CELLS

Puneetha J
Assistant professor
Chemistry
• A structure containing a mass of cytoplasm surrounded by semi-permeable membrane called
plasma membrane is called a cell.
• It encloses cytoplasm, many cell organelles along with nucleus or nuclear material.
• Robert Hooke (1665) with the help of light microscope discovered that a section of cork is
made up of small cavities surrounded by firm walls. He used the term “cell” for the first time
to describe his investigations on the “texture of a piece of cork”
• On the basis of organization of membranes, variety and structure of cytoplasmic organelles and
complexity of nuclear region, the cells are classified into two types: Prokaryotic cell and
Eukaryotic cell. These terms were suggested by Hans Ris in 1960s.
• A cell was defined as “unit of biological activity delimited by a semi permeable membrane and
capable of self-reproduction in a medium free of other living systems” by Loewy and Siekevitz
(1963).
BASIC COMPONENTS OF PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL
Prokaryotic Cells - primitive cells and have simple structural organization.
• It has a single membrane system.
• bacteria, viruses, blue-green algae, mycoplasmas, rickettsias, spirochetes. Cyanobacteria or blue
green algae are the largest and most complex prokaryote, in which photosynthesis of higher
plants type have evolved.
• Prokaryotes - in the kingdom Monera and the super kingdom Prokaryota.
• characters: 1. The size of prokaryotic cells ranges between 1 to 10 µm. They occur in a variety of
forms. 2. Prokaryotic cell consists of three main components:
(I) Outer covering: It is composed of inner cell or plasma membrane, middle cell wall and outer slimy
capsule.
• a. Cell membrane: Cell membrane made up of lipids and proteins,
• is thin and flexible and controls the movement of molecules across the cell.
• Respiratory enzymes are carried by it for energy releasing reactions.
• Mesosomes, the in-folds of plasma membrane bears respiratory enzymes and these are
considered analogous to mitochondria of eukaryotic cells.
• the pigments and enzymes molecules that absorb and convert the light into chemical energy
in photosynthetic cells are also associated with the plasma membrane’s in-folds called
photosynthetic lamella.
 • b. Cell wall : It is a rigid or semi-rigid non-living structure that surrounds the cell membrane
• Chemically it is composed of peptidoglycans.
• Some bacteria such as mycoplasmas lack cell wall.
• c. Slimy capsule: A gelatinous coat outside the cell wall is the slimy capsule.
(II) Cytoplasm: Prokaryotic cytoplasm contains proteins, lipids, glycogen and inorganic ions along
with enzymes for biosynthetic reactions and ribosomes, tRNA and mRNA for protein synthesis.
Prokaryotic cytoplasm has some special features as follows:
• a. It lacks cell organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus,
Centrosomes, vacuoles, Lysosomes, microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules.
• b. The only cytoplasmic organelle found in prokaryotic cells is the ribosomes. They are smaller
than eukaryotic ribosomes i.e., 70S and lie free in the cytoplasm.
• c. Gas vacuoles are also formed in some prokaryotic cells.
• d. They may contain deposits of polysaccharides or inorganic phosphates.
• (III) Nucleoid: Nuclear envelope is absent in prokaryotic cell and the genetic material lies directly
into the cytoplasm. Such nuclear material is known as nucleoid. Nucleoid consists of greatly
coiled single pro-chromosome.
Eukaryotic Cells The internal organization of eukaryotic cell is more developed than prokaryotic cells
from which they are believed to have been evolved.
• They are evolved to have double membrane system.
• Primary membranes - surrounds the cell, celled cell or plasma membrane
• Secondary membrane - surround the nucleus and other cellular organelles.
• Eukaryotic cells occur in protists, fungi, plants and animals.
Eukaryotic cells have the following characteristics:
1. Number- In multicellular organisms the numbers of cells are correlated with the body size. The
human blood contains about 30 quadrillion (3 × 1015) corpuscles and a 60 kg human being has
about 60 × 1015 cells.
2. Shape- A cell may be spherical, cuboidal, oval, disc-like, polygonal, columnar, spindle like or
irregular.
3. Size- Most of the eukaryotic cells is microscopic and their size ranges between 10 to 100µm.
Nerve cells are the longest having the size of its fiber to be of few meters long. Human cells
generally range from 20 to 30µm.
4. Components of a cell- Three main components of the eukaryotic cells are cell membrane,
cytoplasm and nucleus.
(i) Cell membrane- It is composed of lipid-protein complex.
• It lacks respiratory enzymes.
In certain protists, many fungi and all plant cells, the cell membrane is covered by a thick, rigid non-
living cell wall that protects and supports the cell. In prokaryotes the cell wall surrounding the
plasma membrane has a different structure in comparison to eukaryotes.
(ii) Cytoplasm- The cytoplasm or the cytosome is a semi-fluid, homogeneous, translucent ground
substance known as cytoplasmic matrix or cytosol which is present between the cell membrane
and the nucleus.
The eukaryotic cytoplasm has the following features:-
a. Organelles: The organized structures having the specific functions and capacity of growth and
multiplication in some cases are known as organelles.
These organelles are described as follows: I. Mitochondria: The rod like or globule shaped
structures scattered in the cytoplasm are found singly or in groups. It contain DNA molecules
and ribosomes, they synthesize certain proteins. They produce the energy and reserve it in
the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Power house of cell.
II. Centrosomes: near the nucleus, that includes a specialized portion of cytoplasm, called
centrospheres. Its matrix is called kinoplasm that bears two rounded bodies the “centrioles”.
Both the centrioles are arranged at right angle to each other. Centrioles form the spindles of
microtubules at the time of cell division. Centrioles are absent in plant cell.
III. Golgi bodies: These are the stack of flattened parallel-arranged sacs and vesicles found in
association of endoplasmic reticulum. In plant cells the Golgi complex is called dictyosome that
secretes required materials for the formation of cell. The functions as a factory in which proteins
received from the ER are further processed and sorted for transport to their eventual destinations:
lysosomes, the plasma membrane, or secretion.
IV. Plastids: These organelles are found in plant cells and are absent in animal cells. They may
be colored like chloroplast or chromoplasts or colorless like leucoplast.
V. Ribosome’s: Ribosome is the minute spherical structures that originate in nucleolus and are
found attached with the membrane of endoplasmic reticulum and in the cytoplasm. They are
mainly composed of ribonucleic acids (RNA) and protein. They are mainly responsible for
protein synthesis

B. Inclusions: These are the non-living or deutoplasmic structures which are incapable of growth
and multiplication. such as starch grains, glycogen granules, aleurone grains, fat droplets,
pigment granules and inorganic crystals.
 C. Cytoplasm the gelatinous liquid that fills the inside of a cell. It is composed of water,
salts, and various organic molecules.
D. Nucleus: In a eukaryotic cell the genetic material is enclosed by a distinct nuclear
envelope that forms a prominent spherical organelle the “Nucleus”. The nuclear envelope bears
pores for the exchange of materials between the cytoplasm and the nucleoplasm.
 Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
1. A prokaryotic cell is surrounded by a single 1. A eukaryotic cell is surrounded by a double
membrane layer. membrane layer
2. In most cases the cell wall surrounds the 2. Cell wall is present in protists, most fungi and
plasma membrane and it is composed of plants and is composed of chitin in most fungi
carbohydrates, lipids proteins and certain amino and or cellulose in others.
acids.
3. Respiratory enzymes are present on cell 3. Absent on the cell membrane
membranes.
4. Thylakoids occurs free in cytoplasm. 4. They occur within the chloroplast

5. Cytoplasm lacks organelles like centrosomes, 5. All the cell organelles are present in the cell
endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi along with ribosomes.
apparatus, microfilaments, intermediate
filaments, microtubules and micro bodies. While
ribosomes are present
6. Gas vacuoles may occur while sap vacuoles are 6. Sap vacuoles are commonly present.
absent.
7. 70S ribosomes are present that lie free in 7. 80S ribosome’s are present, either free or
cytoplasm or attached to mRNA. bound to ER and nuclear envelope or mRNA.
8. Endocytosis and exocytose do not occur. 8. These processes take place in many protists
and in animals.
9. Process of meiosis or gamete formation or 9. In these cells the process of meiosis,
true fertilization does not occur. gamete formation and true fertilization occur
in most cases of sexual reproduction.
10. Cells are haploid. 10. Cells are diploid, while haploid cells also
occur.
11. Nuclear envelope is absent and nuclear 11. Nuclear envelope surrounds the nuclear
material lie in cytoplasm and is called material. The structure is called nucleus. It
nucleoid. Nucleoid contains a single contains two to many chromosomes.
chromosome.

12. Nucleolus absent. 12. One or more nucleoli are present within
the nucleus.
13. Circular DNA is present without associated 13. Nuclear DNA is linear and is associated
proteins. with proteins, while extra nuclear DNA is
present without proteins.

14. Flagella if present are simple, consist of a 14. Flagella, if present are complex, have 9+2
single fibril and are formed of a protein pattern of microtubules formed of a protein
flagellin. tubulin.

