1

LEARNING UNIT 1: NATURAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY AS A SCHOOL (Eds.), Re-examining pedagogical content knowledge in science education (pp.
SUBJECT
117-133). Routledge.
1.1 OVERVIEW
Vandeyar, S. 2020. Exploring teachers’ changing practices in the transition to online
This unit will describe Natural Sciences and Technology (NSTech) as a school subject
teaching and learning in a South African school. Technology, Pedagogy and
combining Natural Sciences and Technology into one. In South Africa, the subject is
Education, 29(5): 497-512. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2020.1823549.
offered in the intermediate phase, which is from grade 4 to grade 6. The unit will start
off by outlining the presentation of NSTech in the curriculum in terms of the strands of Van Driel, J. H., Verloop, N. & De Vos, W. 1998. Developing science teachers'
science and technology and their intersections. It will lay the foundation for the next pedagogical content knowledge. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
unit concerning the teaching of NSTech in the digital age. 35(6): 673-695.
1.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES Van Driel, J. H., De Jong, O. & Verloop, N. 2002. The development of preservice
After you have completed this unit, you should be able to: teachers' practical knowledge in classroom context. Learning and Instruction,
12(3): 291-310.
• synthesise the interdisciplinary nature and educational relevance of NSTech
• analyse the NSTech CAPS document to create aligned teaching materials Wastiau, P., Blamire, R., Kearney, C., Quittre, V., Van de Gaer, E. & Monseur, C.
KEY CONCEPTS 2013. The use of ICT in education: A survey of schools in Europe. European
Natural Science A systematic method of inquiry that aims to explain natural Journal of Education, 48(1): 11-27. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12020.
phenomena and connect ideas through replicable
experiments and hypotheses Webb, M. 2013. Changing models for researching pedagogy with information and
communications technologies. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21(6):
Technology The combination of knowledge, skills and resources to 491-500. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12021.
create solutions that meet needs and wants
Yu, Z. 2022. Sustaining Student Roles, Digital Literacy, Learning Achievements, and
Motivation in Online Learning Environments during the COVID-19 Pandemic.
Sustainability, 14(8): 4388. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084388.
1.3 NATURAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY AS A SUBJECT
In the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) for NSTech, this subject,
which intersects science and technology, is described per subject as follows. Science
is a systematic method of inquiry that aims to explain phenomena and connect ideas
through replicable experiments and hypotheses (Department of Basic Education,
2011). Technology is the combination of knowledge, skills and resources to create
solutions that meet needs and wants (DoBE, 2011). Both science and technology have
had a significant impact, both positive and negative, on the world. Scientific knowledge
evolves over time as new information becomes available. Traditional indigenous
knowledge systems differ from modern science because of the different world views in
which each has originated. A good science teacher should acknowledge the debates
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Park, S., Suh, J. & Seo, K. 2018. Measuring teachers' pedagogical content knowledge and confusion among those who first investigated it. Frontiers of science such as
in science: A review of research approaches. Educational Sciences: Theory & climate change, the universe's expansion, and the earth's changing magnetic field, are
Practice, 18(3), 515-536. still unknown. Technological methods include identifying needs, planning, designing,
making and evaluating products.
Passaro, S., Verdoliva, L. & Poggi, G. 2017. Augmented Reality applications in
Natural Sciences and Technology complement each other as shown in table 1.1 below,
education: The role of gyroscopes. Journal of Educational Computing
which is taken from the CAPS document (DoBE 2011:9). Table 1.1: The nature of
Research, 55(7): 976-999. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633117699952. Natural Sciences and Technology
NATURAL SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY
Prince, M. & Felder, R. 2019. Inductive teaching and learning methods: Definitions,
Goal Pursuit of new knowledge and The creation of structures,
comparisons, and research bases. Journal of Engineering Education, 95(2):
understanding of the world systems and processes to meet
123-138. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2168-9830.2006.tb00884.x. around us and of natural
phenomena peoples’ needs and improve
Rogers, C. R. 1983. Freedom to Learn for the 80s. Columbus, OH: Charles Merrill. their quality of life
Rollnick, M. & Mavhunga, E. 2014. PCK of teaching electrochemistry in chemistry Focus Focus is on understanding the Focus is on understanding the
teachers: A case in South Africa. Education as Change, 18(2): 155-173. natural world need for human-made objects
and environments to solve
Rollnick, M., Bennett, J., Rhemtula, M., Dharsey, N. & Ndlovu, T. 2008. The place of problems
subject matter knowledge in pedagogical content knowledge: A case study of
South African teachers teaching the amount of substance and equilibrium.
Developmental Discovery through carrying out Making products though design,
International Journal of Science Education, 30(10): 1365-1387. methods investigations invention and production
Sanders, J. R., Hills, J. R., Nitko, A. J., Merwin, J. C., Trice, C., Dianda, M. &
Major Investigative and logical Practical, solution-orientated
Schneider, J. 1990. Standards for Teachers Competence in Educational processes
processes processes
Assessment of Students. …
Shulman, L. S. 1987. Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. • planning investigations • identifying a need
Harvard Educational Review, 57(1): 1-22. • conducting investigations • planning and designing
and • making (constructing)
Shulman, L. S. 2015. PCK: Its genesis and exodus. In A. Berry, P. Friedrichsen & J.
