ICT & CAx

CAE in Production
Engineering

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 ICT & CAx
dr inż. Robert Cacko
[email protected]
ICT CAx
CAD/CAM – Lecture
CAD/CAM – Exercises
CAE – Lecture
CAE – Laboratory (Numerical Analysis)
ICT – Lecture
ICT – Exercises

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ICT & CAx
CAE test
according to session schedule

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 ICT & CAx
LECTURE
• Presentations (PDF),
• Supplements to study (articles, webinars, websites,…),
• Questions/problems.
LAB
• Laboratory instructions,
• Software download: mscsoftware.com
• Academia > Students Editions
• download Marc
• register your student’s ID

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 CAE
in
Production Engineering

Simulation has come a long way since it was

generally adopted in Aerospace and Automotive
industries in the 1970’s. Engineers are normally
conservative and somewhat slow to change which is
a good thing for the safety aspects of the products
they design. But we live in an ever changing and
accelerating technological era. Today, simulation is
used in every industry that designs and
manufactures products from toothpaste tubes to
rocket engines. The demand for engineers in the
simulation field has never been higher. The advance
of computing is relentless. Today’s mobile devices
are more powerful and can store more information
than the supercomputers of the early days of

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simulation.

The pace of computing continues to grow at an

exponential rate even though a receding growth rate
has been predicted many times.

The only thing that is not changing is the basic

physics behind the simulation computations. So
where are we going with all of this advance in
capability and demand? The level of detail in the
simulation models continues to increase with fewer
and fewer assumptions required to get answers in a
reasonable time. As the models become more
complex the requirements for assembling models,
analysis of the results, and storing the volumes of
input and output are increasing.

Several companies are working to bring the future of

simulation to engineers in both an evolutionary and
revolutionary way. They continue to modernize our
tradition tools for ease of use, large model handling,
and efficiency and at the same invent new ways of
working for the future generations of engineers. The
challenge for the future is to make the complex
simple by reducing the requirements put on the user
to get into the details unless necessary or desired.
The simulation process can be more systematic and
guided versus more of an art as it is sometimes

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today. Two engineers solving the same problem
should be able to get similar results by establishing
processes that are repeatable. More realistic
representation of reality can be achieved by
stochastic analysis where the variation of real
products is a standard part of the simulation
process. Data and processes can be shared within
teams and across teams. Finally, with advance in
technology we will see a return to remote
computation or as it is called today cloud computing
which will include high speed 3D graphics.

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 Computer Aided Industry
CAI = CIM + CAO
CIM - Computer Integrated Manufacturing
CAO - Computer Aided Office

CIM = CAD + CAP + CAQ + CAM + CAT + CAE +…

CAP - Computer Aided Planning
CAQ - Computer Aided Quality
CAPPS - Computer Aided Production, Planning and Quality
CAT - Computer Aided Testing
...

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CAE – Computer Aided Engineering

Computer Aided Engineering should be understand

as computer modelling or computer simulation of
properly, mathematically described various
phenomena.

The main aim: support or supplement for real tests

and/or physical modeling rather than replacement .

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 General profits of CAE

❑ Virtual prototype is significantly less expensive

❑ It is possible to run several analysis with
changed parameters – decrease designing
time
❑ Complex cases can be done; insight to
problems impossible to verify/measure in
reality

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 CAE in global design process
Traditional design loop

CAE implementation in design loop

When doing an analysis, we always target optimum designs, but

the methods and tools we use in achieving the optimum design
makes a difference. Still, in many “places” the design process is
a trial-and-error process which depends on the selection of the
initial design. This is not a well-established process in terms of
how the design evolves and depends on the engineer’s prior
experience. Due to these challenges reaching the best design is
not guaranteed. To overcome these hurdles, numerical
optimization is used to search for and determine the optimum
design

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 CAE in global design process

Starting the CAE process with an optimized concept

design sounds contradictory. How does one start with
something being optimized while not really knowing how to
start? Without getting lost in detail – the principal working
scheme (depicted in the figure above) is as follows:

1. Define the maximum package/design space. If needed

exclude areas/regions (i.e. non-design space).
2. Finite element meshes the structure (design and non-
design area).
3. Assign material properties.
4. Apply loads and constraints.
5. Specify the objective of the optimization problem (e.g.

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use minimum weight/volume only but make sure
that certain responses such as displacements, do
not exceed specified threshold values).