15. Plasmids and pili occur in many prokaryotic 15. These structures are absent.
cells.
16. Most prokaryotes are asexual organisms. 16. Most of them are sexual organisms.
Stem cells are cells that do not yet have a specific role and can become almost any cell that is
required. They can also regenerate damaged tissue under the right conditions.
Stem cells originate from two main sources: adult body tissues and embryos.
Adult stem cells
A person’s body contains stem cells throughout their life. The body can use these stem cells
whenever it needs them. The cells are in a non-specific state, but they are more specialized than
embryonic stem cells. They remain in this state until the body needs them for a specific purpose,
say, as skin or muscle cells.
Stem cells are present inside different types of tissue. Scientists have found stem cells in tissues,
including:
1. the brain
2. bone marrow
3. blood and blood vessels
4. skeletal muscles
5. skin
6. the liver
Stem cells are being used in a wide variety of ways ranging from developing artificial organs for
research and transplantation to even mitochondrial therapy. Some of these developments are–
HSC transplantation(hematopoietic stem cell (HSC))
Healthy HSCs can be transplanted into patients suffering from various types of bone marrow or
blood disorders such as leukemia, lymphoma, and tumors to replace the dysfunctional bone
marrow cells. The transfer can be autologous (cells originating from the patient), allogeneic (cells
originating from a different person), or syngeneic (cells originating from identical twins).Bone
marrow transplants have a long history and have become a standard medical procedure.
HSC therapy (HSCT)
HSCT has been used to treat multiple sclerosis in clinical trials. Multiple sclerosis is an
autoimmune disease targeting the central nervous system. The traditional approach for the
treatment of multiple sclerosis is disease-modifying therapy (DMT). DMT targets the immune
system by modulating it, alternating the immune cell trafficking, or reducing the immune cell
population. However, it requires long-term administration and can have serious side effects.
Placental stem cell therapy
In healing and curing diseases in various parts of the body such as Alzheimer’s, liver diseases,
pancreatic diseases, myocardial infarction, muscle dystrophy, lung fibrosis, and large lytic lesions
in bones. They also have applications in tissue engineering.
Autologous limbal stem cells (holoclar) transplantation
Autologous limbal cell culture contains stem cells (holoclones) that can be used to treat patients
with loss of corneal epithelium. Burns to the eye may lead to loss of vision by destroying the
limbus or causing limbal stem cell deficiency. Holoclar has been formally approved in Europe for
moderate to severe limbal stem cell deficiency in adults.
Development toward artificial organ engineering
When stem cells are cultured in a 3D environment, in permissive growth conditions without any
external input, they multiply and differentiate into structures like their origin. These structures
mimic organs, including providing the niche for stem cells, and are called “organoids.” These
organoids are used for various studies.
Hollow organ engineering
Stem cells show promising results in the engineering of hollow organs such as trachea and
vagina. Stem cells can be used to engineer new trachea for patients suffering due to mustard gas.
Anti-aging effects
The aging process is characterized by molecular mechanisms, including DNA damage, telomere
shortening, loss of proteostasis, mitochondrial dysfunction, and stem cell
exhaustion.[18] Adipose-derived stem cells promote mitophagy and increase mitochondrial
production, changing the cell metabolism to resemble youthful cells.
Minimizing mitochondrial injury
Mitochondrial dysfunction -bneurodegenerative disorders, cardiac diseases, sepsis, cancer,
diabetes, and fluoroquinolone-associated disability. MSCs accelerate mitochondrial recovery,
promote mitophagy, and induce the transfer of healthy mitochondria in cells suffering from
mitochondrial damage or dysfunction.
Treatment of diabetes
Diabetes mellitus can be caused by lifestyle choices and genetic inheritance (type 2 diabetes),
autoimmune causes (type 1 diabetes), or even hormonal changes due to pregnancy (gestational
diabetes).Stem cells can solve this problem by directly healing the pancreatic cells. In addition,
diabetes-related injuries such as non-healing wounds are being treated using stem cells.
Disease modeling and study of differentiation
Since their development, iPSCs have been used by scientists in a variety of ways for studying the
pathogenesis of diseases, for inventing novel ways of iPSC formation, for studying the
inheritance of genetic diseases, for studying neurodegenerative diseases, etc. (pluripotent stem
cells (PSCs) which can differentiate into any of the three germ layers but not any extraembryonic
structure (placenta).
Cell-free therapy
Cell-derived membrane-bound vesicles and extracellular vesicles (EVs) from stem cells The use of
EVs reduces the risks and limitations of cell-based therapy, being non-invasive, crossing blood–
brain barrier, and being non-tumorous.
Wound healing
Stem cells promote cell proliferation and cell differentiation at the wound site,
Treatment of burn wounds
Using stem cells by direct injection, tissue-engineered grafts or exosome treatment shows
promising results in burn wound healing.
Significance in research
Stem cells are being used to study diseases such as congenital heart disease, and
neurodevelopmental defects and for the study of the effects of the environment on cell and
tissue development.
CURRENT LIMITATIONS
Many factors are currently holding back stem cell research, causing its slow development.
Some of these factors are as follows –
• problems in culturing most stem cells,[30] conventional 2D culturing techniques being expensive
and inefficient for culturing stem cells, difficulty in mimicking the stem cell niche, loss of capacity
to differentiate during culturing, lack of standardized 3D culturing techniques, lack of proper
scale up techniques, etc.[31]
• PSCs may result in the formation of teratoma (benign tumors, containing tissues of all germ layers)
when injected into the body.[32]
• Cultures studying placental stem cells all result in a mixture of different types of cells; it is
challenging to get specialized cells in high purity in a sustainable way.[2]
• Furthermore, the introduction of stem cells into the body can result in an immune response.[33]
• Therefore, better and more efficient therapies need to be developed.
FUTURE PROSPECTS
Stem cells in gene editing
Gene-edited stem cells may be used to treat genetic diseases and lessen the chance of damaging
mutations being passed onto future generations.
Stem cells for autoimmune illnesses
The immune deficiencies suffered due to AIDS can be treated using stem cells.
Regenerative medicine
In the field of regenerative medicine, damaged or diseased tissues and organs can be repaired or
replaced with healthy cells derived from stem cells. This could revolutionize the treatment of
conditions such as heart disease, Parkinson’s, spinal cord injuries, and more.
Personalized medicine
With the advent of iPSCs, it is now possible to derive stem cells from a patient’s cells, creating an
unlimited source of personalized cells for therapeutic use. IPSCs can be genetically matched to the
patient, significantly reducing the risk of immune rejection, and enabling tailored treatments for
various medical conditions.
Tissue engineering
Organoids can be used for drug testing, disease modeling, and personalized medicine, paving the
way for more precise and efficient treatments.
Artificial organs and body parts
In the not-so-distant future, we might witness the creation of fully functional artificial organs and
body parts using stem cells. This could potentially alleviate the organ shortage for transplants and
provide customized solutions for patients in need.
Vitamins are essential nutrients that play critical roles in maintaining our health and wellbeing.
Properties of Vitamins
• Organic Compounds: Vitamins are organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen.
• Essential Nutrients: They are vital for proper physiological function but are not produced in
sufficient quantities by the body, necessitating external intake.
• Micronutrients: Required in small amounts compared to macronutrients like proteins and
carbohydrates.
• Coenzymes or Precursors: Many vitamins serve as coenzymes or precursors for the synthesis
of coenzymes that participate in various metabolic reactions.
1. The fat-soluble vitamins — A, D, E, and K — dissolve in fat and are stored in your body.
2. The water-soluble vitamins — C and the B-complex vitamins (such as vitamins B6, B12,
niacin, riboflavin, and folate) — dissolve in water. Your body can't store these vitamins. Any
B or C vitamins that your body doesn't use travels through the bloodstream and is lost
(mostly when you pee). So you need a fresh supply of these vitamins every day.
Functions of Vitamins with its Supplies
1. Vitamin A (Retinol): Essential for vision, immune function, and skin health. Found in carrots,
sweet potatoes, and spinach.
2. Vitamin B Complex: Various B vitamins contribute to energy metabolism, red blood cell
formation, and nerve function. Found in lean meat, fish, wholegrains, fruit, vegetables and
legumes, Eggs, nuts, sweet potatoes.
The 8 types of vitamin B are:
1. Thiamine (B1)
2. Riboflavin (B2)
3. Niacin (B3)
4. Pantothenic acid (B5)
5. Pyridoxine (B6)
6. Biotin (B7)
7. Folate or ‘folic acid’ when included in supplements (B9)
8. Cyanocobalamin (B12).
3. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid): Promotes collagen synthesis, boosts the immune system, and acts as
an antioxidant. Citrus fruits, strawberries, bell peppers.
4. Vitamin D (Calciferol): Critical for calcium absorption, bone health, and immune function.
Sun exposure, fatty fish, fortified dairy products.
5. Vitamin E (Tocopherol): Acts as an antioxidant, protecting cells from damage. Nuts, seeds,
vegetable oils.
6. Vitamin K (Phylloquinone): Essential for blood clotting and bone health. Leafy greens,
broccoli, soybean oil.
Hormones are chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that regulate
various physiological processes in the body.
• They travel through the bloodstream to target organs and tissues, influencing functions such
as growth, metabolism, and mood. Hormones play a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis
and overall health.
Properties of Hormones
• Chemical Messengers: Hormones are specialized chemical messengers that facilitate
communication between cells and organs in the body.
• Produced by Endocrine Glands: Hormones are primarily synthesized and secreted by
endocrine glands, such as the thyroid, adrenal, and pituitary glands.
• Regulation of Physiological Processes: They play a crucial role in regulating various
physiological processes, ensuring balance and coordination in the body.
• Transported in the Bloodstream: Once produced, hormones are released into the
bloodstream, allowing them to travel to distant target cells or organs.
• Target-Specific Actions: Each hormone has specific target cells or organs where it exerts its
effects, influencing cellular activities.
• Control over Metabolism: Hormones contribute to the regulation of metabolism, influencing
processes like energy production and utilization.
• Influence on Growth and Development: Growth hormones, for example, impact growth and
development, especially during childhood and adolescence.
• Role in Reproduction: Reproductive hormones, such as estrogen and testosterone, play a key
role in the reproductive system, influencing fertility and secondary sexual characteristics.
• Feedback Mechanisms: Hormonal release is often regulated by feedback mechanisms,
maintaining homeostasis and preventing excessive hormone levels.
• Responses to Stress: Certain hormones, like cortisol, respond to stress by mobilizing energy
reserves and preparing the body for a "fight or flight" response.
Functions of Hormones with Examples
• Regulation of Metabolism: Example: Insulin and Glucagon.
• Function: Insulin lowers blood sugar levels by promoting glucose uptake in cells, while
glucagon increases blood sugar levels by stimulating the release of glucose from the liver.
• Growth and Development: Example: Growth Hormone (GH).
• Function: GH stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration, influencing overall
growth during childhood and adolescence.
• Maintenance of Water and Electrolyte Balance: Example: Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH).
• Function: ADH regulates water reabsorption in the kidneys, helping to maintain proper
water balance in the body.
• Reproductive Functions: Examples: Estrogen and Testosterone.
• Function: Estrogen regulates the menstrual cycle and supports the development of
secondary sexual characteristics in females, while testosterone plays a key role in male
reproductive functions.
• Stress Response: Example: Cortisol.
• Function: Cortisol, often termed the "stress hormone," helps the body respond to stress
by increasing glucose levels and suppressing the immune system.
Plant Based Proteins
▪ Proteins derived from plant sources - legumes, grains,
nuts, and seeds.
▪ Alternative to animal-based proteins - for those following
a vegetarian or vegan diet.
▪ Examples: soy protein, pea protein, lentil protein,
chickpea protein, and hemp protein.
▪ Choose a high-quality product - free of artificial additives
and preservatives.
▪ consult a healthcare professional before starting to use
any new protein supplement.
• Regulation of Calcium Levels: Example: Parathyroid Hormone (PTH).
• Function: PTH regulates calcium levels in the blood by promoting calcium absorption in
the intestines and releasing calcium from bones.
• Thyroid Function: Examples: Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4).
• Function: Thyroid hormones influence metabolism, energy production, and overall
cellular activity.
• Blood Pressure Regulation: Example: Renin and Aldosterone.
• Function: Renin initiates a cascade that leads to aldosterone release, which, in turn,
regulates sodium and water balance, impacting blood pressure.
• Inflammatory Response: Example: Prostaglandins.
• Function: Prostaglandins are involved in the inflammatory response, contributing to
processes like fever, pain, and swelling.
• Mood and Sleep Regulation: Example: Melatonin.
• Function: Melatonin regulates the sleep-wake cycle, influencing circadian rhythms and
promoting sleep.
• CELL & MOLECULAR BIOLOGY(DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY SCHOOL OF SCIENCES UTTARAKHAND
OPEN UNIVERSITY)
• https://ijmsweb.com/stem-cells-current-applications-and-future-prospects/
• https://microbenotes.com/stem-cells/
• https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/Vitamins-and-
minerals#:~:text=Vitamins%20and%20minerals%20are%20essential,if%20consumed%20in%2
0large%20amounts.
• https://www.healthlinkbc.ca/healthy-eating-physical-activity/food-and-
nutrition/nutrients/vitamins-their-functions-and-sources
• https://www.vedantu.com/biology/hormones
• https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22464-hormones
• https://microbenotes.com
CARBOHYDRATES

