CHAPTER 3

ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
Algebra is a branch of Mathematics with Elementary Algebra the most basic form of algebra.
Elementary algebra introduces the basic ideas of algebra, including

• The concept of variables

• Exponents and powers
• Polynomials
• Factorization
• Equations and
• Inequalities

3.1 Variables

In arithmetic only numbers and their arithmetical operations (such as +, −, ×, ÷) occur. In algebra,
numbers are often denoted by symbols (such as a, x, or y) called variables. This is useful because:

a) It allows the general formulation of arithmetical properties and concepts such as:

(i) Commutative property: 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 for real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏.

(ii) Associative property: (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) for real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏.
(iii) Distributive property: 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 for real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏.
(iv) The concepts of "additive identity" and "multiplicative identity":
• The number 0 is the "additive identity" for real numbers. Thus, for all 𝑎 ∈
0 + a = 0 and a + 0 = a.
• Similarly, the number 1 is the "multiplicative identity" for real numbers. Thus, for all
∈ , 1 × 𝑎 = 𝑎 × 1 and 𝑎 × 1 = 1 × 𝑎.
0 𝑎
NOTE: For all 𝑎 ∈ , 0 · 0 = 0 and 𝑎 = 0 and 0 is NOT defined.

(v) The concepts of “additive inverse” and “multiplicative inverse” : For addition
1
the inverse of a is - a (since a + (- a) = 0 ), and for multiplication the inverse of a is
a
1
(since 𝑎 · 𝑎 = 1)

b) It allows the reference to “unknown” numbers, the formulation of equations and the study of
how to solve these, for example, “Find the number x such that 2 x + 5 = 15".

c) It allows the formulation of functional relationships, for example “If s stands for the side-length
of a square then the perimeter of the square is given by 4 × s, or p = 4s ". Since the value of p
depends on the value of s, we may say that in this instance s is the independent variable and p
the dependent variable.

NOTE: It is customary to use the letter x for what is called the independent variable and y for what is
called the dependent variable.

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3.2 Algebraic Expressions: Definitions and Substitution

An algebraic expression is a rule that defines the relationship between two sets of numbers, the input
numbers and the output numbers.

E.g. the rule 2x + 1 changes a number, x, into a new number by multiplying the value of x by 2 and
then adding 1.

• The term “– 7” is called a constant.

• The term 2xy is called a variable term its value changes as x and y changes.
• The variable term 2xy has
* factors, e.g. 2; x; y; 2xy, etc.
* “2” as the numerical coefficient
* “2y” as the coefficient of x,
* “2x” as the coefficient of y,
* “xy” as the letter coefficient.
• Terms are made up of factors.
• An algebraic expression contains one or more terms.
Terms are separated by + and – signs
The sign is part of the term which it precedes, e.g. in –3x2 + 21x – 5
The first term is –3x2; the second is + 21x and the third term is – 5

For examples: 1) 15x + 40 and 21x – 120 each have two terms.
2) 3x2 has only one term.

Example 1:

1. How many terms are in each of these expressions?

(a) a + b ……. (b) a  b ……. (c) ab + a – b
(d) 4x - 5y + 3c ……. (e) 8  x  y ……. (f) 2x + 3y -6p …….
(g) ax2 + bx + c ……. (h) 15x + 9x  2y ……. (i) 10 x2 y c3 …….

2. Write down the coefficient of:

(a) x in 15ax ……. (b) k in 3kx ……. (c) y in 51y  16z
(d) a in 16a ……. (e) x in 24xy ……. (f) x2 in 3x2y …….

3. Fill in the blank spaces where applicable:

numerical numerical numerical
Number
coefficients of the coefficients of coefficients of constant
of terms
terms in x; the terms in x2 the terms in y
a. 3x + 4y + 9
b. 72yx
c. 3x + 19
d. 11x2
e. 7x - 5x2
f. 8x2 +4x –7

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3.3 Basic Operations with Algebraic Expressions

When simplifying algebraic expressions only like terms can be added or subtracted.

Example 2:

Simplify:
(a) 2x + 5 + 2x2 + 6x + 2

(b) 3a2 – 2a – 5 – (2 + 4a2 – 3a)

Example 3:

1. Simplify the following expressions as instructed.

(a) Add 3x2+2 to 8x2–5x+3 (b) Add 8t+11t2 to 9t–7t2

2. Subtract the second expression from the first.

(a) x2 + 5x + 3 and 3x2–6x+9 (b) 9x2 – 5x and 6x2 – 4x

Algebraic expressions can also be multiplied. In this case terms need not be like.
For example: 8x multiplied by 12x2y
= 8.12.x.x2y
= 96x3y

NOTE:
• A dot (.) between numbers has the same meaning as  (multiply).
• The answer to a multiplication sum is called a product.
• The numbers that are multiplied are called factors.