• collecting data • evaluating and improving
Loughran. (Eds.) Re-examining pedagogical content knowledge in science
• evaluating data and products
education (pp. 3-13). Routledge.
• communicating findings • communicating
Schwab, J. J. 1962. The teaching of science as enquiry. In J. J. Schwab & P. F.
Brandwein (Eds.), The Teaching of Science (pp. 3-103). Harvard University Evaluation Analysis, generalisation and Analysis and application of
methods creation of theories design ideas
Press.
Smith, P. S. & Banilower, E. R. 2015. Assessing PCK and CK using the content
representation (CoRe) framework. In A. Berry, P. Friedrichsen, & J. Loughran Discussion Forum 1.1
Objective: Evaluate the intersection of Natural Sciences and Technology.
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Instructions: Lee, O., Brown, B. A. & Luft, J. A. 2007. Teachers' pedagogical content knowledge and
1. Step 1: Study the CAPS document in detail by focusing on the intersection of
science teaching practices: The influence of context. Journal of Research in
science and technology in generic terms. Science Teaching, 44(4): 457-488.
2. Compose Your Post: Prepare a forum post in which you discuss the
Loughran, J., Berry, A. & Mulhall, P. 2006. Understanding and developing science
intersection of Natural Sciences and Technology by citing examples from the teachers' pedagogical content knowledge. …: Sense Publishers.
CAPS document and referencing it properly.
Loveless, A. 2011. Pedagogy and practice: Teaching and learning in the digital age.
3. Post in the Forum: Post your response by clicking “Reply” in the forum. …: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203843142.
4. Engage with Peers: After you have posted your answer, read through your
Magnusson, S., Krajcik, J., & Borko, H. 1999. Nature, sources, and development of
classmates' posts. Respond to at least two of them by sharing your thoughts,
pedagogical content knowledge for science teaching. In J. Gess-Newsome &
asking questions, or offering a different perspective. Remember to be respectful
N. G. Lederman. (Eds.) Examining Pedagogical Content Knowledge (pp.
and constructive in your responses.
95132). Springer, Dordrecht.
1.4 WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY?
Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. 2006. Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A
This discussion aims to outline the place of Technology in the subject NSTech. framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6):
Because the term “technology” is overused and little understood, there is confusion 10171054. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00684.x.
over its meaning. Some equate it with computers and other technological electronic
Mizzi, D. 2013. The challenges faced by science teachers when teaching outside their
products in an educational setting and others confuse it with educational technology.
specific science specialism. The Online Journal of New Horizons in Education,
The school subject Natural Science and Technology is a vehicle for inculcating
3(2): 58-67.
creativity, problem-solving and innovation in classroom practices because of its
handson nature. Mullis, I.V.S., Martin, M.O., Goh, S. & Cotter, K. (Eds.) 2016. TIMSS 2015
encyclopedia: Education policy and curriculum in mathematics and science.
1.4.1 The design process in Technology
Retrieved from Boston College, TIMSS & PIRLS
The design process in technology is a systematic approach to problem-solving. It
International Study Center website:
should be noted that the design process is called different names in different countries.
http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2015/encyclopedia/.
In some countries it is called “Technology Process” and in others it is named
Nussbaum, J. & Novick, S. 1982. Alternative frameworks, conceptual conflict and
“Technology and Design Process”. Nonetheless, it is the backbone of teaching
accommodation: Toward a principled teaching strategy. Instructional Science,
Technology as a subject. It is against this background that lesson planning is vital when
11(3): 183-200.
the ATP is followed. Figure 1.1 illustrates the design process in Technology.
Park, S. & Oliver, J. S. 2008a. Revisiting the conceptualization of pedagogical content
knowledge (PCK): PCK as a conceptual tool to understand teachers as
professionals. Research in Science Education, 38(3): 261-284.
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 schools. Contemporary Educational Technology, 7(1): 60-84.
https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/6149.
Kind, V. 2009. A conflict in your head: An exploration of trainee science teachers’
subject matter knowledge development and its impact on teacher
selfconfidence. International Journal of Science Education, 31(11): 1529-1562.
Kind, V. & Chan, K. K. H. 2019. Resolving ambiguities in PCK research: Using the
science teacher PCK literature to develop a new model for understanding PCK.
Science Education, 103(5): 1063-1098.
Knowles, M, Holten III, E. & Swanson, R. 2005. The Adult Learner. 6th edition. Oxford:
Butterworth-Heineman.
Koehler, M. J. & Mishra, P. 2009. What is technological pedagogical content knowledge Figure 1.1: The design process in Technology
(TPACK)? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1):
The steps of the design process are described below:
60-70. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203870346.
• Define the problem clearly and fully. Ask yourself the following: what is the
Koehler, M. J. & Mishra, P. 2009. What is technological pedagogical content knowledge problem that I am trying to solve? That is called the “brief”.
(TPACK)? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1): • Brainstorm the ideas, individually or in small groups, to propose possible
60-70. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203870346. solutions. At this point, all possible solutions should be considered, no matter
how far-fetched they may seem.
Koehler, M. J. & Mishra, P. 2009. What is technological pedagogical content
• Research the idea and the problem. Start by looking at existing solutions to
knowledge? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1):
related problems. Analyse both good and bad solutions.
60-70.