Puneetha J
Assistant professor
Chemistry
CARBOHYDRATES
• Organic compounds - important source of energy for
living organisms.
• Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms
• Classified ba.sed on their molecular structure and
function.
• General formula is Cn(H2O)n.
• Carbohydrates are essential components of biological
systems and play a crucial role in maintaining the health
and survival of living organisms
MONOSACCHARIDES
• Simplest form of carbohydrates
• Eg : glucose and fructose
• Soluble in water
• Primary source of energy for the body
DISACCHARIDES
• Formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides
• Eg : sucrose, lactose, and maltose
• Found in sugar - broken down into monosaccharides
during digestion
POLYSACCHARIDES
• Long chains of monosaccharides linked together
• Serve as storage molecules for energy - glycogen in
animals, starch in plants
• Provide structure and support - cellulose in plant cell
walls
• Cellular processes - cellular signaling and recognition, and
in regulating gene expression.
STARCH
Properties of Carbohydrates
Physical Properties of Carbohydrates
• Stereoisomerism – Compound shaving the same structural formula
but they differ in spatial configuration.
Example: Glucose has two isomers with respect to the
penultimate carbon atom. They are D-glucose and L-glucose.
• Optical Activity – It is the rotation of plane-polarized light forming
(+) glucose and (-) glucose.
• Diastereo isomers – It the configurational changes with regard to C2,
C3, or C4 in glucose. Example: Mannose, galactose.
• Annomerism – It is the spatial configuration with respect to the first
carbon atom in aldoses and the second carbon atom in ketoses.
Chemical Properties of Carbohydrates
• Osazone formation: Osazone are carbohydrate derivatives when
sugars are reacted with an excess of phenylhydrazine. eg.
Glucosazone
• Benedict’s test: Reducing sugars when heated in the presence of an
alkali gets converted to powerful reducing species known as
enediols. When Benedict’s reagent solution and reducing sugars are
heated together, the solution changes its color to orange-red/ brick
red.
• Oxidation: Monosaccharides are reducing sugars if their carbonyl
groups oxidize to give carboxylic acids. In Benedict’s test, D-glucose
is oxidized to D-gluconic acid thus, glucose is considered a reducing
sugar.
• Reduction to alcohols: The C=O groups in open-chain forms of
carbohydrates can be reduced to alcohols by sodium borohydride,
NaBH4, or catalytic hydrogenation (H2, Ni, EtOH/H2O). The products
are known as “alditols”.
Functions of carbohydrates
1. They are the most abundant dietary source of energy (4kcal/gram) for
all living beings.
2. instant sources of energy. Glucose is broken down by glycolysis/ Kreb’s
cycle to yield ATP.
3. Energy stores - as glycogen in animals and starch in plants.
4. Structural elements in the cell walls of bacteria (peptidoglycan or
murein), plants (cellulose), and animals (chitin).
5. Carbohydrates are intermediates in the biosynthesis of fats and
proteins.
6. Carbohydrates aid in the regulation of nerve tissue and is the energy
source for the brain.
7. Carbohydrates get associated with lipids and proteins to form surface
antigens, receptor molecules, vitamins, and antibiotics.
8. Formation of the structural framework of RNA and DNA (ribonucleic
acid and deoxyribonucleic acid).
9. Constituent of connective tissues.
10. Carbohydrates that are rich in fiber content help to prevent
constipation
11. Stored carbohydrates act as an energy source instead of proteins.
12. modulation of the immune system.
13. They are linked to many proteins and lipids. Such linked carbohydrates
are important in cell-cell communication and in interactions between
cells and other elements in the cellular environment.
Industrial Applications of Carbohydrates
1. Food and Beverage: Sweeteners, thickeners, and stabilizers

Energy sources - sports drinks and energy bars.

2. Pharmaceuticals: Excipients in pharmaceutical formulations to

improve the stability, solubility, and bioavailability of drugs.

Source of energy - medical nutrition products.

3. Cosmetics: Moisturizers, shampoos, and conditioners, to provide

hydration and improve skin and hair health.

3. Biotechnology: production of biodegradable plastics,

biofuels and other renewable energy sources.

4. Research: research tools - immunology, virology, and

cellular biology.

ligands in protein-carbohydrate interactions and as

probes to study cellular signaling pathways

CELLULOSE-BASED WATER FILTERS
• Made from cellulose-a carbohydrate polymer found in
plant cell walls.
• Properties Cellulose- high mechanical strength ,hydrophilic
• It remove particles, pathogens, and other contaminants
from water
• Widely used - household, industrial, and agricultural
applications.
• Environment friendly alternative to traditional filters -
biodegradable and produced from renewable resources.
Properties of cellulose based water filter
• High Porosity: efficiently remove impurities and contaminants
from water.

• Biodegradability: made from cellulose, which reduces their

impact on the environment compared to synthetic polymer filters.

• Cost-effective: more affordable than traditional synthetic

polymer filters, making them accessible to a wider range of
consumers and communities.

• Renewable resource: cellulose, reducing the dependency on

non-renewable resources.
• Good mechanical strength: allowing them to maintain their

structure and perform effectively over time.

• Chemical resistance: resistant to most acids and bases, and

can be used in a wide range of water treatment applications.

• Large surface area: enhances their filtration capabilities and

reduces the frequency of filter replacement.