Example 4:

Find the following products:

a) x2.2x.4x2 b) 10p.24p3 c) 5m3.2m2 d) 11ab.2a3b

−1
e) –8a4.3a-3 f) x2y3.4x5y4 g) a3b5.6a2b–3.2a–4 b–2 h) 24a2.2a5.( )
4a 6

Brackets group terms together although there may be more than one term inside a bracket.

For example, 3x2+ 6x can be written as 3x (x+6). The first expression consists of 2 terms while the
second consists of one term.

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3.4 Exponents, Powers and the Exponent Laws

Exponents, or powers, are an important part of math as they are necessary to indicate that a number is
multiplied by itself for a given number of times.

We write 2  2  2  2  2  2 as 26 and we read 26 as “2 to the 6th power” or “2 to the power 6”. 2 is

referred to as the base of the power and 6 is the index or exponent.

Thus, we can now write the following definition for a n :

𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 × 𝑎 … to n factors of a, where n is a positive integer and 𝑎 ∈

And, by using the definition of a n , we derive the following properties of exponents:

Properties of exponents:
Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be positive real numbers and 𝑚 and 𝑛 any real numbers. Then
Properties: Example:
1) 𝑎𝑚 ∙ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 23 ∙ 22 = 23+2 = 25

2) (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛 (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛

3) (𝑎𝑏)𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 ∙ 𝑏 𝑚 (2 ∙ 3)4 = 24 ∙ 34

𝑎 𝑚 𝑎𝑚 2 𝑚 24
4) (𝑏) = 𝑏𝑚 ( ) = 4
3 3
𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛−𝑚 if m < 𝑛 23
5) 𝑎𝑚 = { 1 if m > 𝑛 2
= 23−2 = 21 = 2
𝑎𝑚−𝑛 2
6) 𝑎1 = 𝑎 21 = 2

7) 𝑎0 = 1 for 𝑎 ∈ and 𝑎 ≠ 0 20 = 1
1 1
8) 𝑎−𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 for 𝑎 ∈ and 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ . 2−𝑛 =
24
1
𝑛
9) 𝑎𝑛 = √𝑎 , if 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+

Example 5:

1. Find the following products.

(a) (2x2)2 (b) 3(3x)3 (c) (2x)3.(3x2)

(d) 122.(xyz)3 (e) 7(ab)4.(a)2(b)5 (f) (2)7(mn)3

2. Simplify the following. Do not leave answer with negative exponents.

(a) (4x-4y5)3 (b) (-10z2y-4)2 (z3y)-5

(c) n-2m ÷ 7m-4n-3 (d) 5x-1y-4 ÷ (3y5)-2 x9

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EXERCISE 1:
Find the following products

(a) 3(x2 + 4x –2) (b) 5x(3x2 + 2x) (c) 4a2b(ab + 2b)

(d) 7x2y3(8x2+3y3x) (e) –x2(3x2 –x +1) (f) 2y(4y2 – 8)

(g) 4mn(6m2n2 + 9mn) (h) –2p(6p2+ 5p–3) (i) –7y(11y2 +6xy + 7x2)

3.5 Polynomials versus Expressions

An expression is a mathematical "phrase" or statement that may use numbers, variables, or both, and
stands for a single number. For example 3x + 1 is an expression whose value is three times the value of
x, plus 1, whatever value the variable x might have.
3
The following are examples of expressions: 2; x; 3 + 7; 2y + 5; 2 + 6 × (4 - 2); + 2
x

A polynomial, on the other hand, is a special expression that is constructed from one or more variables
and constants, using only the operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication, with the powers of
the variables having non-negative integer exponents. For example,

• 3x 2 − 5 x + 1 is a polynomial, of the second degree, in the single variable x, while x 2 − 3 xy + 6 y 2

is also a polynomial of the second degree, but in the two variables x and y, Expressions like
these two are also referred to as trinomials of the second degree. [Can you see why?]
• 3x − 1 is a polynomial of degree one or of the first degree, and is usually referred to as a
binomial of degree one.
• 2 x5 − 3x3 + x 2 − 1 is a polynomial of degree five. Polynomials of the 5th degree are made up of
SIX terms. However, in our example, two of the six terms have 0 (zero) as numerical
coefficient, namely, 0 x 4 and 0 x ., while,
• an x n + an−1 x n−1 + an−2 x n−2 + ... + a1 x + a0 is the general polynomial of degree n, or of the nth
degree, and consists of (n + 1) terms.

