CHAPTER 1.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS

Any page of a mathematical text usually consists of a compactly written text which is inter-
dispersed with Greek letters, symbols, formulae, definitions, signs, numbers, and strange-
looking conventions – a convention is a recognized way of doing something, or writing something.

An important point to realize is that any mathematical formula, equation or expression found in
this course can be expanded, and should be expanded, into a full English phrase or sentence to
conceptualize (make meaning of) the material.

1.1.1 Some of the basic mathematical symbols, and signs, used in this course

Name
Symbol Explanation Examples
Read as
Equality
x = y means x and y represent the same thing
= is equal to; 1+1=2
or value.
equals

inequation
is not equal to; x ≠ y means that x and y do not represent the
≠
does not equal same thing or value. 1≠2

“/” means "not"

equivalent

a  b means that a has the same 3 9



is equivalent to value or meaning as b
4 12
congruent
VABC VPQR means that the two triangles
is congruent to are the same in all respects

Strict inequality
x < y means x is less than y.
< is less than, 3<4
x > y means x is greater than y.
> is greater than 5>4

inequality
3 ≤ 4 and 5 ≤ 5
≤ is less than or x ≤ y means x is less than or equal to y.
equal to, is
≥ greater than or x ≥ y means x is greater than or equal to y.
5 ≥ 4 and 5 ≥ 5
equal to

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: proportionality
y : x means that y = kx for some constant k. if y = 2x, then y : x
is proportional to
addition
+ 4 + 6 means the sum of 4 and 6. 2+7=9
plus
subtraction
9 − 4 means the subtraction of 4 from 9. 8−3=5
minus
−
Negative sign
−3 means the negative of the number 3. −(−5) = 5
negative; minus
multiplication
× 3 × 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4. 7 × 8 = 56
times
multiplication
· 3 · 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4. 7 · 8 = 56
times
÷ division 2 ÷ 4 = .5
6 ÷ 3 or 6 ⁄ 3 means the division of 6 by 3.
⁄ divided by 12 ⁄ 4 = 3
plus-minus The equation x = 5 ± √4, has
± 6 ± 3 means both 6 + 3 and 6 - 3.
plus or minus two solutions, x = 7 and x = 3.

m minus-plus 6 ± (3 m 5) means both 6 + (3 - 5) and 6 - (3 + cos (x ± y) = cos x. cos y m sin

minus or plus 5). x .sin y.
Square root
the principal x means the positive number whose square
4 =2
square root of; is x.
square root
Absolute value |3| = 3
or modulus
|x| means the distance along the real line
|…| |–5| = |5|
absolute value (number line) between x and zero.
(modulus) of
divides A single vertical bar is used to denote
divisibility. Since 15 = 3×5, it is true that
|
divides a b means a divides b. 3|15 and 5|15.

approximately
equal π ≈ 3.14159
x ≈ y means x is approximately equal to y; i.e.
≈
is approximately x is “almost” equal to y 1, 00001 » 1
equal to
material A  B means if A is true then B is also true; if
 implication A is false then nothing is said about B. x = 2  x2 = 4 is true, but

→ implies; if … → may mean the same as  , or it may have x2 = 4  x = 2 is in general

then the meaning for functions given below. false (since x could be −2).

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 material
equivalence A  B means A is true if B is true and A is
x + 5 = y +2  x + 3 = y
false if B is false.
↔ if and only if; iff
set brackets
{,} {a,b,c} means the set consisting of a, b, and c. ℕ = {1, 2, 3, …}.
the set of …
set-builder
notation {x: P(x)} means the set of all elements x for
{:}
which P(x) is true. P indicates a mathematical
the set of all {n  ℕ : n2 < 20} = { 1, 2, 3, 4}
property which determines the nature of the
{|} elements … such members x. {x | P(x)} is the same as {x: P(x)}.
that

∅ empty set ∅ means the set with no elements. { } means

{n  ℕ : 1 < n2 < 4} = ∅
{} the same.
the empty set

 set membership
a  S means a is an element of the set S; a ∉ S
(1/2)−1  ℕ
is an element of; means a is not an element of S.
∉ is not an element 2−1 ∉ ℕ
of
ℕ natural
numbers N means { 1, 2, 3, …} ℕ = {|a| : a  ℤ, a ≠ 0}
N N