Importance of cellulose based water filters
• Safe and clean water: used in household, industrial, and agricultural
• Sustainability: made from a renewable resource, cellulose, and are
biodegradable, reducing impact on the environment - promoting
sustainability in water treatment processes.
• Affordability
• Versatility: used in various types of filtration systems - produced in
different sizes and shapes to fit specific needs.
• Alternative to synthetic filters: environment friendly alternative to
traditional synthetic polymer filters- reducing the dependency on
nonrenewable resources and reducing waste.
Advantages of cellulose based water filters
• Environmentally friendly

• Cost-effective

• High porosity

• Versatile

• Good mechanical strength

• Chemical resistance

• Large surface area

Limitations of cellulose based water filters

• Low resistance to high temperature: lose their structural

integrity - exposed to high temperatures.
• Low filtration efficiency for certain contaminants: not
efficient - for heavy metals, from water.
• Limited lifespan: need to replaced more frequently
compared to synthetic polymer filters.
• Difficult to sterilize: increasing the risk of contamination.
• May clog easily: exposed to high levels of contaminants-
reducing their filtration efficiency-requiring frequent
replacement.
• May affect water taste: by absorbing or releasing certain
chemicals or minerals, reducing the quality of the
purified water.
Construction of cellulose-based water filters
Steps: 1. Cellulose Material Selection: depend on the
desired properties such as strength, porosity, and chemical
resistance. Common cellulose materials - paper, cotton, and
wood fibers.
Step: 2. Cellulose Preparation: cutting into small pieces,
washing to remove impurities, and drying for use.
Step: 3. Cellulose Layer Formation: stacking it or
compacting it using heat and pressure.
Step: 4. Filter Medium Attachment:mesh or a support
structure to provide stability and increase the filter surface
area.
Step: 5. Chemical Treatment: to modify its properties -
increasing its hydrophilicity or adding antimicrobial agents
Step: 6. Housing Assembly: housing that provides a means
to attach it to a water source and to collect the filtered
water.
Step: 7. Filter Testing: to ensure that it meets the desired
specifications, - filtration efficiency and flow rate.
Cellulose material used in house hold water filters

The cellulose material - cellulose acetate - synthetic

form of cellulose

Properties - good chemical resistance, high

porosity, and high flow rate , low-cost material

Other cellulose materials such as paper, cotton,

and wood fibers may also be used

CELLULOSE ACETATE
 BIOPLASTIC POLYHYDROXYALKANOATES
(PHAs)
• Biodegradable and biocompatible polyesters
produced by microorganisms - bacteria and fungi.
• Made from renewable resources - sugar and
cornstarch
• Environmentally friendly alternative - traditional
petroleum-based plastics
Properties of PHA
1. Biodegradability: break down into water and carbon
dioxide- reducing their impact on the environment.
2. Biocompatibility: used in medical devices- sutures and
implants, without causing adverse reactions in the body.
3. Mechanical properties: similar as traditional petroleum
based plastics - suitable for various applications.
4. Processing: processed using conventional plastic
processing techniques - injection molding, blow
molding, and extrusion.
Engineering applications of PHA bio plastic
• Packaging: food containers, beverage cups, and clamshell
containers.
• Medical Devices: PHA is biocompatible and can be used in
the manufacture of medical devices - sutures, implants,
and drug delivery systems.
• Textiles: production of biodegradable textiles and
composites for construction and furniture.
• Agricultural Mulch Films: production of biodegradable
mulch films to reduce soil erosion and conserve moisture
• Consumer Goods: production - toys, phone cases, and
water bottles.
• Automotive Parts: production of biodegradable
automotive parts - air ducts and headlamp covers
• Electronic Devices: production of biodegradable
components in electronic devices - smartphones and
laptops.
• Aerospace: production of biodegradable parts in
aerospace applications - insulation and cable
management.
• Sporting Goods: PHA is used for the production of

biodegradable sporting goods - golf tees and fishing

lures.

• Construction: PHA is used for the production of

biodegradable insulation and soundproofing materials

PLA AS BIOPLASTIC POLYLACTIC ACID (PLA)
Made from corn starch, sugarcane, or other natural
resources.
Sustainable alternative to traditional petroleum-based
plastics in various applications - packaging, disposable
tableware, and 3D printing.
PLA is biodegradable in industrial composting facilities, it
may not break down in the environment as quickly
May still have negative impacts on wildlife and ecosystems
if not properly disposed of.
Properties of PLA as bioplastic
1. Biodegradable: broken down by microorganisms in
industrial composting facilities, reducing waste in
landfills.
2. Renewable: renewable resources such as corn starch or
sugarcane, reducing dependence on finite petroleum
resources.
3. Clear/Transparent: PLA has a clear and transparent
appearance, making it suitable for packaging
applications.
4. Heat-resistant: low melting temperature and is not
recommended for high heat applications, but it can
maintain its shape and stability up to 60°C.
5. Biocompatible: PLA is non-toxic and biocompatible,
making it suitable for food packaging and medical
devices.
6. Stiffness and Strength: good stiffness and strength, but
not as strong as traditional petroleum-based plastics.
7. Printability: used in 3D printing due to its good
printability and ease of use.
Engineering applications of PLA bioplastic
• Automotive parts: production of biodegradable automotive
parts such as air ducts and headlamp covers.
• Electronic Devices: PLA is used for the production of
biodegradable components in electronic devices such as
smartphones and laptops.
• Erospace: PLA is used for the production of biodegradable
parts in aerospace applications, such as insulation and cable
management.
• Sporting Goods: production of biodegradable sporting
goods such as golf tees and fishing lures.
• Construction: production of biodegradable insulation and
soundproofing materials.
• Agricultural Equipment: production of biodegradable
parts in agricultural equipment such as seed trays and
greenhouse film.
• Medical Equipment: production of biodegradable
components in medical equipment such as diagnostic
equipment and hospital beds
 Puneetha J
Assistant professor
Chemistry
▪ Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts in biological
reactions.
▪ They speed up the rate of chemical reactions without
being consumed in the process.
▪ Enzymes are specific to the type of reaction they catalyze.
▪ Enzymes play a crucial role in various metabolic
pathways, digestion, and cellular respiration.
PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES FOR ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
1. Specificity:
2. Reactivity: Enzymes increase the rate of chemical
reactions without being consumed in the process.
3. Stability: Enzymes are generally stable at a wide range of
temperatures and pH values
4. Renewability: alternative to traditional chemical
catalysts.
5. Cost-effectiveness: Enzymes can be produced in large
quantities through fermentation.
PROPERTIES OF ENZYME
• Enzymes are complex macromolecules with high molecular weight.
• They catalyze biochemical reactions in a cell.
• They help in the breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules
or bring together two smaller molecules to form a larger molecule.
• Enzymes do not start a reaction. However, they help in accelerating it.
• Enzymes affect the rate of biochemical reaction and not the direction.
• Most of the enzymes have a high turnover number. Turnover number of
an enzyme is the number of molecules of a substance that is acted
upon by an enzyme per minute. High turnover number of enzymes
increases the efficiency of the reaction.
• Enzymes are specific in action.
• Enzymatic activity decreases with increase in temperature.
• They show maximum activity at an optimum pH of 6 – 8.
• The velocity of enzyme increases with an increase in substrate
concentration and then, ultimately reaches maximum velocity.
FUNCTIONS OF ENZYME
1. Enzymes help in signal transduction. The most common enzyme
used in the process includes protein kinase that catalyzes the
phosphorylation of proteins.
2. They break down large molecules into smaller substances that
can be easily absorbed by the body.
3. They help in generating energy in the body. ATP synthase is the
enzyme involved in the synthesis of energy.
4. Enzymes are responsible for the movement of ions across the
plasma membrane.
5. Enzymes perform a number of biochemical reactions, including
oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, etc. to eliminate the non-nutritive
substances from the body.
6. They function to reorganize the internal structure of the cell to
regulate cellular activities.
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF ENZYMES
1. Bioremediation: Enzymes are used to break down
pollutants in the environment, such as oils, pesticides, and
toxic waste.
2. Biofuel production: Enzymes are used to convert plant
material into biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel.
3. Food and beverage production: such as baking, brewing,
cheese making, and juice production.
4. Textile production: Enzymes are used to remove stains,
whiten fabrics, and improve the softness of textiles.
5. Detergents: in laundry detergents to break down protein,

starch, and lipid stains.

