Operating Systems (OS)

🔹 Introduction

An Operating System (OS) is software that manages computer hardware and software
resources and provides common services for computer programs. It serves as an intermediary
between users and the computer hardware.

The OS controls the execution of application programs, ensures efficient use of hardware
resources, and provides an environment for the user to interact with the computer.

🔹 Functions of an Operating System

1. Process Management

 The OS is responsible for creating, scheduling, and terminating processes.

 A process is a program in execution. The OS ensures that multiple processes run

efficiently and do not interfere with each other.

 Multitasking allows the system to handle multiple processes simultaneously.

 Process Scheduling algorithms determine which process should run next (e.g., First-
Come, First-Served, Shortest Job First).

2. Memory Management

 Manages the computer’s memory (RAM), allocating space to programs as needed and
ensuring that different processes do not overlap.

 Virtual Memory allows programs to use more memory than what is physically
available by using the hard drive to simulate extra memory.

 The OS keeps track of memory allocation using paging and segmentation to efficiently
manage memory.

3. File System Management

 The OS manages files and directories stored on storage devices like hard drives, SSDs,
or network storage.

 It handles the creation, deletion, reading, writing, and access control of files.

 Common file systems include FAT32, NTFS, ext3, and ext4.

  Access Control Lists (ACLs) enforce security by determining who can access files and
directories.

4. Device Management

 The OS manages all hardware devices connected to the system, including input/output
devices like keyboards, mice, printers, and storage devices.

 Device Drivers are programs that allow the OS to communicate with hardware
components.

 Interrupt Handling ensures that the OS responds to hardware events (e.g., keyboard
presses or mouse movements) in a timely manner.

5. Security and Access Control

 The OS ensures system security by implementing user authentication mechanisms

(passwords, biometric verification, etc.).

 Encryption and Access Control policies prevent unauthorized access to files and data.

 Malware Protection like antivirus and firewalls are managed by the OS to prevent
external threats.

6. User Interface

 The OS provides an interface for the user to interact with the computer. This can be:

o Command-Line Interface (CLI): Text-based interface, typically used by advanced

users (e.g., Linux terminal).

o Graphical User Interface (GUI): A visual interface, often used by general users
(e.g., Windows, macOS).

 The OS translates user input into commands that the computer can understand and
execute.

🔹 Types of Operating Systems

1. Batch Operating System

 Executes jobs in batches without manual intervention.

 Common in older systems where tasks were processed in sequence.

2. Time-Sharing Operating System

  Multiple users can interact with the computer simultaneously through terminals.

 CPU time is divided into small time slices, allowing multiple processes to share
resources.

3. Real-Time Operating System (RTOS)

 Used for applications requiring strict timing constraints.

 Examples include embedded systems in medical devices, industrial control systems,

and robotics.

4. Distributed Operating System

 Manages a group of computers as a single system.

 Users can access resources on different machines seamlessly.

 Examples include cloud computing systems and grid computing.

5. Mobile Operating System

 Specifically designed for mobile devices like smartphones and tablets.

 Examples include Android, iOS, Windows Mobile.

🔹 Examples of Operating Systems

 Windows: Widely used in personal computers, workstations, and servers. Known for
its user-friendly GUI.

 macOS: Apple’s proprietary OS for Mac computers, known for its sleek design and
integration with Apple hardware.

 Linux: Open-source OS used on servers, desktops, and embedded systems. Known for
its flexibility and stability.

 Unix: A multi-user, multitasking OS used primarily in servers and workstations. Linux is

based on Unix.

 Android: A mobile OS based on Linux, primarily used in smartphones and tablets.

 iOS: Apple's mobile OS for iPhones and iPads, known for its smooth interface and
security.
🔹 OS Concepts and Tools

1. Kernel

 The core part of the OS that manages system resources (CPU, memory, etc.) and
communication between hardware and software.

 Types of kernels:

o Monolithic Kernel: All system functions run in a single address space (e.g.,
Linux).

o Microkernel: Minimizes the kernel functions, relying on user-level services for

most operations (e.g., Minix).

2. Shell

 A command-line interface that allows users to interact with the OS.

 Examples: Bash (Linux), PowerShell (Windows).

3. System Calls

 Interfaces that allow programs to request services from the OS, such as file handling or
process control.

4. Virtualization

 Creating virtual instances of computers to run on a single physical machine.

Hypervisors (e.g., VMware, Hyper-V) enable this feature.

 Benefits: Resource isolation, better resource utilization, and flexibility.

5. System Booting

 The process of starting up an OS, including power-on self-test (POST), loading the
bootloader, and initiating the kernel.

 Bootloader: Software that loads the operating system into memory.

🔹 OS Challenges and Future Trends

 Scalability: OS must handle a growing number of users and processes.

 Security: As cyber threats evolve, OS security must adapt to new risks like malware,
phishing, and data breaches.
  Resource Management: Ensuring optimal utilization of CPU, memory, and storage.

 Mobile and Cloud Integration: OS are becoming more integrated with mobile devices
and cloud computing platforms.

🔹 Conclusion

Operating Systems play a vital role in managing hardware resources, providing a user
interface, and running applications. Whether for personal use, business systems, or
embedded devices, an OS is the backbone of modern computing systems.