (DPF), and crest factor (CF). The value of true
PF lies in the range 0 to 1. When the power demanded by the load is reactive (usually
inductive load), true PF is 0. However, the DPF represents the PF due to the phase difference
between input voltage and input current at the fundamental frequency (line). True PF is
considered with harmonic content; however, DPF is taken into account at the fundamental
frequency. However, the value of DPF and PF is the same for sinusoidal current with low
distortion, which is unity. Therefore, the performance of a conventional battery charger for
EV is not found as per the IEC 61000-3-2 standard 2.

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Fig. 4.1. (a) Conventional charger and (b) circuit PQ performance at rated 230 V: observed distorted
mains current with mains voltage. (c) Charger power profile with low input PF. (d) Mains current
THD.

To overcome the above PQ issues, the conventional boost and buck-boost PFC
converters are incorporated at the front end, between DBR and dc-link capacitor as shown in
Fig. 4. 2. However, the addition of an extra converter in charger, adds to the number of total
components. This affects the cost and size of the charger, which restricts the efficiency and
reliability of the charger with increased weight. Therefore, single stage isolated ac–dc
converters with input DBR are more widely used in PFC applications at high-power rating 3.

Fig. 4.2. Conventional boost PFC converter fed two-stage EV charger

Several single-phase single stage EV chargers based on integrated unidirectional and

bidirectional configurations are reported in the literature, which provide high efficiency along
with reduced size and weight4. A comprehensive analytical review of different EV charger
topologies for the charging infrastructure and power levels is proposed in 5. A new single
stage full bridge converter with pulse width modulation (PWM) control is discussed in 6 for
PFC over universal ac mains voltage, but the use of four switches and additional gate drive
circuitry make it less attractive for a low cost EV charger.

However, all these configurations of single-stage single switch solutions seem to be

unattractive for high power applications of ac–dc converters, typically, due to increased
voltage stress in PFC semiconductor devices, which, in turn, results into lower efficiency 10. A

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novel technique based on coupled winding structure is proposed in 11–14, which reduces the
switch voltage and current stress, but the arrangement of coupled winding makes the design
of isolation transformer complex and bulky. Dylan et al. have proposed an integrated boost-
forward PFC converter to reduce the main switch current stress with two independent
conduction period of mains current. However, the switch voltage stress is clamped at bus
voltage using a dual peak-current controller15. Therefore, in the proposed work, a two switch
technology is applied for significant switch voltage and current stress reduction in isolated
Luo converter-based EV charger.

A Luo converter is popularly used as dc–dc converter on account of having improved

voltage regulation under sudden varying line voltages and better light load efficiency 16–22. The
elementary non isolated positive16 and negative output Luo converters19 are reported in the
literature, which have proved their potential for increased voltage conversion ratio and low
output ripple and input ripple. The basic topologies for non-isolated as well as isolated Luo
converter are represented in Fig. 4.3(a) and (b). The contribution of the proposed work is seen
in terms of use of Luo converter for an improved PF based EV charger, which has found less
exploration in the literature earlier.

Fig. 4.3. Basic Luo converter. (a) Elementary non isolated negative output Luo converter
circuit. (b) Elementary isolated positive output Luo converter circuit

4.2 Description of Modified Luo Converter

The configuration of the EV charger with modified Luo converter is shown in Fig.
4.4. The design of this isolated converter is selected to provide a discontinuous conduction
mode (DCM)-based operation. This ensures the intrinsic PFC characteristics of the charger
over the entire variation of input voltage. The converter consists of two PFC switches S1 and
S2 and clamping diodes D1 and D2 at the primary side of the high frequency transformer
(HFT). The secondary of the transformer is connected to output diode Do, intermediate

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capacitor C1 and output inductor Lo. The charging of the battery in CC–CV phases is
achieved using a dual loop PI controller. A 760 W prototype for this charger with new Luo
converter is designed and discussed to prove the efficacy of the charger with improved PQ as
per the IEC 61000-3-2 standard.

Fig. 4.4. Proposed modified negative output Luo converter fed EV charger with reduced
switch voltage.

4.2.1. Operation of Modified Luo Converter

The design of modified Luo converter is selected to operate in DCM as the current
through the HFT magnetizing inductance Lm becomes discontinuous over a complete
switching cycle. Different modes of operation associated with proposed converter
corresponding to the three switching durations are discussed as follows.