6. Pharmaceuticals: such as antibiotics and vaccines.

7. Research and biotechnology: Enzymes are used as tools

in genetic engineering, protein engineering, and

molecular biology.
BIOSENSORS are analytical devices that combine a biological
recognition element with a transducer to detect and quantify
target analytes.
• The biological recognition element can be an enzyme,
antibody, nucleic acid, or other biological molecule that
specifically interacts with the target analyte.
• The transducer converts the biological response into an
electrical signal that can be quantified and interpreted.
Biosensors have a wide range of applications in the fields of
medicine, environmental monitoring, and food safety.
1. Biosensors can be used to monitor blood glucose levels
in patients with diabetes,
2. Detect contaminants in water and food, and monitor
environmental pollutants.
Advantages: including rapid response time, high sensitivity,
Specificity, portability.
• They can be designed to be disposable and cost-effective,
making them a useful tool in various industries and
applications.
ENZYMES USED IN BIOSENSORS
1. Glucose oxidase (GOx): Used in blood glucose monitoring
for people with diabetes. The enzyme oxidizes glucose to
gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide, which is then
detected by a transducer to quantify glucose levels in the
blood.
2. Lactate oxidase (LOx): Used in the determination of
lactate levels in biological fluids, such as blood and urine.
LOx oxidizes lactate to pyruvate, which is then detected
by a transducer.
3. Cholinesterase (ChE): detection of organo-phosphorus
pesticides and nerve agents. ChE hydrolyzes
acetylcholine - decrease in acetylcholine levels is
detected by a transducer to quantify the presence of the
toxic substances.
4. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP): detection of iP, those found
in wastewater and fertilizers. ALP catalyzes the hydrolysis
of phosphates to produce a signal that can be quantified.
5. Urease: detection of urea levels in urine. Urease
catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea to produce NH4 and CO2,
which can be quantified by a transducer.
Glucose-Oxidase in Biosensors
• Glucose oxidase (GOx) - for the detection of glucose levels
in blood and urine.
• GOx is typically immobilized on a substrate, such as a
polymeric film, to ensure stability and specificity.
• The transducer in the biosensor can be an electrode, a
fluorescence-based system, or other type of sensor,
depending on the desired level of sensitivity and
specificity.
Advantages of Biosensors
1. Sensitivity: Biosensors are highly sensitive and can
detect target analytes at low concentrations.
2. Specificity: - minimizes interference from other
substances in the sample.
3. Rapid response time: - useful in situations where quick
results are required.
4. Portability: - useful in field applications and remote
locations.
5. Cost-effectiveness:
Limitations of Biosensors
1. Stability: Biosensors can be affected by environmental
conditions, such as temperature and pH, which can lead
to degradation of the biological recognition element and
loss of sensitivity.
2. Interferences: Biosensors can be affected by other
substances in the sample, which can interfere with the
performance of the biosensor.
3. Calibration: Biosensors may require frequent calibration
to ensure accuracy, which can increase the time and cost
associated with using the biosensor.
4. Limited shelf-life: Biosensors have a limited shelf-life,
and the biological recognition element may degrade over
time, leading to decreased sensitivity and specificity.
5. Complexity: Biosensors can be complex to manufacture
and use, requiring specialized equipment and expertise
to operate effectively
Despite these limitations, biosensors have proven to be a
valuable tool in various industries and applications, and
research is ongoing to improve their performance and
reduce limitations.
Lignolytic Enzyme in Bio-Bleaching
▪ Bio-bleaching is a process that uses biological agents, such
as enzymes, to remove color and brighten fibers, paper,
and textiles.
▪ It is a sustainable alternative to traditional chemical
bleaching methods that use harsh chemicals, such as
hydrogen peroxide and chlorine.
▪ These enzymes catalyze the oxidation of colored
impurities in the fibers, resulting in a brighter and more
uniform color.
Advantages of Bio-Bleaching
1. Sustainability: Bio-bleaching uses biological agents, such
as enzymes, which are renewable and biodegradable.
2. Improved product quality: Bio-bleaching can result in
higher brightness and a more uniform color compared to
traditional chemical bleaching, leading to improved
product quality.
3. Reduced energy consumption: Bio-bleaching typically
requires lower energy input compared to chemical
bleaching methods, reducing energy consumption and
associated costs.
4. Elimination of hazardous chemicals: Bio-bleaching
eliminates the use of harsh chemicals, such as hydrogen
peroxide and chlorine, which can be hazardous to
workers and the environment.
5. Lower production of harmful by-products: Bio-bleaching
reduces the formation of harmful by-products, such as
dioxins, that can be produced during traditional chemical
bleaching methods
Limitations of Bio-bleaching
1. High cost of enzyme production: making the process
more expensive compared to traditional chemical
bleaching methods.
2. Low efficiency compared to chemical bleaching: requiring
longer processing times and higher enzyme doses.
3. Need for further research:
4. Lack of widespread implementation: The widespread
implementation of bio-bleaching is limited by factors
• Lignolytic enzymes, such as laccases, peroxidases, and
manganese peroxidases, are used in bio-bleaching
• Laccases are copper-containing oxidases that catalyze the
oxidation of lignin, a complex polymer found in plant cell
walls, as well as other compounds such as phenols and
aryl alcohols.
• Peroxidases are enzymes that use hydrogen peroxide to
oxidize organic compounds.
• Manganese peroxidases are enzymes that use hydrogen
peroxide to oxidize lignin and other compounds.
• The lignolytic enzymes used in bio-bleaching are typically produced by

fungi or bacteria, and are immobilized on a support, such as a ceramic bead

or a cellulosic matrix, to ensure stability and prolonged activity.

• The immobilized enzymes are then added to the fibers, where they catalyze

the oxidation of colored impurities, resulting in a brighter and more

uniform color.

ENZYMES IN FOOD PROCESSING

Enzymes in detergents and contribute to cleaning of laundry and dishes in an efficient,
environmentally mild, and energy-saving manner.
Proteases, lipases, amylases are the major class of detergent enzymes, each provides
specific benefits for application in laundry and automatic dishwashing.
Cellulases contribute to overall fabric care by rejuvenating or maintaining the new
appearance of washed garments.
1. Proteases-protein stains such as grass, blood, egg, and human sweat are removed through
proteolysis. Proteases are the first to be used extensively in laundry detergents, which
not only raise the level of cleaning, but also provide environmental benefits.
2. Lipases-strong hydrophobicity, fats and oils are difficult to remove from laundry at low
temperatures. Lipases hydrolyze triglyceride to more hydrophilic mono- and diglycerides, free
fatty acids, and glycerol.
3. Amylases-detergents for laundry and automatic dishwashing, amylases facilitate the removal of
starch-containing stains, e.g., pasta, potato, gravy, chocolate, and baby food.
Lipases and amylases are joined proteases in improving detergent efficacy, especially for
household laundering at lower temperatures and, in industrial cleaning operations, at lower
pH levels.
4. Cellulases-Cellulases are applied in detergents to make cotton fabrics regain and maintain clear
colors, a smooth surface, and softness.
Enzymes used in textile processing
• Enzymatic desizing
Amylases are used to remove starch-based size for improved and uniform wet
processing in the textile industry
• Enzymatic Scouring
Scouring is the removal of non-cellulosic material present on the surface of the cotton.
In generally cellulase and pectinase are combined and used for Bioscouring.
• Enzymatic Bleaching
• Biopolishing
Biopolishing is a finishing process that improves fabric quality by mainly reducing
fuzziness and pilling property of cellulosic fiber. The objective of the process is the elimination
of micro fibrils of cotton through the action of cellulase enzyme.
Benefits of Using Enzymes in Textile Processing Industry
1. Enzymes quicken the process by accelerating the rate of reaction.
2. Enzymes can be recycled as catalysts as they accelerate the reaction
without any change in their chemical structure.
3. Enzymes can be used at room temperature and milder conditions and
are easy to use and control.
4. Enzymes are an eco-friendly option to toxic chemicals, these are bio-
degradable, non-polluting, and safe to use.
5. Enzymes work on specific substrates or compounds only. So, there is no
issue of one enzyme interfering with the other’s process and messing up
the textiles.
• http://ijariie.com/AdminUploadPdf/ENZYMES_IN_TEXTILE_CHEMICAL_PROCES
SING_ijariie16204.pdf
• https://www.creative-enzymes.com/resource/application-of-enzymes-in-
detergent-
industry_61.html#:~:text=Proteases%2C%20lipases%2C%20amylases%20are%2
0the,but%20also%20provide%20environmental%20benefits.
• https://www.creative-enzymes.com/resource/application-of-enzymes-in-
textile-industry_62.html
LIPIDS
Lipids are a group of organic compounds that include fats,
oils, waxes, and some hormones.
Lipids Structure
Lipid monomers are glycerol and fatty acids. The lipid structure is as
follows:
• Fatty acids are a type of lipids that consists of long hydrocarbon
chains with a carboxyl group (COOH) at one end.
• In lipids, such as triglycerides, the glycerol molecule function as a
backbone. Glycerol molecule consists of three carbon atoms with a
hydroxyl group attached to them.
• Glycerol are linked to the fatty acid through ester bonds, that forms
triglycerides.
• The hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids are hydrophobic, that is
repelling water.
• In lipids like phospholipids, a hydrophilic phosphate group is attached
to the glycerol, while the fatty acid chains remain hydrophobic,
resulting in an amphipathic molecule.
Role of Lipids
1. Energy storage: source of stored energy in the body -
broken down to release energy when it is needed.
2. Insulation: Lipids help to insulate the body, helping to
regulate temperature and protect against heat loss.
3. Cell membrane structure: major component of cell
membranes, helping to maintain their fluidity and
stability.
4. Hormone synthesis: Some lipids - cholesterol, are
precursors to hormones
5. Transport: Lipids are soluble in fat, but not in water. This
makes them ideal for carrying fats soluble vitamins and
other lipophilic compounds through the bloodstream.

There are several types of lipids - saturated and unsaturated

fats, phospholipids, and steroids.
It is important to have a balanced diet that includes a
moderate amount of healthy lipids - monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fats, while limiting the intake of saturated
and trans fats.
Properties of Lipids
They are organic compounds formed of fats and oils. Lipids produce
high energy and perform different functions within a living organism,
such as:
• Lipids stored in kidney.
• Lipids are generally hydrophobic, meaning they repel water and
do not dissolve in it.
• Lipids are formed from hydrocarbon chains, and they are
heterogeneous in nature.
• Fats and oils, in the form of triglycerides, are efficient energy
storage molecules, providing a concentrated source of energy
when broken down.
• Phospholipids are essential components of cell membranes,
forming the lipid bilayer that defines cellular boundaries. They
help in the selective permeability of a cell membrane.
• Lipids like cholesterol and steroid hormones consists of four-ring
structure and function in membrane fluidity and cellular signaling.
• Lipids provide essential fatty acids that the body cannot produce
on its own and allow the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
Lipids Function
• Lipids, like adipose tissue, act as insulators and help to maintain
body temperature by reducing heat loss.
• Lipids, especially triglycerides, act as energy storage in
organisms, providing a reserve of metabolic fuel.
• Phospholipids form the lipid bilayers of cell membranes and
regulate the passage of molecules in and out of cells.
• Protecting the plant leaves from direct heat and drying.
• Steroid hormones, derived from cholesterol, play vital roles in
regulating various physiological processes, including metabolism,
growth, and reproduction.
• It acts as the structural component of the body and also acts as
the hydrophobic barrier.
• In plants, lipids can be stored as oils in seeds, providing a source
of energy for germination and early growth.
• Lipids form waterproofing structures, such as the waxy cuticle on
plant leaves or the oil on the feathers of water birds.
• It provides color to many fruits and vegetables with the presence
of carotenoid pigment.
Engineering Applications of Lipids
1. Cosmetics: - moisturizers, to improve skin hydration and
texture.
2. Food industry: food products - margarine and frying oils,
to improve texture, flavor, and shelf life.
3. Medical devices: Lipids are used in medical devices -
lipid-based drug delivery systems, to improve the
delivery and efficacy of drugs.
4. Biofuels: Lipids - vegetable oils and animal fats, can be
converted into biofuels, such as biodiesel and bioethanol.
5. Surface modification: modify the surface properties of
materials, such as metals and polymers, to improve their
performance and biocompatibility.
6. Surfactants: which are compounds that reduce surface
tension and improve the mixing of oil and water-based
substances.
It is important to note that the properties and applications
of lipids can vary depending on the specific type of lipid and
the processing method used.
Researches are has been going on.
Lipids as Biodiesel
• Lipids can be converted into biodiesel, which is a
renewable source of energy.
• Biodiesel is typically produced by transesterifying
vegetable oils or animal fats with an alcohol - methanol,
to form methyl esters.
• The resulting biodiesel can be used as a drop-in
replacement for traditional diesel fuel in internal
combustion engines.
Advantages
• Renewability: Lipids are a renewable resource - produced
from a variety of sources - vegetable oils, animal fats, and
microalgae.
• Reduced emissions: reducing the impact on the
environment and public health.
• Improved performance: Biodiesel can improve engine
performance, increasing fuel efficiency and reducing
engine wear and tear.
• Biodegradability: reduces environmental contamination
in the event of a spill.
Limitations to the use of lipids as biodiesel
• higher production costs: compared to traditional diesel
fuel
• Need for more efficient and cost effective processing
methods.