• Identify the criteria that a product or system must meet, for example, a boat hull
Kolb, D. A. 1984. Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning
must be 800 cm long and be able to carry a load of 2 kg without tipping or
and Development. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
sinking.
Laird, D. 1985. Approaches to Training and Development. Harlow:
• Specify the constraints, that is, the limits imposed on a design solution.
Addison Wesley.
Constraints are often related to resources. Write a specification, for example,
the hull of a boat must be more than 50 cm and less than 100 cm in length.
Lawrence, A. S. Arul & Veena, A. S. 2013. ICT in teaching and learning: A critical
• Select an approach, decide on a design that meets the specifications, meets
analysis. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 16(1): 145-154.
the criteria and stays within the constraints, and has few negative effects. Select
https://www.learntechlib.org/p/153558/.
the preferred solution.
Laws, P., Rosborough, P. & Poodry, F. 2015. Women, minorities, and persons with • Lay out the design by making technical sketches and then create detailed,
disabilities in science and engineering: 2015. National Science Foundation. orthographic multi-view drawings. Prepare the working drawing and plan.
https://doi.org/10.2172/1185529.
72 5
 • Create a model or a prototype – a model is a scaled version of the final product Goodwin, B. & Miller, K. 2012. Evidence on flipped classrooms is still coming in.
with all parts in correct proportion to the object and a prototype is a full-scale, Educational Leadership, 70(2): 78-80. https://doi.org/10.5860/CHOICE.505361
fully operational version of the solution.
Gravells, A. & Simpson, S. 2014. The Certificate in Education and Training. SAGE.
• Test and evaluate the design to determine how well it meets the original criteria
and constraints. Examine the solution's strengths and weaknesses. Change Grossman, P. L. 1990. The making of a teacher: Teacher knowledge and teacher
variables that affect the performance of the design. education. …: Teachers College Press.
• Create the artefact and the final design with all the changes, improvements and Halim, L. & Meerah, T. S. M. 2002. Science teachers' pedagogical content knowledge
modifications. That is constructing a prototype. and its influence on instructional practices. Journal of Science and Mathematics
• Communicate the results by sharing the solutions and how you have arrived at Education in Southeast Asia, 25(1): 67-77.
them with others. Write a report.
Hashweh, M. Z. 1987. Effects of subject matter knowledge in the teaching of biology
1.4.2 Approaches for teaching Technology and physics. Teaching and Teacher Education, 3(2): 109-120.
This subject Technology is known by diverse names in different countries. For instance, Hashweh, M. Z. 2005. Teacher pedagogical constructions: A reconfiguration of
in the UK and Botswana, it is known as Design and Technology, in the USA and New pedagogical content knowledge. Teachers and Teaching, 11(3): 273-292.
Zealand, it goes by the name of Technology Education, and in Malawi and Bangladesh,
Hennessy, S., Ruthven, K. & Brindley, S. 2010. Teacher perspectives on integrating
it is dubbed Science and Technology. In South Africa, it also goes by different names
according to the school phase. In the Intermediate Phase, it is integrated with Natural ICT into subject teaching: Commitment, constraints, caution, and change.
Science and called Natural Science and Technology; in the Senior Phase it is branded Journal of Curriculum Studies, 37(2): 155-192.
Technology; and in Further Education and Training (FET) it is available in technical https://doi.org/10.1080/0022027032000276961
schools as Mechanical, Civil and Electrical Technology alongside Engineering
Hustler, D. & McIntyre, D. (Eds.) 1996. Developing Competent Teachers: Approaches
Graphics and Design (EGD).
to Professional Competence in Teacher Education. London: David Fulton
Each state and its schools have chosen a different curriculum approach based on the Publishers.
global trend in the development of Technology. Because they have played a decisive
Juttner, M., Boone, W. J., Park, S. & Neuhaus, B. J. 2013. Development and use of a
role in the curriculum reviews of different countries, including those of South Africa,
test instrument to measure biology teachers' content knowledge and
these approaches are explored in the following section.
pedagogical content knowledge. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
Craft approach 50(6): 794-820.
The craft approach is characterised by the knowledge and skills necessary to
Karim, M. E., Lemaignan, S. & Mondada, F. 2015. A review: Can robotics reshape K12
transform materials into fabricated objects; objects of cultural and personal value;
STEM education? International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher
traditional design; learning activities that involve making things based on prescribed
Education, 12(2): 34-44. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-015-0021-2.
designs; and classrooms that are equipped with machines and tools ranging from
woodworking and metalworking to the electrical, catering and textile trades. The Kihoza, P., Zlotnikova, I., Bada, J. & Kalegele, K. 2016. An assessment of teachers’
emphasis is more on psychomotor skills than on design. abilities to support blended learning implementation in Tanzanian secondary
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Childs, A. & McNicholl, J. 2007. Investigating the relationship between subject content Occupational or vocational approach
knowledge and pedagogical practice through science teacher training.
The occupational or vocational approach is typified by the hands-on transformation of
International Journal of Science Education, 29(3): 373-392.
materials into products; by current industrial practice skills; and by classrooms that are
Conole, G. & Alevizou, P. 2010. A literature review of the use of Web 2.0 tools in higher equipped with industrial machinery.
education. The Open University. High-tech approach
https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2010.533226.