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 CAE – Aims and areas
❑ The main applications of CAE analysis
- Structural analysis
- Modeling of various phenomena in time

❑ Particular aims, eg.:

- Construction analysis undergoing different constraint,
- Analysis of influence of various parameters on a
construction or process functioning/working,
- Design modification on initial stage.

❑ Areas of interests
- Mechanics
- Electronics and eletrotechnics
- Architecture and civil engineering
- …..

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CAE – software division criteria
❑Type of software
- Pre- and post-processors
- Analytical codes
- Integrated software
❑ Availability
- Freeware/public domain/GNU/shareware ...
- Commercial
❑ Application
- General purpose
- Special/specialized
❑ Numerical method applied
- Finite element method
- Finite volume method
- Finite difference method
- Boundary element method
- ….

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 CAE Software

The simulation software market size is expected to grow

from USD $12.7 billion in 2020 to USD $26.9 billion by
2026, at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of
13.2% from 2020 to 2026, according to a new report by
MarketsandMarkets. Reduction in production expenses
and training costs, use of advanced technologies for
simulation and avoiding production of faulty products
are all boosting the growth of the simulation software
market across the globe during the forecast period. Lack
of standard benchmarks to measure outputs is one of
the major challenges of the simulation software market.

The report segments the simulation software market by

component, by deployment, by application, by vertical

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and by region. The component segment is categorized
into software and professional services. The deployment
type segment is bifurcated into cloud and on premise.
The application segment is bifurcated into product
engineering, research and development and
gamification. The vertical segment consists of
automobile, aerospace and defense, electrical and
electronics, healthcare and pharmaceuticals, oil and gas
and mining, construction, ship buildings and marine,
chemicals and other verticals. Based on region,
simulation software market is segmented into five major
regions: North America, Europe, Asia Pacific (APAC),
Middle East and Africa (MEA), and Latin America.

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 Applicability of Simulation At Various
Stages In Design

The success of a CAE-embedded analysis tool is

controlled by three related factors:

• Modeling geometries and behaviors within the

limitations of the tool ,
• Proper or sufficient implementation of the tool with
respect to timing, training, and expectations,
• A sufficient understanding of the relevant failure
modes and results quantities, both in the software
and in the products being simulated.

CAE (Computer Aided Engineering) software is still mostly

based on FEM – finite element method. Sometimes a FEA term
(Finite Element Analyis) is used to name by another
expression a simulation done by FEM code. Other methods,
like Finite Volume Method, CFD methods, etc., gain more
importance in CAE software. CAE software comes in all price
ranges, from free to almost prohibitive. A common
misconception is that the lower the cost and the more CAE-
friendly a tool is, the lower the impact it can have on the
design process, warranting a less thoughtful attitude for model
setup and results interpretation. However, in most cases, the
solver technology and the basic model building capabilities in
the more “friendly” tools are the same or similar to the higher
end tools. What makes a basic tool ”basic” is that the user is

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limited to a smaller subset of capabilities available in
more complete tools. However, if a product’s
performance can be simulated within that limited subset
of tools, the results and subsequent impact on design
decisions is equally meaningful.

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 Applicability of Simulation At Various
Stages In Design

Simulation is typically integrated into the design process

at one of three stages:

• Failure Verification,
• Design Verification,
• Concept Verification.

Most companies begin by utilizing FEA to address known

problems or failures in the Failure Verification mode. In
short, something broke that they weren’t expecting to
break. The software is used to provide insight into why it
broke and, hopefully, how to fix it.

After a certain level of success, companies come to the

realization, that if they could show why a part or system
failed analytically after it failed, they should be able to
predict if a design is going to fail beforehand. At this
stage, the design process hasn’t been altered
significantly. An additional task has been inserted in
between the Design and the Prototype stage. In these
situations, the design has progressed using the same

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tools, techniques and insights as it would have prior to
the availability of simulation. The completed design is
simply validated in the virtual world, and corrected if
necessary, before parts are made. This would be called
Design Verification. If a company stopped at this point
and simply continued to use simulation as a „Design
Checker”, there is still value in the effort.

However, some companies have taken that final step in

the integration of simulation technology by inserting it
into the decision-making process that leads to a
completed design. This allows them to validate any
decision, be it material choice, number of fasteners,
quantity and placement of ribs, nominal wall, etc.,
before committing to subsequent decisions which may
depend on the first or at least interact with it. Thus,
ideas are verified in their conceptual stage, hence the
term, Concept Verification.