Nevertheless, the use of lipids as biodiesel has the potential

to play an important role in the transition towards a more
sustainable energy system
Process of Obtaining Biodiesel from Lipids
1. Raw material preparation: The lipids, such as vegetable
oils or animal fats, are collected and purified to remove
impurities.
2. Trans-esterification: The purified lipids are mixed with
an alcohol - methanol, and a catalyst - sodium hydroxide,
to produce fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) - the main
components of biodiesel.
3. Separation: into two layers: the upper layer contains the
FAME (biodiesel) and the lower layer contains the glycerol
(byproduct).
4. Washing and drying: The biodiesel is washed with water
to remove any residual alcohol and soap that was formed
during the trans esterification reaction. The biodiesel is
then dried to remove any remaining moisture.
5. Purification: The biodiesel is further purified to remove
any impurities and improve its quality.
6. Final product: The purified biodiesel is then stored and
distributed for use as a fuel.
Exact process can vary depending on the specific type of lipid
and the desired quality of the final product.
Lipids as Cleaning Agents/Detergents
1. Personal care products: Lipids, such as fatty acids and
glycerides - used as emulsifiers and surfactants in
personal care products - shampoos, soaps, and lotions.
2. Industrial cleaning: such as metal cleaning, degreasing,
and stain removal.
3. Laundry detergents: to improve their cleaning
performance.
4. Cleaning agents for hard surfaces: such as floors,
countertops, and walls, to remove dirt and grime.
Properties of lipid - suitable to cleaning agents
• Ability to emulsify and dissolve grease and oils.
• Lipids can form micelles, which are tiny spherical
structures that can surround and trap dirt particles,
making it easier to remove them.
Not all lipids are equally effective as cleaning agents and that
the specific properties of each lipid can impact its
performance.
Further research is needed to optimize the use of lipids as
cleaning agents and to identify new and more effective.
Examples of lipids used as cleaning agent
a. Soap: Soap is a traditional cleaning agent made from the reaction
of an alkali with a fat or oil. Soaps are made from various types of
lipids, including animal fats and vegetable oils.

b. Fatty acids: such as stearic acid, can be used as cleaning agents in

personal care products, such as bar soaps and shampoos.

c. Glycerol: Glycerol is a byproduct of soap production including

household cleaners and industrial cleaning solutions.

d. Fatty alcohols: Fatty alcohols, such as lauryl alcohol, can be used

as cleaning agents in personal care products and industrial cleaning
solutions
Advantages of lipids as cleaning agents/detergents
1. Biodegradability:
2. Renewable resources: - crops, and are not based on
finite fossil fuels like some synthetic cleaning agents.
3. Effectiveness: Lipids have excellent grease-cutting and
emulsifying properties, making them effective cleaning
agents.
4. Mildness: Lipids armild and gentle, making them suitable
for use in personal care products and for cleaning delicate
materials, such as silk and wool.
5. Cost-effective: less expensive than synthetic cleaning
agents, especially when obtained from low-cost feed
stocks, such as vegetable oils.
6. Customizability: Lipids can be modified and customized
to improve their cleaning performance and to meet
specific application needs.
Not all lipids are equally effective as cleaning agents and
that the specific properties of each lipid can impact its
performance.
Limitations of lipid as cleaning agent
➢ Stability: Some lipids can be susceptible to oxidation and
degradation.
➢ Compatibility: Some lipids may not be compatible with
certain surfaces or materials, and may cause staining or
damage.
➢ Cost: Although lipids can be less expensive - the cost can
vary depending on the source of the lipids and the
processing methods used.
➢ Availability: may be limited by the availability of feed
stocks, such as crops and animal fats, and the need for
processing and refining.
➢ Performance: vary depending on the specific properties of
each lipid and the type of soil or stain being removed.
Some lipids may not perform as well as synthetic cleaning
agents in certain applications.
➢ Regulation: The use of lipids as cleaning agents is
regulated by government agencies, and specific
requirements may vary from country to country.
Working principle of lipids as cleaning agent
o It is based on their ability to dissolve grease and oils.
o Lipids are composed of hydrophobic and hydrophilic
regions - surround grease and oils, effectively breaking
them down into smaller particles that can be more easily
removed.
o When a lipid-based cleaning agent is applied to a surface,
the hydrophobic regions of the lipid molecule surround
and dissolve grease and oils, while the hydrophilic
regions interact with water, allowing the mixture to be
rinsed away.
o The combination of the lipid and water also forms an
emulsion- helps to suspend and remove dirt and debris.
o In addition, some lipids have additional properties, such
as foaming or lathering capabilities, - enhance their
cleaning performance.
o For example, fatty alcohols can be used as foaming agents
in shampoos, while soap is known for its lathering
properties.
o These additional properties can help to loosen and
remove dirt and debris, making the cleaning process
more effective.
 NUCLEIC ACIDS

Nucleic acids are biopolymers that play a crucial role in the

storage and transfer of genetic information in all living
organisms.

Two types of nucleic acids

1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): DNA is the genetic material

that carries the instructions for the development,
functioning, and reproduction of all living organisms.
STRUCTURE OF DNA
Structure and Composition of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
1. DNA is made of two helical chains that intertwine with each other to form a
double helix. The most widely accepted structure of DNA is right-handed
helix DNA also known as the B-form of DNA, which is 1.9 nm in diameter.
2. These helical chains run anti-parallel to each other, one polynucleotide chain
runs from 5’ to 3’ and the other polynucleotide chain runs from 3’ to 5’. These
chains are connected to each other via nitrogen bases through hydrogen
bonding.
3. Hydrogen bonding contributes to the specificity of base pairing. Adenine
preferentially pairs with Thymine through 2 hydrogen bonds. Similarly,
Cytosine preferentially pairs with Guanine through 3 hydrogen bonds.
4. We can even say, that the base pairing happens when Pyrimidines pair with
Purines because Pyrimidines refers to the single ring structure of Thymine
and Cytosine and Purines refers to double-ring structures, Adenine and
Thymine.
5. The base pairs A = T and G ≡ C are known as complementary base pairs.
Hence, the amount of Adenine is equal to the amount of Thymine, and the
amount of Guanine is equal to the amount of Cytosine.
6. The geometry of the DNA is influenced by the distance between the
backbones and the angle at which the nitrogenous bases are attached to the
backbone.
7. The major groove occurs when the backbones are far apart from each other
9. These groves act on base-pair recognition and binding sites for protein, the
major groove contains base pair specific information while the minor groove
is largely base-pair nonspecific, caused by protein interactions in the
grooves
10.The double-helical structure of DNA is highly regular, each turn of the helix
measures approximately 10 base pairs. In addition to hydrogen bonding in
between the bases, the staging of bases also stabilizes the structure, there
are pi-pi interactions between staged aromatic rings of the bases.
11.The distance between each turn is 3.4 nm.
12.The major groove is 2.2 nm wide and the minor groove is 1.1 nm wide.
Properties of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
1. DNA is made up of two helical strands that are coiled around the
same axis. If coiled from right it is known as right-handed helices
DNA and if coiled from left then it is known as left-handed
helices. However, the right-handed helices DNA is the most
stable and thus the structure of it is to be referred to as the
standard.
2. The two chains of helices run antiparallel to each other. Thus,
one strand runs 5’ to 3’ and another strand runs from 3’ to 5’.
3. Both the strands denature on heating and can renature or say
hybridize on cooling. However, the temperature on which these
strands are separately permanently is referred to as melting
temperature and varies according to the specific sequence of
DNA.
4. For instance, the region of higher concentration of C-G has a
higher melting temperature cause these bases are bonded with
three hydrogen bonds, which require more energy to break than
the region of higher concentration A-T which are bonded only
with two hydrogen bonds.
 FUNCTION OF DNA
• DNA stores complete genetic information that requires to specify an
organism.
• It is the source of information that is needed in order to synthesize
cellular proteins, and other macromolecules required by an organism.
• It is responsible for identifying and determining the individuality of the
given organism.
• It can also be taken as a targeted element during the diagnosis of a
particular disease.
• It can replicate to give rise to two daughter cells and transfer one copy
to the daughter cells during cell division. Thus, maintaining the genetic
materials from generation to generation.
2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA): RNA is involved in the expression
of the genetic information stored in DNA by carrying the
message from the DNA to the ribosome, where it is used
to build proteins.
• RNA is a single-stranded
molecule
• Sugar(ribose) + Phosphate
group + Nitrogenous base
• Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine,
and Uracil).
Structure of RNA