Modern technological industry and the desire to shape the skill base of future
Davidowitz, B. & Vokwana, N. 2014. The development of chemistry teachers’ workforces distinguish the high-tech approach.
pedagogical content knowledge in a content-embedded approach. Chemistry Applied science approach
Education Research and Practice, 15(4): 417-426.
The applied science approach is defined by the scientific approach; the use of science
Davis, E. A., Janssen, F. J. J. M. & Van Driel, J. H. 2016. Teachers and their curricula: to explore new applications of technology; and the study of science and technology in
Exploring PCK and curricular knowledge in science education. Educational close association.
Researcher, 45(1): 1-8.
Technology concepts approach
Esroy, N. & Dilber, R. 2014. Effectiveness of the conceptual change text oriented
instruction on students’ understanding of chemical bonding concepts. The technology concepts approach is defined by the learning processes that cause
Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 14(2): 804-810. technological developments; theoretical understanding rather than practical action;
and systems concepts lie at the core of the technology concepts approach.
Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H. &
Design approach
Wenderoth, M. P. 2014. Active learning increases student performance in
science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy The design approach is characterised by practical capability; active learner
of Sciences, 111(23), 8410-8415. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1319030111. involvement in tackling realistic problems; and design-make-evaluate activities. Its
emphasis is on learners’ own decisions about the kind of product that is needed, how
Gess-Newsome, J. 1999. Pedagogical content knowledge: An introduction and it would look like, how it will work, and how it should be made.
orientation. In J. Gess-Newsome & N. G. Lederman (Eds.), Examining
Science-Technology-Society (STS) approach
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (pp. 3-17). Springer, Dordrecht.
Curricula organised around societal issues; connections between classrooms and the
Gess-Newsome, J. 2015. A model of teacher professional knowledge and skill
outside world; the study of technological innovation as a driving force for social change;
including PCK: Results of the thinking from the PCK summit. In A. Berry, P.
and problem-solving typify the Science-Technology-Society (STS) approach.
Friedrichsen, & J. Loughran (Eds.), Re-examining pedagogical content
Integrated subject approach
knowledge in science education (pp. 28-42). Routledge.
The integrated subject approach integrates several subjects into a framework that
Gess-Newsome, J., Carlson, J., Gardner, A. L., & Taylor, J. A. 2017. Impact of PCK
evolution and teacher learning on teaching practice. In J. Gess-Newsome & A. provides understanding of the discipline of Technology and its interrelatedness with
L. Carlson (Eds.), Re-examining pedagogical content knowledge in science other disciplines, e.g., Science, Mathematics and Technology.
education (pp. 27-48). Routledge.
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Approach adopted by South Africa examined. Before we delved into lesson planning and its importance in NSTech
teaching, the competences teachers require to effectively teach NSTech have been
South African education has changed in many ways since 1994. The educational
discussed. The unit ended with a summary of the approaches to the teaching of
system previously consisted of separate departments for each racial group overseen
NSTech, including the infusion of AI and 4IR, and the integration of IK into the subject.
by a department of national education. The reasons for including Technology
Education in the curriculum involve opportunities for the disadvantaged; the 2.10 REFERENCES
technological nature of society; international recognition as a significant aspect of the Afari, E. & Khine, M. S. 2017. Robotics as an educational tool: Impact on the
curriculum; national economic problems; and the development of cognitive skills,
attitudes of students towards science and technology. Computers &
creative thinking and problem-solving. After 1994 South Africa had to come up with its
Education, 68: 111126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.05.001.
own approach to address these core reasons for introducing Technology Education.
Alonzo, A. C. & Kim, J. 2016. Analysis of students' ideas and developing teaching
The background to the approaches presented in this section, which casts light on the
strategies in the context of high school physics. Science Education, 100(1): 28-
motive behind the Technology Education curriculum reform, coupled with contextual
50.
specifications, informs the manner of addressing the themes raised by teachers. South
African Technology teachers can contextualise their teaching only if they are aware of
Altin, H. & Pedaste, M. 2013. The role of robotics in teaching and learning: A
the approaches adopted and adapted by the Department of National Education. comprehensive review. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 16(1):
1.5 WHAT IS NATURAL SCIENCE? 33-39. https://doi.org/10.2307/jeductechsoci.16.1.33
Natural Science is a broad field that explores the natural world through systematic
Angel-Fernandez, J. R. & Vincze, M. 2018. Robotics in education: Concepts,
observation, experimentation and analysis to uncover the principles that govern life
methodology, and design. Springer International Publishing.
and the physical environment. It includes disciplines such as biology, physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55553-9.
chemistry, and earth sciences, each contributing to a deeper understanding of the
universe and our place within it. The subject emphasises the scientific method by Botha, M. L. & Greyson, R. 2016. Teaching Science: Foundation to Senior Phase.
encouraging learners to observe phenomena, formulate hypotheses, conduct Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
experiments, and draw evidence-based conclusions (Gott & Duggan, 2003). This
Buschang, R. E., Chung, G. K. W. K., Delacruz, G. C. & Baker, E. L. 2012. Validating
method not only enhances learners’ knowledge, but also cultivates essential skills such the use of evidence-based inquiry in classroom settings: The role of content
as critical thinking, problem-solving and analytical reasoning, which are vital in a
knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge in teaching. Journal of
rapidly evolving, science-driven world. Furthermore, Natural Sciences education Research in Science Teaching, 49(6): 591-612.
fosters curiosity and a lifelong interest in learning about the world and motivates
Carlson, J. & Daehler, K. R. 2019. The refined consensus model of pedagogical
learners to question, investigate and innovate.
content knowledge in science education. …: Routledge.