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 Business Benefits of Early Simulation

From a more practical standpoint, a company and,

consequently, its design engineers receive benefit from
FEA when it impacts one of the following objectives in
any design program:

• Reduced Product Development Time,

• Increased Innovation,
• Reduced Product Cost,
• Reduced Development Cost,
• Improved Product Quality.

In most cases, the cost to a company for making sub-optimal

decisions early in the design process is much less dramatic or
visible. From a more practical standpoint, a company and,
consequently, its design engineers receive benefit from FEA
when it impacts one of the following objectives in any design
program.

In essence, one can say that using FEA mitigates the risk
associated with relying on physical prototypes, prior
experience, or luck to address these objectives. The weight
each of these objectives are given as they relate to total
project profitability varies from company-to-company and
product-to-product at each are important and must be
controlled and optimized to a certain extent.

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Time-to-Market has been identified by product
development experts as mission critical for companies in
competitive industries. The importance of this isn’t
always shared with design engineers despite the fact
that they are key players in the setting and keeping of
project schedules. Simulation used as a Failure
Verification tool can help speed recovery when a
problem is found at the prototype or pre-production
stage. While there is certainly value in this, most
managers perceive that they would have been better off
if they hadn’t needed to use analysis in the first place
since its use added even more time to the release date
overrun. In these scenarios, the value analysis brings to
the table isn’t always recognized.

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 Capabilities and Limitations of simulation

• The Problem – Solving Environment

• Garbage In – Garbage Out
• Precise Answers to Imprecise Questions
• Discretization Error

One point made in the previous discussion about quality was that
the referenced power tool manufacturer acknowledged that FEA
wasn’t necessarily going to address motor brush life or gear noise.
The time has not yet come where a design engineer can take a
complete CAD assembly model and specify operational inputs
such as battery voltage or engine horsepower and expect to see a
system behave virtually as it would in physical testing. The current
state of the technology still requires engineers to structure a
problem within the limitations of their problem-solving
environment.

A designer or design engineer’s personal problem-solving

environment is a fluid set of resources that enables him or her to
make qualified decisions on engineering issues that arise. As an
engineer’s experience base broadens, so does their problem-
solving environment. Their personal problem-solving environment
includes their:

• Knowledge of the inputs (material, geometry, loads,

history);
• Knowledge of the allowables (stress, displacement,
frequencies);
• Knowledge of the physics involved (plasticity, fatigue,
dynamics);
• Knowledge of past performance of similar systems;
• Tools available to gather data (CAD, FEA, Testing);
• Knowledge and limitations of said tools;
• Availability of resources to supplement the above.

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 Capabilities and Limitations of simulation

• The Problem – Solving Environment

• Garbage In – Garbage Out
• Precise Answers to Imprecise Questions
• Discretization Error

Specific to FEA, remember that a finite element solver simply

processes data to provide a solution. It doesn’t possess any
additional insight, can’t prompt a user to consider other
options, what, e.g., expert systems are build for, or in most
cases, point out flawed inputs. In a manner of speaking, your
FEA solver trusts that you know what you’re doing. It means,
that if the user inputs ,,garbage” data, than can not expect
good results – analytical code after analysis outputs ,,garbage”
results. To many newer users, this may be one of its biggest
limitation.
 Capabilities and Limitations of simulation

• The Problem – Solving Environment

• Garbage In – Garbage Out
• Precise Answers to Imprecise Questions
• Discretization Error

A user rarely has the opportunity to input „accurate” loads,

properties, and geometry. In nearly all cases, these inputs will
be a user’s best guess based on nominals, worst-case
scenarios, or average operating conditions. However, the FEA
solver deals in absolutes, not approximate values. Just as in
linear math where 2 + 2 equals exactly 4, a given force on a
given geometry with a given material stiffness will yield a very
exact solution. This solution will be reported with several digits
after the decimal point and for all intents and purposes will
appear authoritative and exact. Unfortunately, when the
inputs are best-guess assumptions, this „exact” looking
response can easily mislead a user into an erroneous design
decision.

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 Capabilities and Limitations of FEA

• The Problem – Solving Environment

• Garbage In – Garbage Out
• Precise Answers to Imprecise Questions
• Discretization Error

The very nature of FEA is to break a continuum into small sub-

parts called elements to make the math reasonable, so a
solution can be reached efficiently. The validity of the solution
is dependent upon the size, shape, and type of the elements
used. If a user isn’t cognisant of the error that can get
introduced with improper element usage, then may not realize
that reasonable looking results may be far off the mark. Tools
exist in most design analysis codes to aid in checking mesh
validity. If these aren’t available, a manual investigation of
appropriate mesh sizing will still be required. This is an
important yet often overlooked step.