ℤ integers
ℤ means {..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...} and ℤ+
means {1, 2, 3, ...} = ℕ. ℤ = {p, -p : p  ℕ}  {0}
Z Z

rational
ℚ numbers 3.14000...  ℚ
ℚ means {p/q : p  ℤ, q  ℕ}.
Q π∉ℚ
Q

¤ irrational
numbers ¤  means the set of all numbers that cannot be
 ¤ 
Q Q prime, or the
complement of Q
expressed in the ratio p/q : p  ℤ, q  ℕ

ℝ
R real numbers πℝ
ℝ means the set of real numbers.
R √(−1) ∉ ℝ

ℂ
complex
ℂ means {a + b i : a,b  ℝ}. i= (- 1) Î £
numbers
C

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 C
arbitrary If f(x) = 6x² + 4x, then
constant c can be any number, most likely unknown;
usually occurs when calculating antiderivatives F(x) = 2x³ + 2x² +c,
c as illustrated below.
where F'(x) = f(x)
Subset: A  B means every element of A is
subset
also an element of B.
 (A ∩ B)  A

 Proper subset: A  B means A  B but

ℕ ℚ
ℚ  ℝ
is a subset of
A ≠ B.

set-theoretic
{1, 2, 3}  {3, 4, 5}

union A  B means the set that contains all the
elements from A, or all the elements from B,
the union of … or all the elements from both A and B. = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
and … "A or B or both".
union
set-theoretic
intersection A ∩ B means the set that contains all those
∩ {x  ℝ : x2 = 1} ∩ ℕ = {1}
intersected with; elements that A and B have in common.
intersect
function
application f(x) means the value of the function f at the
If f(x) = x2, then f(3) = 32 = 9.
element x.
of
() precedence Perform the operations inside the parentheses
grouping first. (8/4)/2 = 2/2 = 1,

parentheses [NOTE: Read more about brackets in but 8/(4/2) = 8/2 = 4.

paragraph 1.2 ]
function arrow
f: X → Y means the function f maps the set X Let f: ℤ → ℕ be defined by
f : X→Y
from … to into the set Y. f(x) := x2.

function
composition if f(x) = 2x, and g(x) = x + 3,
fog is a composite function, such that
o
(fog)(x) = f(g(x)).
composed with then (fog)(x) = 2(x + 3).

infinity

∞ is an element of the extended number line

∞ that is greater than all real numbers; it often
infinity occurs in limits.

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 summation 3
å k 2 = 12 + 22 +
k= 1
∑ 32
sum over … from
means a1 + a2 + … + an. =1 + 4 + 9
… to … of
= 14
derivative
′ f ′(x) is the derivative of the function f at the
… prime point x, i.e., the slope of the tangent line to f If f(x) = x2, then f ′(x) = 2x
at x.
derivative of
indefinite
integral or
antiderivative
indefinite integral ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 means a function whose 𝑥3
∫ ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
of derivative is f. 3

the antiderivative
of
definite integral b
b
 f ( x)dx means the signed area between the x- 𝑏
𝑏3
a integral from … a
to … of … with axis and the graph of the function f between
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 =
0
3
respect to x = a and x = b.
perpendicular
x ⊥ y means x is perpendicular to y; or more
⊥ is perpendicular generally x is orthogonal to y. If l ⊥ m and m ⊥ n then l Pn.
to
parallel
|| x || y means x is parallel to y. If l || m and m ⊥ n then l ⊥ n.
is parallel to

1.1.2 More Mathematical Notations

Mathematical notation includes letters from various alphabets, as well as special mathematical
symbols. Usage of subscripts ( xn ) and superscripts ( f ¢¢) is also an important convention. In the
early days of computers with limited graphical capabilities for text, sub- and superscripts were
represented with the help of additional notation. In particular, n2 could be written as n^2

It is standard to use italic type for all letters representing variables except uppercase Greek letters,
which are in upright type (for example  ). Upright type is also standard for digits (e.g. 6, 7. 100)
and punctuation (. , ;) . The names of well-known functions, such as sin x (the trigonometric
function sine) and log a x are written in lowercase upright letters (and often, as shown here,
without parentheses around the argument).