Mode-I: During this mode, both switches S1 and S2 are made on. The magnetizing
inductor starts storing the energy from supply as the current through this rises linearly. The
inductor Lo starts charging through the intermediate capacitor C1 as the capacitor voltage
starts decreasing through Lo, during this instance as shown in Fig. 4.5(a). The diode Do
remains in reverse bias at the secondary side. Under steady state, considering magnetizing
inductor current as iLm, output inductor current as iLo, the intermediate capacitor voltage as
vc1, and dc link capacitor voltage as vo = vco, the inductor voltage and capacitor currents are
written as follows:

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Where n is the transformation ratio of the HFT and Io is the rated charging current.

Mode-II: Fig. 4.5(b) represents Mode-II, when both the PFC switches S1 and S2 are
turned off. During this interval, the diodes D1 and D2 come into conduction. The
magnetizing inductance Lm provides the stored energy to the output diode Do, and it starts
conducting. The intermediate capacitor voltage vC1 starts increasing through the energy of
the magnetizing inductance at the HFT secondary winding. The energy is transferred to the
output capacitor through the output inductor Lo, and the required charging current is supplied
to the battery. During this instant, the voltage across the magnetizing inductor and output
inductor as well as the capacitor currents is expressed as follows:

Mode-III: In this period, both the diodes (D1, D2) are reverse biased and pulses to the
PFC switches (S1, S2) are made off. The converter enters DCM operation as the energy
stored in Lm is depleted completely. The diode Do becomes reverse biased. The required
energy for the battery is provided by the dc-link capacitance through the inductor Lo and the
energy transfer capacitor, C1, as shown in Fig. 4.5(c). The key switching phenomena over the
complete switching cycle associated with the circuit components are depicted in Fig. 4.5(d).
During DCM operation, the inductor voltage and capacitor current are expressed as follows:

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Fig. 4.5. Different modes of operation for proposed isolated Luo converter. (a) Mode I. (b)
Mode II. (c) Mode III. (d) Key waveforms of different components over complete switching
cycle.

4.2.2 Voltage Conversion Ratio

Considering ILm, ILo, Io, Vin, VC1, and Vo as the corresponding dc values of iLm,
iLo, io, vin, vC1, and vo at steady state and D is the required duty cycle, the volt-sec balance
across the inductors Lm and Lo is applied as

This results in the dc voltage gain of the proposed Luo converter, the expression of which is
given as

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4.2.3 Voltage Stress on PFC Devices (S1,2Do, and D1,2)
From mode-I, the voltage stress on clamping diodes D1 and D2 as well as diode Do
are obtained as follows:

During mode II, the peak voltage across the primary switches S1, 2 are obtained as follows:

Note that the voltage stress across the primary switches S1, 2 is clamped to input
voltage due to the use of clamping diodes at the primary. This stress is lower than the
conventional isolated Luo converter case which incurs a maximum voltage stress of Vin+
nVo

Conclusion: This chapter explored the design and operation of a Modified Luo Converter
for power factor correction (PFC) in electric vehicle (EV) chargers. The limitations of
conventional rectifiers and PFC converters were analyzed, highlighting their inefficiencies in
power quality and component stress. The Modified Luo Converter was introduced as an
improved solution, offering better voltage regulation, reduced harmonic distortion, and
improved power factor. By operating in Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM), the
converter minimizes switching losses and enhances efficiency. The detailed analysis of its
working modes, voltage conversion ratio, and voltage stress on components demonstrates its
advantages over traditional PFC converters. This research paves the way for further
optimization and implementation of high-efficiency power conversion systems in EV
charging infrastructure.

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 MATLAB AND SIMULINK MODEL

The name MATLAB stands for Matrix Laboratory. MATLAB was written originally
to provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK (linear system
package) and EISPACK (Eigen system package) projects.

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates

computation, visualization, and programming environment. Furthermore, MATLAB is a
modern programming language environment: it has sophisticated data structures, contains
built-in editing and debugging tools, and supports object-oriented programming. These
factors make MATLAB an excellent tool for teaching and research.

MATLAB has many advantages compared to conventional computer languages (e.g.,

C, FORTRAN) for solving technical problems. MATLAB is an interactive system whose
basic data element is an array that does not require dimensioning. The software package has
been commercially available since 1984 and is now considered as a standard tool at most
universities and industries worldwide.

It has powerful built-in routines that enable a very wide variety of computations. It
also has easy to use graphics commands that make the visualization of results immediately
available. Specific applications are collected in packages referred to as toolbox. There are
toolboxes for signal processing, symbolic computation, control theory, simulation,
optimization, and several other fields of applied science and engineering.