In the South African context, Natural Sciences is of particular significance since it
supports scientific literacy, which is a crucial element in the fields of science, Caudell, T. & Mizell, D. 1992. Augmented Reality: An application of heads-up display
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) (Department of Basic Education, technology to manual manufacturing processes: Proceedings of the 25th
2011). The curriculum aims to be both inclusive and contextually relevant by integrating Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (Vol. 2, 659-669). IEEE.
Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) to enrich learners' understanding of science https://doi.org/10.1109/HICSS.1992.183317.
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knowledge into school curriculums since it poses challenges for teachers at both an from diverse cultural perspectives (Le Grange, 2016). By addressing realworld
epistemological and a pedagogical level. Learners must be made aware of the of the environmental and societal issues, the subject encourages learners to engage critically
interrelationship between Technology, society and environment (Heese & Oxenham, with their surroundings and develop sustainable solutions. This relevance makes
2013:33). learning more meaningful and empowers students to apply scientific knowledge to
Indigenous Technology: Learners should be made aware of different coexisting local and global challenges. Ultimately, the teaching of Natural Sciences seeks to
knowledge systems. They should learn that indigenous cultures have specific equip learners with the knowledge, values and skills necessary to contribute to
materials and processes to satisfy their people’s needs. In addition, learners should sustainable development and innovation. It also aims to foster a generation capable of
be made aware of indigenous intellectual property rights. informed decision-making and active citizenship in a technologically advanced society.
Impact of Technology: Learners must be able to identify and evaluate both the 1.6 THE PRESENTATION OF NATURAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE
CURRICULUM
positive and negative impacts of Technology on people’s lives.
Now that you understand Natural Sciences and Technology, it is time to learn about
Bias in Technology: Learners should be able to recognise that certain groups within how NSTech is presented in the curriculum. The curriculum tabulates the following
society might be either favoured or disadvantaged by products of Technology and strands for Natural Science and Technology, which is shown in table 1.2.
express their opinion about it.
Table 1.2: Natural Science and Technology strands in the curriculum
Discussion Forum 2.5 NATURAL SCIENCE STRANDS TECHNOLOGY STRANDS
Objective: Evaluate the role of IK in teaching NSTech. Life and Living Structures
Instructions: Matter and Materials Processing
Energy and Change Systems and control
5. Step 1: Think carefully about IK and its resemblance with Technology to
Planet Earth and Beyond
evaluate the role that it plays in the teaching of the subject.
6. Compose Your Post: Now prepare a forum post discussing the role of IK in
Learners in all grades must be supported to conduct investigations and engage in the
teaching Technology in the Senior Phase.
technological design process to deepen their understanding of the subject matter.
7. Post in the Forum: Post your response by clicking “Reply” in the forum.
Each term includes a Natural Sciences and Technology strand organised to promote
8. Engage with Peers: After you have posted your answer, read through your a clear progression of concepts across all grades and phases. Emphasising the
classmates' posts. Respond to at least two of them by sharing your thoughts, conceptual links between Science and Technology in different topics is crucial, though
asking questions, or offering a different perspective. Remember to be respectful these links vary in strength. At least two Technology strands will be developed in each
and constructive in your responses. grade to ensure that all strands are covered in the Intermediate Phase. Table 1.3 below
2.10 CONCLUSION shows how the curriculum unpacks the intersection of the strands for Natural Science
and Technology .
This unit has given a comprehensive overview of the teaching of Natural Science and
Technology (NSTech). It started by describing the role of learning theories in informing Table 1.3: The intersection of the strands of Natural Science and Technology in
teachers’ planning and teaching. What it means to be an NSTech teacher in terms of the curriculum
roles, including the mediation of learning and challenges facing teachers, were then GRADE 4
68 9
Strands NS & Tech Strands NS & Tech Strands NS & Tech Strands NS & Tech bridges the gap between learners' school and home experiences, but also boosts their
Life and Structures Matter and Structures Energy and Systems Planet Systems confidence, creativity and life skills. Jegede (1999) warns that ignoring IK can lead to
materials change Earth and and control
living and control
beyond cognitive dissonance, a hindrance to learners' performance. Mukwambo et al (2014)
Living and Structures Materials Strengthening Energy Movement Planet Rocket
maintain that integrating IK into the curriculum promotes inclusive teaching and
non- living for animal around us materials and of energy Earth systems learning environments in which cultural diversity is recognised.
shelters Solid Strong frame energy in a system
things materials structures transfer The Sun
Structure Energy The Earth 2.9.2 Integration of IK in technology
around us
of plants & the
Energy The integration of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) into technology education, like in science
and and sound Sun
animals The Moon education, offers opportunities to connect learners' cultural backgrounds with their
What schooling and encourages their engagement and deeper understanding. Scholars like
plants
Mukwambo et al (2014) highlight the challenges of such an integration, for instance,
need to
grow the shortage of science concepts in indigenous languages and the potential cognitive
Habitats of conflict between everyday language and scientific terminology. These issues are
animals
particularly relevant in technology education when the practical and applied nature of
GRADE 6
the subject clashes with the theoretical frameworks of Western science. Despite these
challenges, the inclusion of IK in technology teaching can enrich the curriculum by
Strands NS & Tech Strands NS & Tech Strands NS & Tech Strands NS & Tech
promoting a more holistic understanding of technology that includes traditional
Life and Structures Matter and Structures Energy and Systems Planet Earth Systems
living
materials change and control and beyond and control practices and indigenous innovations.