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 Defining the Goal

Examples of appropriate goals:

• Will stress in a given loading scenario exceed yield?

• Will we be able to reduce the first natural frequency
below the operating speed of the motor?
• How many bolts, and of what size & grade are
required to assemble these parts?

Any well-thought out analysis should be preceded by a well-

defined goal. It is recommended that this goal be documented
as one of the first sections of a project report. The goal should
precisely state what outcomes are sought, under what
conditions, and, when possible, how this data will be used.
Scope creep, a problem in product development where
marketing continues to add features to a design in progress,
can also be a problem in setting up an analysis if the goal isn’t
clearly defined.

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 CAE successful implementation
There are many factors that enter into the success of an analysis
program.
• Organization must determine that money and/or time is being
saved over traditional testing.
• There needs to be a good level of confidence that the
simulation mimics reality well.
• Understanding the goals of the design project and the role of
analysis in it can help.
• Make sure the information you need is within the scope of the
tools.
• Plan for the decisions you’ll make with the data generated so
that you’ll know a better design.

There are many factors that enter into the success of an

analysis program. Clearly, an organization must determine
that money and/or time is being saved over traditional
testing. To achieve this, there needs to be a good level of
confidence that the simulation mimics reality well. Many
analysis projects start off on the wrong foot due to poor
planning. Understanding the goals of the design project and
the role of analysis in it can help make sure all subsequent
work is meaningful and productive. Make sure the
information you need is within the scope of the tools
available and your ability to work with these tools. Finally,
plan for the decisions you’ll make with the data generated so
that you’ll know a better design when you see it or recognize
the value of insight when it comes.

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CAE usage impact summary

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Examples – structural analysis

Sheet drawing – fracture

defect analysis

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Examples – manufacturing analysis

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Examples – manufacturing analysis

Automotive component deep drawing

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Examples – manufacturing analysis

Backward extrusion

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Examples – manufacturing analysis

Punching

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Scietific methods

Finite element background

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 Engineering/scietific methods

• Finite element based analysis – FEA,

• Computer fluid dynamics based analysis – CFD
methods,
• Multimultibody dynamics – MBD
• …

Finite element analysis, computational fluid dynamics,

and multibody dynamics are among the most common
simulation techniques.

Simulation techniques apply one or more discretization

methods to solve physics problems. Engineers select a
technique depending on the problem they need to solve
or the properties they need to analyze. For example,
finite element analysis (FEA) is typically used for
structural, modal and thermal analyses, while
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is reserved for fluid
flow problems.

Though many software platforms use a single technique

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to solve specific problems, multiphysics simulation
software leverages several techniques to solve multiple
problems simultaneously. Multiphysics software also
considers the interactions of various physical
phenomena and how such interactions affect system,
structure or component performance. Though FEA, CFD
and multibody dynamics (MBD) can be used separately,
multiphysics software tools often combine all these
techniques into one platform.

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 What is finite element analysis (FEA)
simulation?
FEA simulation is widely used across industries for different applications,
including:
• Static and dynamic structural analysis: Assessing the strength and durability
of structures or components under steady-state and changing conditions.
• Modal analysis: Understanding the natural vibration characteristics of
structures or components and predicting their performance under various
conditions.
• Thermal analysis: Studying heat distribution and thermal stresses in
components.
• Fluid dynamics: Simulating fluid flow and its interaction with structures (often
combined with CFD).
• Electromagnetic analysis: Investigating electromagnetic fields in electrical
devices.
• Biomechanics: Understanding the behavior of biological tissues for designing
medical implants.

FEA is a computational technique to analyze the

behavior of complex structures and components under
defined conditions. Though the terms FEA and FEM
(finite element method) are often used interchangeably,
FEM refers to the discretization method, and FEA refers
to the analysis technique that uses FEM.

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 What is finite element analysis (FEA)
simulation?

During FEA pre-processing, engineers divide a model into

a finite number of smaller elements to form a mesh.
They select different types of elements, including 1D, 2D
or 3D elements, based on the model’s geometry and
nature of the problem. For example, aerospace
engineers may use 1D elements for fuselage frames, 2D
elements for the aircraft’s skin (outer surface) and 3D
elements, often tet or hex elements, for the landing
gear.