• RNA is a typical single-stranded biopolymer of ribonucleotides bonded with

each other via a phosphodiester bond.
• An RNA strand is synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction from a locally single-
stranded region of DNA.
• It has ribose sugars that are attached to four bases: Adenine, Guanine,
Uracil, and Cytosine. Ribose sugar has an extra OH- group in 2’ Carbon as
compared to deoxyribose sugar in DNA.
• This extra OH- group in RNA, has led them to be synthesized for short-term
functions.
• The three-dimensional structure of RNA is critical to its stability and function.
• RNA being a single-stranded molecule can form a complex structure by
allowing its ribose sugars and bases to be modified on the action of cellular
enzymes (that attach chemical groups), to perform different functions.
• They are even capable of folding on themselves and showing intramolecular
hydrogen bonding between complementary strands, making it a double-
stranded molecule to exhibit specific function.
Properties of RNA
• RNA is a single-stranded molecule and not a double helix, one of the
consequences of this, is that RNA can form a variety of three-
dimensional molecular complexes than DNA.
• RNA has ribose sugar in its nucleotides, rather than deoxyribose.
These two sugars differ from each other in the presence or absence
of an Oxygen atom.
• Ribose sugar is also a cyclical structure consisting of 5 Carbon and
one Oxygen just like DNA. But the major difference is the presence of
extra OH group in 2’ Carbon of ribose which is absent in deoxyribose
sugar.
• The OH group in 2’ Carbon makes the RNA molecule prone to
hydrolysis.
• Some studies have also concluded that this chemical liability of RNA
due to extra OH- the group has led to DNA being the genetic
storehouse as it lacks OH group in 2’Carbon making it more stable to
hold information.
• RNA nucleotides carry the nitrogenous bases, Purines, and
Pyrimidines. But in RNA in place of Pyrimidine Thymine, Uracil is
present which too forms hydrogen bonding with Adenine just as
Functions of RNA
• The prime function of RNA is in protein synthesis.
• Without RNA, the information encoded in DNA could have never been transcribed to make
essential proteins that a cell needs to maintain its integrity.
• mRNAs have now been widely used in pharmaceutical industries to synthesize potential
vaccines.
• Moreover, mRNAs are now used to develop new categories of medicines
• mRNAs have made the formation of the cDNA library possible.
• rRNAs are structural units of Ribosomes, which are essential organelles during protein
synthesis.
• Ribozymes can help suppress the expression of specific mRNA by cleaving them out
without relying on the host’s machinery.
• Artificial antisense RNAs are capable of arresting protein synthesis by binding with the
mRNAs, which have contributed to the human’s ability to combat diseases and mutations.
❖ DNA VACCINE
▪ A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a piece of
viral or bacterial DNA to stimulate an immune response
against the pathogen.
▪ The vaccine works by introducing the pathogen's DNA
into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to
produce viral or bacterial proteins.
▪ These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the
cells, which triggers an immune response and the
production of antibodies against the pathogen.
▪ DNA vaccines are being actively researched and

developed for a range of diseases

▪ Cancer, rabies, influenza, and human immunodeficiency

virus (HIV).

The technology is still in its early stages, it has the potential

to revolutionize the field of vaccine development and

provide new treatment options for a range of diseases.

DNA Vaccine for Rabies
▪ A type of vaccine that uses a piece of rabies virus DNA to
stimulate an immune response against the virus.
▪ The vaccine works by introducing the rabies virus DNA
into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to
produce viral proteins.
▪ These viral proteins are then displayed on the surface of
the cells, which triggers an immune response and the
production of antibodies against the rabies virus.
Importance of DNA vaccine for rabies
• Ability to stimulate a strong immune response
• Long-lasting immune response
• Fewer doses required
• ease of manufacture and storage
DNA vaccines have several key advantages
1. Efficacy: highly effective in preventing rabies infection in
both animal and human trials - as a traditional vaccine
in protecting dogs against rabies.
2. Long-lasting protection: stimulate a strong and long-
lasting immune response - provide protection for
extended periods of time.
3. Ease of administration: they can be given via injection or
even delivered orally - useful in areas with medical
facilities are limited.
4. Cost-effective: inexpensive to produce compared to
traditional vaccines
5. Reduced risk of side effects: DNA vaccines do not
contain live virus particles - safer and have a lower risk
of side effects compared to traditional vaccines
❖ RNA Vaccines RNA
▪ Vaccines are a type of vaccine that use genetic material
from a pathogen, in the form of RNA, to stimulate an
immune response against the disease.
▪ The vaccine works by introducing the pathogen's RNA
into the body, where it is taken up by cells and used to
produce viral or bacterial proteins.
▪ These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the
cells, which triggers an immune response and the
production of antibodies against the pathogen.
➢ Advantages of RNA vaccines
• Faster production time
• Ability to target multiple antigens
• RNA vaccines can be manufactured quickly
• Safer than traditional vaccines, as they do not contain
any live virus or bacteria that could cause disease.

RNA vaccines are currently being developed and tested for

COVID 19, influenza, and cancer.
RNA Vaccines for Covid19
• Vaccine that use genetic material from the SARS-CoV-2
• The vaccine works by introducing the virus's RNA into the
body, where it is taken up by cells and used to produce
viral proteins.
• These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the
cells, which triggers an immune response and the
production of antibodies against the virus.
The first RNA vaccine for COVID 19 the Pfizer-BioNTech
vaccine and Moderna vaccine are authorized for emergency
use in December 2020
Importance of RNA vaccine for Covid 19
1. High efficacy: The Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna mRNA
vaccines - reported efficacy rates of around 95% in
clinical trials.
2. Rapid development: rapidly developed and
manufactured, making them particularly useful in the
context of a pandemic.
The Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, for instance, was developed in
under a year, and went from the initial discovery of the viral
genome to emergency use authorization in less than 11
months.
3. Easy to modify: to target new strains or variants of the
virus.
This means that if a new variant emerges that is resistant to
the existing vaccines, it is possible to quickly modify the
vaccine to provide protection against the new strain.
4. Safe: - not contain any live virus particles. They work by
instructing cells to produce a harmless piece of the virus
5. Potential for broader use: used in the prevention of
other infectious diseases, such as influenza, HIV, and
Zika, as well as in the treatment of cancer.
Forensics

DNA Fingerprinting (DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting)

Technique used in forensic science to identify an individual

based on their unique DNA profile.

• The process involves analyzing specific regions(markers)

of an individual's DNA - vary from person to person.