Nonetheless, how effectively IK can be integrated into technology education without
Plants and Skeletons Metals and Processing Stored Systems for Planet Earth
animals on as non-metals materials energy in moving Surface of causing confusion or diminishing the scientific rigour of the subject is cause for
structures Uses of Processed things
Earth metals materials fuels the Earth concern. Le Grange (2007) points out that cognitive dissonance arises when learners
Animal Energy and Sedimentary
are required to reconcile their indigenous knowledge with new scientific concepts, a
skeletons electricity rocks
Food chains Energy and Fossils
challenge that is equally pertinent in technology education. Seehawer (2018a) notes
movement
Life cycles that although IK is often acknowledged in educational policies, it remains largely
rhetorical and leaves teachers uncertain about its practical application. Despite these
challenges, advocates of IK integration like Aikenhead (2001), argue that omitting IK
GRADE 6 from the curriculum would result in cultural assimilation to the detriment of indigenous
learners. Therefore, the integration of IK into technology education must be carefully
Strands NS & Tech Strands NS & Tech Strands NS & Tech Strands NS & Tech
Life and living Structures Matter and Structures Energy and Systems Planet Systems
balanced. Care must be taken that it enhances learning without compromising the
materials change and
and Earth integrity of the subject.
control
control an
d beyond Although many education systems in Africa are based on democracy and human
Photosynthesis Food Solids, Processes Electric Systems The Solar Systems
Nutrients in processing liquids and to circuits to solve System for
rights, which are meant to free Africans from colonial hegemony, few education
food problems
Electrical Movements systems have been transformed (Msila & Gumbo, 2016: iv). Many Technology
teachers on the African continent still fear exploring the integration of indigenous
10 67
Robotics Nutrition gases purify water conductors of the Earth looking
Ecosystems Mixtures and and planets into
Angel-Fernandez and Vincze (2018) describe educational robotics as a domain that and Food webs Solutions insulators The space
integrates robotic technologies into teaching methods and decision-making processes. as special Mains movement Systems
mixtures electricity of the Moon to explore
The goal of incorporating robotics into education is to enhance teaching and learning
Dissolving the
through the innovative use of educational tools and activities. For instance, Lego Mixtures Moon and
and water
robotics can significantly influence science and technology education across various resources Mars
levels, from early childhood through to higher education (Afari & Khine, 2017).
Robotics can function in several educational roles, namely as a teaching tool, a means
to focus on specific topics or as a supportive element for other subjects (Karim et al,
Discussion Forum 1.2
2015). Furthermore, robotics can facilitate social and collaborative learning
experiences (Angel-Fernandez & Vincze, 2018). Additionally, Altin and Pedaste (2013) Objective: Analyse the curriculum statement to integrate the concepts of Science and
argue that robotics should be integrated into curricula not only as a distinct subject but Technology in a lesson.
also as a complementary tool for teaching other disciplines. This approach ensures
5. Step 1: Read the curriculum statement or table 1.3 above and focus on the
that robotics contributes meaningfully to various aspects of education by enhancing
intersection of science and technology concepts.
both subject-specific learning and broader educational objectives.
6. Compose Your Post: Choose any related Natural Science and Technology
2.9 INTEGRATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN NSTECH
topics and discuss their intersection by highlighting specific concepts.
2.9.1 What is indigenous knowledge? 7. Post in the Forum: Post your response by clicking “Reply” in the forum.
Khuphe (2014) states that Indigenous Knowledge (IK) is community-based and unique 8. Engage with Peers: After you have posted your response, read through your
to specific cultures. It has evolved over generations and is regarded as wisdom passed classmates' posts. Respond to at least two of them by sharing your thoughts,
down from the forefathers. Shava (2013) asserts that IK is transgenerational and asking questions, or offering a different perspective. Remember to be respectful
transmitted orally, symbolically or through cultural practices. Ogunniyi and Hewson and constructive in your responses.
(2008) describe IK in Africa as pre-colonial knowledge embedded in cultural history
1.7 MAJOR DESIGN AND PROCESS SKILLS PROMOTED BY NSTECH
and identity. Kibirige and Van Rooyen (2006) affirm that IK is traditional wisdom
The curriculum statement on NSTech promotes certain design and process skills that
developed through practical engagement with the environment. Moreover, it is
learners need outside the classroom. These include:
transmitted orally and evolves over time. UNESCO (1999) adds that IK is locally
bound, culture-specific and not formally documented. • accessing and recalling information – being able to use a variety of sources to
acquire information and to remember relevant facts and key ideas to build a
Several scholars such as Kibirige and Van Rooyen (2006) and Hewson and Ogunniyi
conceptual framework.