In figure we see how FEA can be used to estimate the

stress and deformation of structures under load. Then,
engineers specify the material properties for each
material used in the model. These properties include

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Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio, which define how a
material deforms under stress. Engineers also define
boundary conditions, including constraints and loads
applied to the model. The FEA software uses the
material properties and boundary conditions to
construct mathematical matrices for each element. It
then solves the system of equations, thereby predicting
the material’s response to applied loads.

During post-processing, engineers analyze the results,

such as displacement fields, stress distributions and
potential failure points, to assess the performance and
safety of the design.

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 What is computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) simulation?
CFD is a simulation technique widely used to analyze the
behavior of fluids (liquids and gases) and their interactions with
surfaces. The fundamental equations governing fluid flow are
the Navier-Stokes equations, derived from the conservation
laws of mass, momentum and energy.

CFD solvers often use the finite volume method (FVM) to

discretize these equations, but the finite difference method
(FDM) is sometimes used for simpler problems. FEM can also
be used but is computationally expensive since CFD problems
tend to require a large number of elements.

CFD simulation software analyzes fluid flows that are

external or internal to a model. External CFD models are
frequently used to supplement, inform or replace
physical wind tunnel and aerodynamic testing in the
aerospace and automotive sectors. Internal CFD
simulations are also used in such industries to help
design and optimize the fuel flows, exhaust fumes or
internal combustions associated with a vehicle’s engine.
CFD simulations can also model mixing, heat transfer,
chemical reactions and other phenomena that include
the flow of gases or liquids.

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 What is computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) simulation?
• Engineers start by inputting test geometry from CAD to CFD
or multiphysics software,
• Then, engineers select whether a flow field is internal or
external to the geometry,
• They then input initial conditions, flow models and materials
properties,
• Next, the geometry is typically meshed into smaller discrete
cells to break the problem into smaller parts, making it
easier to assign and solve the governing equations,
• Tools within the simulation software, or external third-party
options, are then used to post-process the results into flow
diagrams, charts, geometries and reports.

Engineers using CFD simulations must pay close

attention to the flow models selected, particularly when
dealing with turbulent flows. Chaotic, stochastic changes
in pressure and flow velocity characterize turbulent
flows. Several classes of models are used to simulate
turbulence, such as direct numerical simulation (DNS),
large eddy simulation (LES) and Reynolds-average
Navier-Stokes (RANS) models. Different turbulence
models may better suit certain applications, geometries,
fluids, flow volumes, scales and internal or external flow
fields.

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 What is multibody dynamics (MBD)
simulation?
MBD simulations assess mechanical
systems made up of rigid or elastic parts.
Using equations of motion, the software
numerically assesses the kinematics of each
part in the system based on its mass, center
of mass, inertia and properties after
applying internal and external forces or
torques. The motions that MBD simulations
might describe include the translational and
rotational movements of aircraft parts,
construction equipment, robots, vehicles or
any other system with moving parts.

MBD simulation software can be used to

analyze the performance of robotic arms

In the CAE simulation world, MBD refers to multibody

dynamics, not model-based definition, model-based
design or model-based development. Model-based
definition is a feature in various CAD, PDM and PLM
software that enables users to annotate and associate
part information with a 3D model, making it a single
source of truth for that part. Model-based design or
development has roots in systems design and process
control and involves producing a complex system model
using flow charts, mathematical equations and simple
simulations.

Some assessments engineers can perform using MBD

include the study of noise, vibration and harshness

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(NVH), vehicle performance, electronic control systems
and more. Much like model-based design and model-
based definition, MBD simulation is often used early in
the product development cycle to virtually test the
performance of a design before any physical assets are
produced. MBD simulations can also be used in digital
twins to monitor and assess real-world assets. However,
unlike model-based design digital twins, which
traditionally assess industrial systems, MBD digital twins
assess real-world system motion.

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 Engineering/scietific methods

Analysis in structural or mechanical engineering means

the application of an acceptable analytical procedurę
based on engineering principles. Analysis is used to
verify the structural or thermal integrity of the design.
Sometimes, this can be done using handbook formulas
for simple structures. More often, however, this analysis
is performer using computers in order to predict product
peeformance.

The pre-dominant type of engineering software used in

these analysis is based on the finite element method –
FEM – and this type of of analysis is therefore called
finite element analysis – FEA.