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 SIMULATION RESULTS

Fig 5.1 Simulation Diagram of Modified Luo Converter

Fig 5.2 Source Voltage and Current

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 Fig 5.3 Rectified Voltage

Fig 5.4 HF primary voltage, current and secondary voltage and current

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 Fig 5.5 HF primary voltage, current and secondary voltage and current (zoom view)

Fig 5.6 Output DC Voltage

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 Fig 5.7 Source Power Factor
Figure 5.1 likely shows the overall simulation setup or circuit diagram of the
Modified Luo Converter. It may include components such as switches, inductors, capacitors,
diodes, and transformers, which are typical in Luo converters. The diagram helps visualize
how the converter is modelled in the simulation environment.

Figure 5.2 displays the input voltage and current waveforms of the converter. The
source voltage is likely a DC or AC input, and the current waveform shows how the
converter draws current from the source.

Figure 5.3 shows the rectified voltage waveform, which is the output of the
rectification stage in the converter. If the input is AC, this waveform would represent the DC
voltage after rectification. If the input is DC, it might show further processing of the DC
signal.

Figure 5.4 depicts the high-frequency (HF) waveforms on the primary and secondary
sides of a transformer (if present) in the converter. It likely shows the voltage and current
waveforms for both the primary (input) and secondary (output) sides of the transformer.

Fig 5.5Zoomed-in view of the waveforms shown in . It provides a more detailed look
at the high-frequency voltage and current waveforms on both the primary and secondary
sides of the transformer.

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 Figure 5.6 shows the final output DC voltage of the converter. It represents the
voltage delivered to the load after all conversion stages.

Figure 5.7 displays the power factor of the source. The power factor is a measure of
how effectively the converter draws power from the source, with a value close to 1 indicating
high efficiency.

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Dept of EEE, SACET Page | 52
 CONCLUSIONS

To charge an EV battery under widely fluctuating supply voltage and loadings, a

single stage modified Luo converter has been suggested as part of the design of an enhanced
PQ-based EV charger. The suggested EV charger enables the combined benefits of easier
control because of DCM operation, better charging with isolation, and less stress on
semiconductor components in single-stage converters. The charger's dependability is
increased since the device voltage is lower than with a traditional isolated PFC converter-
based charger and capped at the maximum input voltage. Additionally, the charger is smaller
and less expensive. According to the suggested IEC 61000-32 standard, the suggested
charger's efficacy for built-in PF correction is evaluated under all working circumstances.
Over the whole range of supply voltages, the PF is controlled around unity and the mains
current is shown to be sinusoidal. At rated load, the mains current THD is as low as 3.3%,
while at light load (CV charging), it is as low as 6.1%. As a result, the suggested enhanced
PF-based modified Luo converter is the most practical, dependable, and economically viable
option for EV charging. Mains capabilities are evaluated throughout a broad range of
fluctuating line voltages and at the rated steady state. Under all operational situations, the
proposed charger's PQ characteristics are tested to meet the suggested IEC 61000-32
standard. Over the whole range of supply voltages, the PF is controlled around unity and the
mains current is shown to be sinusoidal. At rated load, the mains current THD is as low as
3.3%, while at light load (CV charging), it is as low as 6.1%. As a result, the enhanced PF-
based modified Luo converter that has been suggested is the most practical, economically
feasible, and able EV charging alternative.

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Dept of EEE, SACET Page | 54
 Future Scope

Building on the success of the high-gain Re-Boost Luo converter's application in

high-power DC systems and its subsequent integration with photovoltaic (PV) systems and
soft-switching techniques, future work can take several promising directions. One area of
focus could be the exploration of advanced control algorithms to further optimize the
converter's performance under varying load and environmental conditions. This includes
implementing machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) techniques to predict and
adapt to changes in solar irradiance and load demand dynamically, thereby enhancing
efficiency and reliability. Additionally, future research could delve into the development of
new materials and semiconductor technologies that offer lower resistance and higher
efficiency, potentially leading to smaller, lighter, and more cost-effective converter designs.

Moreover, the potential environmental impact of scaling these technologies warrants

thorough investigation. Future work could explore the lifecycle analysis of the converter
systems to assess their carbon footprint and sustainability over time. Research into recycling
and reusing components of the converters at the end of their life could contribute significantly
to the sustainability goals of renewable energy systems. Furthermore, expanding the
application scope of the Re-Boost Luo converter to other renewable sources, such as wind or
hydro, and integrating energy storage solutions could address intermittency issues and pave
the way for more resilient and reliable green energy systems. These efforts will not only
advance the state of power conversion technologies but also support the global transition
towards sustainable energy solutions.

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