(2011), argue for the acknowledgement of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in school
• observing – noting objects, organisms and events in detail.
science curricula to connect learners' cultural backgrounds with their education and
• comparing – noting the similarities and differences between things.
enhance their engagement and understanding. Mushayikwa and Ogunniyi (2011) view
• measuring – using measuring instruments such as rulers, thermometers, clocks
such integration as an opportunity to explore the interaction between Western and
and syringes (to measure volume).
indigenous worldviews. Le Grange (2007) claims that its acknowledgement not only
66 11
 • sorting and classifying – applying criteria in order to sort items according to a engagement prepares learners for the technological advancements and challenges
table, mind-map, key, list or other format. they will face in their careers.
• identifying problems and issues – being able to articulate the needs and wants
However, the successful integration of ICT in teaching science and technology
of society.
depends significantly on teacher preparedness and pedagogical approach. Kihoza et
• raising questions – being able to think of and articulate relevant questions about
al (2016) claim that the lack of the necessary pedagogical ICT competencies in many
problems and natural phenomena.
teachers hinders effective integration.
• predicting – stating, before the start of an investigation, what you think the
2.8.2.3 Infusing Fourth Industrial Technologies in NSTech
results will be.
Virtual and augmented realities
• hypothesising – putting forward a suggestion or possible explanation to account
for certain facts. A hypothesis is the basis of further investigation to prove or The integration of Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) into teaching
disprove the hypothesis. Natural Sciences and Technology offers transformative possibilities regarding student
• planning investigations – thinking through the method for an activity or engagement and learning outcomes. VR immerses students in fully simulated 3D
investigation in advance. Identifying the need to make an investigation a fair environments and allows them to explore and interact with complex scientific concepts
test by keeping some things (variables) the same and allowing others to vary. in an experiential manner. For instance, VR headsets enable students to virtually
• doing investigations – this involves carrying out methods using the appropriate navigate the limbs of skeletons or even conduct virtual field trips to distant or
apparatus and equipment, and collecting data by observing and comparing, hazardous locations. The use of VR can facilitate learners’ comprehension of intricate
measuring and estimating, sequencing or sorting and classifying. Sometimes systems by providing a hands-on, immersive experience that engages multiple senses
an investigation has to be repeated to verify the results. and supports diverse learning styles.
• recording information – recording the data of an investigation, including AR, on the other hand, enhances the physical classroom environment by overlaying
drawings, descriptions, tables and graphs, in a systematic way. digital information onto real-world objects. This technology, invented by Thomas
• interpreting information – explaining what the results of an activity or Caudell in 1990, allows students to interact with 3D models and data that are
investigation mean (this includes reading skills). integrated with their actual surroundings (Caudell & Mizell, 1992). For example, AR
• designing – showing (e.g., by drawing it) how something is to be made taking can project interactive diagrams onto lab equipment or textbooks, offering contextual
into account the design brief, specifications and constraints. information and visual aids that enrich the learning experience. Devices equipped with
• making/constructing – building or assembling an object using appropriate gyroscopes such as smartphones and tablets, are commonly used to support AR
materials and tools and using skills such as measuring, cutting, folding, rolling, applications. These sensors detect the device's orientation and movements to ensure
and glueing. that digital content remains accurately aligned with physical objects and responds
• evaluating and improving products – using criteria to assess a constructed dynamically as students interact with them (Passaro et al, 2017). By bridging the gap
object and then stating or carrying out ways to refine it. between the digital and physical worlds, AR can make abstract concepts more tangible
• communicating – using written, oral, visual, graphic and other forms of and accessible to enhance students' understanding of complex scientific and
communication to make information available to other people. technological topics.
Discussion Forum 1.3
Objective: Classify design and process skills as science and/or technology skills
12 65
experiences by making them more interactive and effective. ICT transforms traditional 1. Step 1: Read the major design and process skills promoted by NSTech to
pedagogical methods because it introduces new ways to engage learners, facilitate classify them as either science or technology skills or both.
understanding and encourage the practical application of knowledge. According to 2. Compose Your Post: Now complete table 1.4 below.
Conole and Alevizou (2010), new technologies challenge existing teacher practices
3. Post in the Forum: Post your response by clicking “Reply” in the forum.
and necessitate new teaching skills and thinking. This integration allows for more
dynamic and interactive science and technology education, as demonstrated by 4. Engage with Peers: After you have posted your response, read through your
Loveless (2011), Vandeyar (2020) and Webb (2013). classmates' posts. Respond to at least two of them by sharing your thoughts,
asking questions or offering a different perspective. Remember to be respectful
Simulations and virtual labs are one of the primary ways that ICT is used in science
and constructive in your responses.
and technology education. These tools enable learners to conduct experiments and
explore scientific concepts in a virtual environment, something which is particularly The following table displays several skills. Indicate whether these skills are promoted
useful when resources or safety concerns limit physical experimentation. Platforms in a science or a technology component of NSTech or even both. Also indicate the
such as PhET and Labster, offer interactive simulations that help learners visualise reasons for your classification.
and grasp complex scientific phenomena. This approach aligns with that of Hennessy Table 1.4: Classifying design and process skills into science and/or technology
et al (2010) who sing the praises of ICT for specific educational purposes. Item Classification Reason
Another significant aspect of ICT in science and technology education is the use of Accessing and recalling
data analysis software and coding platforms. This hands-on experience with real-world information
data hones learners’ critical thinking and problem-solving skills, which are essential
Observing
components of science and technology education. The TPACK framework of Koehler
Comparing
and Mishra (2009) emphasises the integration of content, pedagogy and technology,
which is crucial for effectively teaching. Measuring
Sorting and classifying
Interactive whiteboards and educational apps also play a vital role in modern science
and technology classrooms. These tools facilitate interactive lessons allowing learners Identifying problems and issues
to visualise scientific concepts, participate in collaborative activities, and receive Raising questions
immediate feedback. Apps such as Khan Academy, and interactive simulations make Predicting
abstract concepts more tangible and engaging for learners. Wastiau et al (2013) Hypothesising
contend that although ICT tools are increasingly used for lesson preparation, their
Planning investigations
potential for interactive lesson delivery is often underutilised, which suggests a need
Doing investigations
for better integration strategies.