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 Engineering/scietific methods

The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a numerical technique used to

determine the approximated solution for a partial differential
equations (PDE) on a defined domain (W). To solve the PDE, the
primary challenge is to create a function base that can approximate
the solution. There are many ways of building the approximation
base and how this is done is determined by the formulation
selected. The Finite Element Method has a very good performance
to solve partial differential equations over complex domains that
can vary with time. Applications - Linear, nonlinear, buckling,
thermal, dynamic and fatigue analysis. Finite Element Method
(FEM) and Finite Element Analysis (FEA) are one and the same. The
term “FEA” is more popular in industries while “FEM” is more
popular at universities. Many times there is confusion between
FEA, FEM, and one more similar but different term FMEA (Failure
Mode Effect Analysis). FEA/FEM is used by design or Research and
Development departments only, while FMEA is applicable to all of
the departments.
 Short FEM history

1800 - although the date cannot be given, when the

finite element method was first developed/invented, the
end of 1800 is adopted at the beginning, when John
William Strutt Rayleigh developed a method of
predicting the first natural frequency of simple
constructions. He did this, assuming a deformed shape
of the structure (displacement prepared), and then
quantitatively determined the shape, minimizing the
energy dispersed in the structure. Walter Ritz then
expanded this to the method currently known as the
Rayleigh-Ritz method, to predict the displacement and
stress of structures.

The selection of the assumed shape was crucial for the

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accuracy of the results and boundary conditions.
Unfortunately, the method turned out to be too difficult
for complex shapes, because the number of possible
shapes increased exponentially as complexity increased.
This predictive method was critical in the development
of MES algorithms in later years.

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 Short FEM history

1941/43 - Scientific pillars of the finite element methods

were a direct result of the need to solve the states of
complex elasticity and problems with the analysis of
construction in land engineering and aviation. The first
steps were made by Russian - Canadian engineer
Alexander Hrennikof in 1941 (Solution of Problems of
Equilibrium and Vibrations, Bulletin of the American
Mathematical Society 49: 1–23.) and German - American
mathematician Richard Courant in 1943 (Variational
Methods for the Solution of Problems of Equilibrium and
Vibrations, Bulletin of the American Mathematical
Society 49: 1 -23).

Although these pioneers used different perspectives in

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their approaches to the solution used in the form of
finite elements (Hrennikoff's proposals were based on
the discretization of the mesh, while the Courant's
approach was based on triangular elements), they
identified one common and necessary feature:
discretization of a continuous field discrete sub-domains,
later called finite elements.

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 Short FEM history – milestones
1941/43 – Alexander Hrennikof, Richard Courant
50’ – Boeing Company
1956 – First article about FEM concept
…

The beginning of the 1950s - Ray William Clough

cooperates with John Turner at the Special Boeing
Center-Structural Dynamics Unit-when calculating the
factors to affect bending and torsion elasticity on the
wings of low profile (delta wings). The developed static
experimental results did not agree with the results
obtained by the analytical model. In order to solve the
problem, they developed the concept of a triangle with a
constant deformation. In addition to the constant load of
the triangular membrane element, a rectangular
membrane element was presented, based on balance
stress patterns, which avoided shear blocking. The
equations of the node balance were created by direct
rigidity. Their work was presented at a special seminar at

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Boeing in 1954, and in 1956 an article was published.

Independently, between 1954-55, John Argyris from

University of Stuttgart overworked several different
approximate methods of solving and one-dimensional
solutions for the frame structure. By using matrix
transformation methods, he clearly showed that most
structural analysis methods can be classified as a
strength or displacement method.

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 Short FEM history – milestones

The first article on the application of FEM - although this

name was not yet at the time - it was published in 1956,
in the Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, by the team
Turner, M. J., Clough, R. W., Martin H. C. and Topp, L. J.,
titled "Stiffness and Deflection Analysis of Complex
Structures.” It can be said to be somewhat in summary
that the article summarized the work carried out by
Turner, Clough and colleagues as part of projects carried
out for Boening in the first half of the 1950s.

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 Short FEM history – milestones
1941/43 – Alexander Hrennikof, Richard
Courant
50’ – Boeing Company
1956 – First article about FEM concept
1960 – Ray William Clough – Finite
Element Method
…

And the 1960 year comes, and one of the co-authors of

the first article about FEM concept (1956), Professor Ray
William Clough, used the terms of the Finite Element
and Finite Element Method. He presented this proposal
in the article "The Finite Element Method in Plane Stress
Analysis", which he presented at the second congress of
the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) on
Electronic Computation (Pittsburgh, September 1960).