Certain important constructs are written in blackboard-bold letters. Some examples are the natural
numbers , the integers , the rational numbers , the real numbers , etc.

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1.1.3 More about Bracket Pairs in Mathematical Language

Brackets have a great many specialized meanings in mathematics. A few of these are described
below:

1. Brackets are used to group mathematical terms,

especially when mathematical operations are to be Read more
performed on mathematical expressions. about
algebraic
For example, expressions in
Chapter 2
(a) When we have to subtract x 2 + 2 x − 5 from
2 x 2 − x + 5 we may write
(2 x2 − x + 5) − ( x2 + 2 x − 5) .
(b) Two or more pairs of brackets written next to each other implies that the expressions
grouped within the adjoining brackets should be multiplied, for example,
( −2)2 (3)( x + 2)( x − 3) = −2  −2  3  ( x + 2)  ( x − 3)
= 12  ( x + 2)  ( x − 3)
= 12  ( x 2 − 3x + 2 x − 6)
= 12  ( x 2 − x − 6) ........... Adding the like terms − 3 x and 2 x
2
= 12  x + 12  − x + 12  −6
2
= 12( x ) + 12( − x ) + 12( −6)
= 12 x 2 − 12 x − 72

2. Parentheses (round brackets) are used in mathematical expressions to denote

modifications (changes) to normal order of operations (precedence rules). In an
expression like (3 + 5)  4 , the part of the expression within the parentheses (3 + 5) = 8 is
evaluated first, and then this result is used in the
rest of the expression. The order of
NOTE: The mnemonic BODMAS can help operations:
one to remember the order in which an • Brackets
expression should be evaluated. • Of
• Division
3. Brackets may be nested, for example, • Multiplication
{4+2[20−(7+3)]}, in which case the expression • Addition and
7+3 within the innermost pair of brackets is • Subtraction
evaluated first, the result subtracted from 20,
since this expression is grouped within the
square bracket. The result is now multiplied by
2 and this product added to 4. To denote grouping of all these mathematical terms,
usually as the outermost pair of brackets, we find braces or curly brackets.

4. Brackets are also used to contain the argument of a function. For example, f ( x) which
indicates that values of the function f are dependent on the values of x.

5. A parenthesis can be used to denote an open end of an interval. For example, [0,5)
denotes the half-open interval which includes all real numbers from 0 to 5 except 5
itself.
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 6. A square bracket at one end of an interval indicates that the interval is closed at that
end, that is, it includes the number at that end.

7. Parentheses around a set of two or more numbers, as in (a, b, c) , denote an n-tuple

(ordered lists of n terms) of numbers that are linked in some special way.

NOTE: Though the common notation for an ordered pair with first coordinate x and
second coordinate y is (x, y), we will use the notation (x, y) for the ordered pair
so as not to confuse it with the open interval (x, y).

8. Pointed brackets around two or more numbers, as in a, b, c , indicate that the numbers
are the ordered components of a vector.

NOTE: We will NOT be studying vectors in this course.

9. Braces or curly brackets are used to delineate a set, as in {a1 , a2 ,..., an } .

10. Using a left brace only, to denote different cases for an expression, such as

2n if n is odd
f ( n) = 
3n if n is even

EXERCISE 1:

1. Replace each * in the following statements by one of the arithmetical operations

´ , + , - or ¸ , to make the value on the left side of the statement equal to the value on the
right side (that is, to make the statement true).

a) 5 * 3 * 3 = 14
b) 5 * 3 * 3 = 18
c) 5 * 3 * 3 = 12
d) 5 * 3 * 3 = 6

2. Insert bracket pairs, if necessary, in appropriate places to make the following statements true.
For example: 3´ 4 + 6 - 3 = 27 is NOT true, but 3´ (4 + 6) - 3 = 27 is true.
a) 10 ¸ 2 + 8´ 3 = 3
b) 10 ¸ 2 + 8´ 3 = 29
c) 10 ¸ 2 + 8´ 3 = 39

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