3
NOTE: Expressions like 3x 2 − 5x 2 + 1 and 3x 2 − 5 + x −2 are NOT polynomials. [Why not?]

To evaluate an expression at some number means we REPLACE a variable in an expression with the
number (or, we SUBSTITUTE the given number for the variable), and SIMPLIFY the expression.

Example 6:
Evaluate the expression 4( z − 3)2 when z = 6.

We replace each occurrence of z with the number 6, and simplify using the usual rules: parentheses first,
then exponents, multiplication and division, then addition and subtraction:
4( z − 3)2 becomes 4(6 − 3)2
4(6 − 3)2 becomes 4  32
4  32 becomes 4×9 = 36

Example 7:
1 (𝑥−2)2 1
Evaluate of + 2 × 4 if x = -1.
2 3

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3.6 Multiplying Two Binomials

In this section we will help you better understand how to factor trinomials whose highest power is two,
that is, quadratic trinomials. And, since
factoring trinomials is the reverse of Reviewing the “FOIL” Method using
multiplying two binomials, we will use ( a − b)  (c − d ) :
the “FOIL” method to first multiply two
• Multiply First terms: a  c = ac
binomials and then reverse our steps to
determine the important steps in • Multiply Outside terms: a  (−d ) = −ad
factoring trinomials. • Multiply Inside terms: (−b)  c = −bc
• Multiply Last terms: (−b)  (−d ) = bd
(a − b)(c − d ) = ac − ad − bc + bd
Example 8:

Simplify

(a) (a + b)(p + q)

(b) (m - n)(s + t)

(c) (m + n)(s - t)

In some cases, the outer and inner products give like terms which can then be added.

Example 9:

Simplify:

(a) (2x - 3)(x + 5)

(b) (3x - 1)(x2 – 7x + 2)

EXERCISE 3:
Simplify and arrange the powers of the variable in descending order.

(a) (x + 2)(x + 3) (b) (m – 3)(m + 3)

(c) (3s – 5)(5s – 3) (d) (6x + 3)(5x – 4)
(e) (2a + 5b)(a – 8b) (f) (x + 2)(x2 – 4x – 1)
(g) (x2 – 2x – 1)(x – 5) (h) (x2 – 6)(3x2 + x –2)

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3.7 Factors and factorisation

It is important to be able to factorise polynomials (i.e. binomials and trinomials included).

Consider the expression: 4 x(a + 3b) . This expression tells us to multiply 4 x by a + 3b . When we do
this, that is, multiply, we get the sum 4ax + 12bx . But, when we do this in reverse, by writing
4ax + 12bx as the product of the two factors 4 x and a + 3b , we are factoring. We refer to 4x as the
highest common factor (HCF) of the terms 4ax and 12bx

NOTE: Whenever we have to factorise an expression, we first check if there is a common factor.

Example 10:

Factorise the following expressions:

(a) 3𝑎2 𝑏 3 − 6𝑎3 𝑏 2

(b) 3𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 12𝑥

(c) 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑦) + 𝑏(𝑥 − 𝑦) − 𝑐(𝑦 − 𝑥)

3.8 Factorisation of Trinomial Expressions

Recall: (𝑥 + 2)( 𝑥 + 3) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6

Note:
• The first term of both factors must be 𝑥 to give the 𝑥 2 in the expression.
• The third term is the product of the constant in both factors (i.e 2(3) = 6).
• The middle term is the product of ‘inner’ (i.e. 2𝑥) and ‘outer’ (i.e. 3𝑥) products when added together.

Therefore, in reverse the factors of 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 + 2)( 𝑥 + 3)

Note in the above and next example the signs of the terms in the trinomial are both positive (+).

Now let us factorise 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6

We can identify TWO pairs of binomials that could be the factors of 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6.

(𝑥 + 2)( 𝑥 + 3) or (𝑥 + 1)( 𝑥 + 6)

Since the sum of the products of the ‘inner’ and the ‘outer’ of the binomials should yield the middle
term, +𝟕𝒙, of the trinomial, the correct answer (𝑥 + 1)( 𝑥 + 6).