Working of DNA fingerprinting
1. Sample collection: DNA is extracted from a biological
sample - blood, semen, or hair. The sample is then
purified and processed to isolate the DNA.
2. DNA amplification: by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-
which allows for more accurate analysis
3. DNA analysis: using gel electrophoresis - a DNA profile is
generated.
4. DNA comparison: The DNA profile compared to the DNA
profiles of suspects or victims - to determine match.
▪ DNA comparison is typically done manually
▪ Artificial intelligence (AI) - development of automated DNA
profiling systems.
▪ The DNA profile consists of a series of bands on a gel-
represent specific DNA fragments.
▪ Forensic DNA fingerprinting - critical tool in criminal
investigations to link individuals to crime scenes and
exonerate innocent individuals / wrongly accused person.
▪ It has also been used to identify victims of natural
disasters and mass casualties, and to resolve paternity
disputes.
PROTEINS
▪ Proteins are large, complex molecules
▪ Made up of chains of smaller building blocks - amino
acids.
▪ They play a vital role in the structure, function, and
regulation of cells, tissues, and organs.
▪ Proteins are also involved in immune responses,
hormone regulation, and muscle contraction.
▪ The structure of a protein determines its function, and
the sequence of amino acids in a protein determines its
structure.
▪ 20 different types of amino acids - Specific sequence of
amino acids in a protein determines its unique structure
and function.
▪ Understanding the structure and function is a major
focus of biomedical research for developing new
treatments and therapies for the diseases.
▪ Proteins play a critical role in many biological processes
▪ Dysfunction is involved in the development of many
diseases - cancer, heart disease, and neurological
disorders.
▪ Proteins are synthesized by
cells from the genetic
information encoded in DNA.
▪ It begins when the genetic code
for a particular protein is
transcribed into messenger
RNA (mRNA) in nucleus
▪ mRNA transported out of the
nucleus to cytoplasm then it
translated into protein by
ribosomes.
Properties of Proteins
Solubility in Water
•The relationship of proteins with water is complex.
•The secondary structure of proteins depends largely on the interaction of peptide bonds with water
through hydrogen bonds.
•Hydrogen bonds are also formed between protein (alpha and beta structures) and water. The
protein-rich static ball is more soluble than the helical structures.
•At the tertiary structure, water causes the orientation of the chains and hydrophilic radicals to the
outside of the molecule, while the hydrophobic chains and radicals tend to react with each other
within the molecule (hydrophobic effect).
Denaturation and Renaturation
•Proteins can be denatured by agents such as heat and urea that cause the unfolding of polypeptide
chains without causing hydrolysis of peptide bonds.
•The denaturing agents destroy secondary and tertiary structures, without affecting the primary
structure.
•If a denatured protein returns to its native state after the denaturing agent is removed, the process is
called renaturation.
Some of the denaturing agents include
Physical agents: Heat, radiation, pH
Chemical agents: Urea solution which forms new hydrogen bonds in the protein, organic solvents,
detergents.
Coagulation
When proteins are denatured by heat, they form insoluble aggregates known as coagulum.
All the proteins are not heat coagulable, only a few like the albumins, globulins are heat
coagulable.
Isoelectric point
•The isoelectric point (pI) is the pH at which the number of positive charges equals the
number of negative charges, and the overall charge on the amino acid is zero.
•At this point, when subjected to an electric field the proteins do not move either towards
anode or cathode, hence this property is used to isolate proteins.
Molecular Weights of Proteins
•The average molecular weight of an amino acid is taken to be 110.
•The total number of amino acids in a protein multiplied by 110 gives the approximate
molecular weight of that protein.
•Different proteins have different amino acid compositions and hence their molecular weights
differ.
•The molecular weights of proteins range from 5000 to 109 Daltons.
Posttranslational modifications
•It occurs after the protein has been synthesized on the ribosome.
•Phosphorylation, glycosylation, ADP ribosylation, methylation, hydroxylation, and acetylation
Functions of Proteins
1. Catalyzing chemical reactions
• Amylase: Enzyme that breaks down starch into simple
sugars - glucose and maltose. It is found in saliva and
pancreatic juice.
• Lipase: breaks down fats- fatty acids and glycerol. It is
found in the pancreas and small intestine.
• Catalase: converts hydrogen peroxide - water and
oxygen. It is found in most cells of the body.
• Trypsin: breaks down proteins - smaller peptides. It is
produced in the pancreas and released into the small
intestine.
• ATP synthase: synthesis of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and
phosphate. It is found in the mitochondria of cells.
2. Transporting molecules
• Hemoglobin: protein in red blood cells - transports
oxygen from the lungs to the tissues in the body.
• Albumin: found in blood plasma - transport various
substances - hormones, fatty acids, and drugs
throughout the body.
• Transferrin: transports iron in the blood from the site
of absorption, in the gut to the bone marrow, liver,
and other tissues that require it.
• Apolipoproteins: a family of proteins - transport
lipids (fats) in the bloodstream.
Examples: ApoA, ApoB, and ApoE.
• Ferritin: protein that stores iron in a non-toxic form
in liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
• Glut transporters: a family of proteins that transport
glucose and other sugars across cell membranes.
Examples : GLUT1 and GLUT4
3. Providing mechanical support
• Collagen: structural protein in the body and
provides support to tissues - skin, tendons, cartilage,
bone, and teeth.
• Elastin: protein that provides elasticity and
stretchability to tissues - skin, lungs, arteries, and
ligaments.
• Keratin: protein that forms the structural basis of
hair, nails, and the outer layer of skin.
• Actin and Myosin: proteins that are involved in
muscle contraction and provide the mechanical force
required for movement.
• Tubulin: protein - forms the structural basis of
microtubules - provide support to cells
involved in various cellular processes - cell division
and intracellular transport.
• Laminin: protein - forms part of the extracellular
matrix and provides structural support to cells in
tissues - skin, muscles, and organs.
4. Regulating cell behavior
• Receptor proteins: located on the surface of cells -
bind to specific signaling molecules - hormones,
growth factors, and neurotransmitters - and they
trigger a cellular response - a change in gene
expression or the activation of an intracellular
signaling pathway.
• Enzymes: proteins - catalyze specific chemical
reactions in the body - kinases (phosphorylation) and
phosphatases (dephosphorylation).
• Cytoskeleton proteins: actin and tubulin, play a critical
role in regulating cell shape, movement, and division.
• Transcription factors: proteins that bind to DNA and
regulate gene expression and regulating cellular
differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis.
• Adhesion proteins: involved in cell-to-cell and cell to
matrix adhesion- their regulating cell behavior - cell
migration, tissue development, and wound healing.
• Ion channels: are proteins that allow ions to move
across the cell membrane, they regulating cellular
excitability and communication.
PROTEINS AS FOOD
▪ Proteins are essential nutrients that provide the body
with amino acids, which are the building blocks of the
body's tissues.
▪ Proteins are found in many different foods - meat,
poultry, fish, dairy products, beans, lentils, tofu, and
eggs.
▪ Proteins are a vital component of a healthy diet - they
help to build and repair tissues, support immune
function, and regulate various metabolic processes.
▪ The body uses proteins as a source of energy when
carbohydrates and fats are not available.
▪ The quality of proteins in food is determined by the
types of amino acids they contain, as well as the amount
of each type of amino acid.
▪ To ensure adequate protein intake, it is important to
consume a variety of protein-rich foods and to include
both complete and incomplete protein sources in the
diet.
WHEY PROTEIN AS FOOD
▪ A type of protein derived from the liquid that separates
from milk during the cheese-making process.
▪ It is a complete protein, meaning it contains all of the
essential amino acids in highly branched form - needs to
build and repair tissues.
▪ It is used as a dietary supplement by athletes,
bodybuilders.
▪ It is commonly added to smoothies, shakes, and other
beverages, and available in powder form.
▪ Compared to other types of protein it is rapidly absorbed
by the body.
▪ Good source of essential nutrients - calcium, potassium,
and vitamins B2 and B12.
▪ However, not all whey protein products are equal in
terms of quality, purity, and nutrient content.
▪ Some whey protein supplements may contain added
sugars, artificial sweeteners, or other ingredients that
can be harmful to health.
Use of whey protein as food
• Sports nutrition: it help to build and repair muscle tissue
- after intense exercise, and increase overall muscle mass.
• Weight management: Whey protein help manage weight
- by increasing satiety and reducing appetite - weight loss
by preserving muscle mass while reducing body fat.
• Health promotion: Whey protein is rich in essential
amino acids - various health benefits-improved immune
function, lower bp, and reduced risk of cardiovascular
disease.
• Meal replacement: either as a drink or in a variety of
food products. - it is a quick and convenient source of
protein

Talk to a healthcare professional before to use whey protein

 MEAT ANALOGS OF PROTEIN
(meat substitutes or meat alternatives)
▪ Plant-based foods designed to mimic the taste, texture,
and appearance of meat.
▪ They are made from soy protein, wheat protein, pea
protein, and other plant-based ingredient - fortified with
vitamins and minerals
▪ Alternative to meat vegetarians, vegans, and those who
are looking to reduce their meat consumption for health
or ethical reasons.
▪ There are many different types of meat analogs available,
including burgers, sausages, meatballs, deli slices, and
more.
▪ Some to mimic specific types of meat, such as chicken,
beef, or pork, others are marketed as a more generic
"meat-like" product.
▪ Choose meat analogs - look for products with high
protein and low added sugars, fats, and other harmful
ingredients.
Examples of meat analogs of protein as food
i. Tofu: Made from soybeans - used in a variety of dishes, -
stir-fries, salads, and smoothies.
ii. Tempeh: made from fermented soybeans and has a nutty
flavor and firm texture. It can be sliced and used in
sandwiches or salads, or crumbled and used as a meat
substitute in tacos or spaghetti sauces.
iii. Seitan or wheat meat or wheat protein : made from
wheat gluten – has a chewy, meat-like texture. It can be
used as a substitute for beef or pork
iv. Veggie burgers: Made from plant-based ingredients -
soy protein, grains, and vegetables
that can be grilled or baked and served on a bun.
v. Meatless meatballs: Made from plant-based ingredients
- soy protein, grains, and vegetables, it is tasty and
protein-rich alternative to traditional meatballs.
vi. Plant-based sausages: Made from soy protein, pea
protein, or other plant-based ingredients - protein-rich
alternative to traditional sausages.
Tofu Tempeh Seitan

Plant based sausage Meatless meatballs

Plant Based Proteins
▪ Proteins derived from plant sources - legumes, grains,
nuts, and seeds.
▪ Alternative to animal-based proteins - for those following
a vegetarian or vegan diet.
▪ Examples: soy protein, pea protein, lentil protein,
chickpea protein, and hemp protein.
▪ Choose a high-quality product - free of artificial additives
and preservatives.
▪ consult a healthcare professional before starting to use
any new protein supplement.
Benefits of plant-based proteins:
1. Sustainable: more environmentally sustainable than
animal based sources – require fewer resources to
produce and generate fewer greenhouse gas emissions.
2. Nutrient-rich: Many plant-based protein sources are rich
in other essential nutrients - fiber, vitamins, and minerals.
3. Versatile: Plant-based proteins can be used in a variety of
ways, including as a protein supplement, in smoothies, or
as an ingredient in various recipes.
4. Hypoallergenic: better tolerated than animal-based

proteins - good option for people with food allergies or

sensitivities.

5. Cost-effective: more affordable than animal-based

sources, making them a more accessible option.

Uses of plant based proteins
1. Dietary supplements: Plant-based proteins are sold as
powders, bars, and other supplements, making them a
convenient way to add protein to a diet.
2. Food products: - plant-based meat analogs, protein
bars, and smoothies.
3. Health and wellness: due to their lower saturated fat
and cholesterol content.
4. Vegetarian and vegan diets:
5. Fitness and sports nutrition: used by athletes and fitness
enthusiasts to support muscle recovery and growth.

It is also important to remember that plant-based proteins

may not contain all of the essential amino acids found in
animal-based proteins, so it may be necessary to consume a
variety of plant-based protein sources to ensure adequate
protein intake.