42
 Short FEM history – milestones
…
1965 – NASA call (1968 – general purpose FEM code – NASTRAN
(NASA STRuctural ANalysis)
1965 – Formal acceptance of the FEM nomenclature
…
70’ – Nonlinear applications
80’ – Integrated graphical pre- and post-processors
90’ – CAD-CAE integration starts into Begin
…

In 1965 NASA announces a call for the development of

structural analysis software. As a result of this project, in
1968 a NASTRAN (NAsa STRuctural ANalysis) program
was developed, in which the available MES technology
was implemented to solve structural problems.

In the Wright-Patterson (USA) Air Force base, the Matrix

Methods in Structural Analysis conference is held in
October 1965. The main groups of researchers from
many areas of the world dealing with structural analyzes
gathered there. The presented works used two- and
three-dimensional elements finished to solve problems
in the mechanics of continuous centers. The terminology
of the "finite element" was accepted as a terminology

43
replacing the "direct stiffness method".

43
Short FEM history – milestones
1967 - the first book on FEM is published,
entitled "The Finite Element Method", by
one of the most outstanding and most
famous in the world experts and promoters
of FEM, prof. Olgierd Zienkiewicz. To this
day, it remains the standard reference text
for FEM users.

44
FEM basis

45
 FEM basis
A structure can be idealized as composed of many small, discrete
pieces called finite elements. Engineers extended Hooke's basic idea
into large structures involving thousands of simultaneous equations,
and were able to solve these equations using the first generation of
computers.

Since linear FEA theory was formulated

first, these early structural analysis were
linear. In the sixties, researchers started to
apply the finite element method to other
fields in engineering science, such as fluid
mechanics, heat transfer, electromagnetic
wave propagation, and other problems.
Applied mathematicians proved that the
method converges to the correct results.
Researchers also started applying FEA to
nonlinear problems.

46
 FEM basis

The infinite DOF (degrees of freedom) of a continuous

problem is reduced into a finite DOF problem using some
approximations. The complex continuum region is
discretized into number of finite elements/shapes/domains
called FINITE ELEMENTS.

DOF – The number of independent variables required to

describe the state of the system.

47
 FEM basis
Three properties of the FEM:
- a numerical method
- mathematical representation of an actual problem
- approximate method
The Finite Element Method only makes calculations at a limited (Finite) number of points
and then interpolates the results for the entire domain (surface or volume).

Finite – Any continuous object has infinite degrees of freedom and it is not possible to
solve the problem in this format. The Finite Element Method reduces the degrees of
freedom from infinite to finite with the help of discretization or meshing (nodes and
elements).

Element – All of the calculations are made at a limited number of points known as nodes.
The entity joining nodes and forming a specific shape such as quadrilateral or triangular is
known as an element. To get the value of a variable (say displacement) anywhere in
between the calculation points, an interpolation function (as per the shape of the
element) is used.

Method - There are 3 methods to solve any engineering problem. Finite element analysis
belongs to the numerical method category.

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 FEM basis
The finite element is a simple geometric figure (flat or spatial), for which the highlighted
points called nodes were determined, and certain interpolation functions used to describe
the distribution of analyzed quantities in its interior and on its sides. These are the already
mentioned shape functions (nodal functions).

The nodes are located in the corners of the finite element, but they can also be placed on
its sides and inside. If the nodes are found only in the corners, then the element is called
the linear element (because the interpolation functions are then linear). In other cases, we
are dealing with elements of higher orders.

The element level is always equal to an interpolation functions (shape functions). The
number of shape functions in a single element is equal to the number of its nodes. The
shape functions are always built in such a way that in the nodes to which they apply to
their values are one, and in the remaining nodes they take the value of zero.

One says, though, that with the finite element three features are
related: shape (geometry), nodes, shape function.

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Finite Elements

50
Finite Elements

51
Finite Elements

52
FEM application – simple example

53
FEM application – simple example

Real problem FEM model

54
FEM application – simple example

55
FEM application – simple example

56
CAE – modeling procedure

57
 CAE/FEM – modeling procedure

Geometry FE Mesh Element properties

Load & Boundary

conditions Material model

Analysis

Results evaluation

58
 CAE/FEM – modeling procedure
• Geometry
• Finite element mesh – size of the elements, density
• Material properies – material model, element properties link
• Boundary Conditions – loads, support, DOF,…
• Contact conditions – friction, special layers, …
• Special procedures – remeshing, rezoning, sub-modeling,…
• Setting the analysis parameters – time step, increments, …
• Running the simulation – errors/warrnings control
• Results visualisation – parametres distribution, figures, history
flow,…

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 Three stages of valid modeling

• Optimization
Finite element mesh size influence

• Verification
Results comparison with real test/experiments

• Actual (real) modelling

Analysis of various parameters influence on the model
behavior

After model is built (geometry, mesh, materials, boundary

conditions, etc.), it is not ready for accurate analysis, yet. It needs
some effort to be prepared for effective and valuable analysis.
Usually, three stages are described: model optimization, model
verification and final (actual) analysis.