Page 7 of 15
Let’s look at other examples where the signs of the terms in the trinomial are positive (+) and
negative (−).

(a) Factorise 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6

In this example the middle term is a negative and the third term is a positive.
Thus, the possible factors of 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 6 is
We can identify FOUR possible pairs of binomials that could be the factors of 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6.
(𝑥 − 2)( 𝑥 − 3) or (𝑥 − 1)( 𝑥 − 6)
Since the sum of the products of the ‘inner’ and the ‘outer’ of the binomials should yield the
middle term, −𝟕𝒙, of the trinomial, the correct answer (𝑥 − 1)( 𝑥 − 6).

(b) Factorise 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 6

In this example the middle term is a positive and the third term is a negative.
Thus, the possible factors of 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 is
We can identify FOUR possible pairs of binomials that could be the factors of 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6.
(𝑥 + 1)( 𝑥 − 6) or (𝑥 + 2)( 𝑥 − 3)
(𝑥 − 1)( 𝑥 + 6) or (𝑥 − 2)( 𝑥 + 3)
Since the sum of the products of the ‘inner’ and the ‘outer’ of the binomials should yield the
middle term, +𝒙, of the trinomial, the correct answer (𝑥 − 2)( 𝑥 + 3).

Let’s look at an example where the signs of the terms in the trinomial are both negative (−).

(a) Factorise 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6

Thus, the possible factors of 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 is

We can identify FOUR possible pairs of binomials that could be the factors of 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6.
(𝑥 + 1)( 𝑥 − 6) or (𝑥 + 2)( 𝑥 − 3)
(𝑥 − 1)( 𝑥 + 6) or (𝑥 − 2)( 𝑥 + 3)
Since the sum of the products of the ‘inner’ and the ‘outer’ of the binomials should yield the
middle term, −𝒙, of the trinomial, the correct answer (𝑥 + 2)( 𝑥 − 3).

(b) Factorise 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6

Thus, the possible factors of 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6 is

We can identify FOUR possible pairs of binomials that could be the factors of 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6.
(𝑥 + 1)( 𝑥 − 6) or (𝑥 + 2)( 𝑥 − 3)
(𝑥 − 1)( 𝑥 + 6) or (𝑥 − 2)( 𝑥 + 3)
Since the sum of the products of the ‘inner’ and the ‘outer’ of the binomials should yield the
middle term, −𝟓𝒙, of the trinomial, the correct answer (𝑥 + 1)( 𝑥 − 6).

Page 8 of 15
Now let’s look at examples where the coefficient of 𝒙𝟐 is not 1.

(a) Factorise 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6
Thus, the possible factors of 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6 is
We can identify FOUR possible pairs of binomials that could be the factors of 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6.
(2𝑥 + 1)( 𝑥 + 6) or (2𝑥 + 2)( 𝑥 + 3)
(2𝑥 + 6)( 𝑥 + 1) or (2𝑥 + 3)( 𝑥 + 2)
Since the sum of the products of the ‘inner’ and the ‘outer’ of the binomials should yield the
middle term, +𝟕𝒙, of the trinomial, the correct answer (2𝑥 + 3)( 𝑥 + 2).

(b) Factorise 8𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 9
Thus, the possible factors of 8𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 9 is
We can identify SIX possible pairs of binomials that could be the factors of 8𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 + 9.
(𝑥 + 1)(8𝑥 + 9) or (2𝑥 + 1)(4𝑥 + 9) or (𝑥 + 3)( 8𝑥 + 3)
(8𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 9) or (4𝑥 + 1)( 2𝑥 + 9) or (4𝑥 + 3)(2𝑥 + 3)
Since the sum of the products of the ‘inner’ and the ‘outer’ of the binomials should yield the
middle term, +𝟏𝟓𝒙, of the trinomial, the correct answer (4𝑥 + 1)( 2𝑥 + 9).

Alternative method:

Factorise 3x 2 + 17 x + 10

3 10 3 1
since 3+10=13  17, since 30+1=31  17,
1 1 1 10
3 5 3 2
since 6+5=11  17, . The correct combination, since 15 + 2 = 17.
1 2 1 5

Thus: 3 x + 17 x + 10 = (3 x + 2)( x + 5)
2

Example 11:

Factorise 6 x 2 − 19 x + 15

Example 12:

Factorise 6 x 2 − x − 15

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3.9 Factorisation of Two squares and Two cubes

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO SQUARES

Here you will be exposed to a variety of factoring techniques for special situations.

The difference of perfect squares, for example 𝑣 2 − 𝑤 2 = (𝑣 − 𝑤)(𝑣 + 𝑤) can be generalised as a

factoring technique. By extension, any difference between terms that are raised to an even power like
𝑣 8 − 𝑤 8 can be factored using the difference of perfect squares technique. This is because even powers
can always be written as perfect squares: 𝑣 8 − 𝑤 8 = (𝑣 4 )2 − (𝑤 4 )2 .

Example 13:
Factorise the following expressions

(a) 4𝑥 2 − 9

(b) 𝑠 6 − 16𝑦 4

𝑣6 9
(c) − 𝑡2
8

(d) 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 − 16𝑥𝑦 3

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THE SUM OR DIFFERENCE OF CUBES WITH MATCHING ODD POWERS.

𝑛3 − 𝑚3 = (𝑛 − 𝑚)(𝑛2 + 𝑛𝑚 + 𝑚2 )

𝑛3 + 𝑚3 = (𝑛 + 𝑚)(𝑛2 − 𝑛𝑚 + 𝑚2 )

Example 14:
Factorise the following expressions
(a) 8x3 + 27y3

(b) 343 - b6

(c) a9 + 64

EXERCISE 4 :
Factorize fully:

1. x2 + 5x + 6 2. x 2 − 3x + 2 3. x 2 − 3x − 18

4. 2x 2 − 7 x + 6 5. 4x 2 + x − 3 6. 5x3 − 15 x 2 + 10 x

7. x 2 − 16 8. 8x3 − 2 x 9. x3 - 27y3

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3.10 Dividing Algebraic Expressions

A fraction is a number that consists of a numerator which is divided by a denominator. The

denominator may never be 0, because division by 0 is not defined. Numerical fractions have constants
2 15 x 3
as numerators and denominators. Examples of algebraic fractions are: , , etc.
3 x 3 x2

Algebraic fractions have numerators and / or denominators that contain variables. We use the property
of 1, (i.e. that a number divided by itself is equal to 1) to simplify fractions.

We know that:
15 5  3 5
(i) = =
6 23 2
and

3 x5 3  x3  x 2
(ii) =
x3 x3

Example 15:

Simplify fully:

12m6
(a)
3m 2

4 a5 y 3
(b)
27 a 4

27 x 6 y3
(c)
6x 5 y2

10 p 2 + 4 pq
(d)
2p

EXERCISE 5:
Simplify:
4 x3 28p (3 x )(3 x 4 )(3 x )
(a) (b) (c)
2x 7 p3 3 x2 x
12 x3 + 16 x 2
5 3
(a  a )(a  a ) 2
9b5 7b7
(d) (e) 4x (f) +
a2  a4 3b b3

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3.11 Algebraic Fractions

3.11.1 Multiplication of fractions

a c ac
 = , b≠0, d≠0
b d bd

Example 16:

Simplify fully:

12 4 x 2
(a) 
x 3

3 y 12 x
(b) 
4x 9 y2

3 5( x + 2)
(c) 
5x 3

3.11.2 Division of fractions

a c

b d
a d
=  , b≠0, c≠0
b c
ad
=
bc

Example 17:

Simplify fully:

5 5
(a) 3
 2
x 3x

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 3 12 x 3x
(b)  
4 x 11 22

y5 5 y2
(c) 
4 x3 y 2 x 2

3( x − 1) 2(1 − x)
(d) 
x−5 5− x

EXERCISE 6:

Simplify fully:

𝑥 12 6
(1) ÷ ×
𝑥−1 𝑥 2 −1 𝑥+1

2 𝑥 4
(2) × ÷
𝑥 2 +4𝑥 𝑥+2 𝑥+4

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ADDITION/SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS

a c ad  cb
a)  = , b  0, d  0 (denominator is not the same)
b d bd

a c ac
b)  = , b0
b b b (denominator is the same)

Example 18:

Simplify fully:

2 x 5 3x
(a) + +
3 4 12

2 1 3
(b) + 3−
5 x 3x 15 x 2

𝑥 3 4
(c) + −
𝑥+2 𝑥 2 +𝑥−2 𝑥−1

EXERCISE 7:

Simplify fully:

1 2 5
1) + −
𝑥−3 𝑥2 𝑥−1

3 4
2) −
𝑥 2 +𝑥 𝑥+1

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