First stage is related with numerical parameters optimization. It

consist – generally speaking - in mesh optimization (element size
influence on results analysis) and particular numerical
parameters, like time step and/or increment, fitting. Increasing
the numer of elements improve the accuracy of the results, but it
is unfortunately accompanied by an extension of the calculation
time. Thus, we call this stage optmization, since at least two
parameters has to be taken into account and optimized: results

60
accuracy and simulation time.

Validation is a process by which the predictive

capabilities of a mathematical model are tested against
experimental data. We will be concerned primarily with
problems in solid mechanics for which the predictions
can be tested through experiments especially designed
for that purpose. This is a very large class of problems
that includes all mathematical models designed for the
prediction of the performance of mass-produced items.
There are other important problems, such as the effects
of earthquakes and other natural disasters, unique
design problems, such as dams, siting of nuclear power
plants and the like, for which the predictions based on
mathematical models cannot be tested at full scale. In
such cases the models are analyzed a posteriori and
modified in the light of new information collected
following an incident.

After these steps, the designer can start actual modeling

procedure.

60
 Optimization

???

DOF/N/n, t

Some errors in FEM analysis are associated with the

mathematical model and some errors are associated
with its numerical solution. These are called errors of
idealization and errors of discretization respectively. For
the predictions to be reliable both kinds of errors have to
be sufficiently small. Discretization is a process by which
the exact solution of the mathematical model is
approximated. To decrease the error of the discretization
t h e a n a l ys i s o f t h e m e s h d e n s i t y / n u m e r o f
elements/number of nodes/numer of degrees of
freedom – DOF have to be examined on the particular
model with respect to calculation time. This stage is
called optimization and is critical for the whole modeling
procedure. The designer usually starts with initial, coarse

61
mesh (depending on the individual experience) and then
by increasing the numer of elments in next simulations
(models) can obtain a general curve (relation) based on
which can decide which model is adequate (according to
time and accuracy/error level).

If a higher number of nodes and elements lead to a

higher accuracy, then why not always create a very fine
mesh with the maximum possible number of nodes and
elements? The reason is because the solution time is
directly proportional to (DOF)n. n can be 1 to 4,
depending on the type of analyses and solver. Also, large
size models are not easy to handle on computers due to
the graphics card memory limitations. The analyst has to
maintain a fine balance between the desired level of
accuracy and the element size (DOF) that can be handled

satisfactorily using the available hardware resources

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Verification – results comparison
what we can compare directly

- Geometry – dimensions,
- Geometry – shape, defects,
- Force-displacement, etc.,
- Pressure, etc.,
- Surface temperature,
- …

62
Verification – results comparison
what we can compare directly

Geometry – shape, defects,

and dimmemsions

63
Verification – results comparison
what we can compare directly

Geometry comparison – cross-section

Pressure comparison – surface

64
Verification – results comparison
what we can not compare directly

- Stress/strain field,
- Temperature distribution,
- Contact forces,
- Hidden failures
- …

65
Verification – results comparison
what we can not compare directly

66
Verification – results comparison
what we can not compare directly

67
Special issues – examples
metalworking processes

68
Special issues – examples
metalworking processes

69
 Special issues – examples
metalworking processes – sequential modeling

70
 Special issues – examples
metalworking processes – sequential modeling

71
 Special issues – examples
metalworking processes – sequential modeling

72
 Special issues – examples
metalworking processes – sequential modeling

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 Problems
1. CAE profits
2. CAE software division criteria
3. Predictions of simulation software market size in 2026.
4. Three basic modes of FEA usage on industry level.
5. Business benefits of early simulation.
6. Capabilities and limitations of FEA.
7. CAE successful implementation conditions.
8. The main methods of engineering/scientific analysis.
9. The first article and the first book ever dealing with FEM (publication dates,
authors).
10. The Finite Element Method name author and proposal date.
11. Three features of the finite element.
12. Types of finite elements.
13. Standard FEM modeling procedure.
14. Three stages of valid modeling.
15. Errors of idealization and errors of discretization.

74