Recording information
Furthermore, ICT supports the development of 21st-century skills such as critical
thinking, collaboration, creativity, and communication. When learners use technology Interpreting information
in their learning, they engage better with the content. The use of technology also Designing
promotes discussion, reasoning and interpretation (Lawrence & Veena, 2013). Such Making or constructing
64 13
 can be used to build on existing knowledge to develop new epistemologies or
Evaluating and improving strengthen old ones” (Koehler & Mishra, 2009).
products
Discussion Forum 2.4
Communicating
Objective: Evaluating the role of technology in various teaching scenarios
1.8 CONCLUSION 1. Step 1: Read the following scenarios and decide which components of TPACK
This unit has focused on describing Natural Sciences and Technology as a school are at play.
subject offered in the Intermediate Phase (grades 4 to 6) in South African schools. The first scenario is as follows: Mr Lubisi uses interactive 3D model software to
Technology and Natural Science have been described separately, as well as their teach the anatomy of the human skeleton. Students manipulate detailed 3D
intersection according to the curriculum. Understanding it is important as it prepares models on their tablets by virtually removing and reassembling limbs to
you, as a future NSTech teacher, to understand the layout and outline of the subject understand their structure and connections. He further enhances the lesson
and to create and enact meaningful learning experiences for learners. with augmented reality (AR) apps that project life-sized 3D skeletons onto
1.9 REFERENCES students' desks, allowing them to explore skeletal systems in an immersive and
Department of Basic Education. 2011. Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement interactive way.
(CAPS): Natural Sciences and Technology. Pretoria: Department of Basic The second scenario is as follows: Ms Sibiya focuses on collaborative learning
Education. and formative assessment by means of technology. Students are divided into
Gott, R. & Duggan, S. 2003. Understanding Scientific Evidence: How to Interpret groups and must use digital 3D models on a collaborative online platform to
Scientific Data. …: Sage Publications. compare the skeletons of different animals. Each group notes the similarities
and differences in the animals’ bone structure and then turns their findings into
Le Grange, L. 2016. Decolonising the curriculum: A critical reflection on the role of
digital presentations. Ms Sibiya uses interactive quiz tools such as Kahoot, to
Indigenous Knowledge Systems. South African Journal of Education, 36(4): 1-
assess her students’ understanding and encourages peer review and feedback
12.
on their comparisons thanks to the platform’s comment features.
2. Compose Your Post: Evaluate each scenario and indicate the components of
LEARNING UNIT 2: TEACHING NATURAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
TPACK that are at play. State detailed reasons.
2.1 OVERVIEW 3. Post in the Forum: Post your response by clicking “Reply” in the forum.
In the previous learning unit, you have learned about Natural Sciences and Technology 4. Engage with Peers: After you have posted your response, read your
as a school subject and how it is unpacked in the South African curriculum. This classmates' posts. Respond to at least two of them by sharing your thoughts,
learning unit will focus on the teaching of this subject. It will explore the teaching of asking questions or offering a different perspective. Remember to be respectful
Natural Science and Technology (NSTech) comprehensively to equip educators with and constructive in your responses.
knowledge and strategies for effective instruction. We will start by examining
2.8.2.2 Infusing Information and Computer Technology (ICT) in the teaching of NSTech
foundational learning theories and their effect on teachers’ planning and instructional
The teaching of science and technology by way of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) involves integrating digital tools and resources to enhance learning
14 63
• Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) – “Consistent with and similar to practices. Thanks to these theories, teachers can better align their approaches to
Shulman’s idea of knowledge of pedagogy that is applicable to the teaching of foster meaningful learning experiences.
specific content. Central to Shulman’s conceptualization of PCK is the notion of We will then delve into the multifaceted roles of an NSTech teacher by shedding light
the transformation of the subject matter for teaching. Specifically, according to on their responsibilities as mediators of learning and on the challenges they face in
Shulman (1986), this transformation occurs as the teacher interprets the subject navigating the complexities of the classroom. This will be followed by an analysis of
matter, finds multiple ways to represent it, and adapts and tailors the the critical competencies required to teach NSTech such as subject mastery,
instructional materials to alternative conceptions and learners’ prior knowledge. adaptability and the ability to engage students in practical and theoretical knowledge.
PCK covers the core business of teaching, learning, curriculum, assessment
The focus of this learning unit will be on lesson planning and its importance in
and reporting, such as the conditions that promote learning and the links among
structuring and delivering effective NSTech lessons. Practical insights in how
curriculum, assessment, and pedagogy” (Koehler & Mishra, 2009).
thoughtful planning serves as the backbone of successful teaching will be provided.
• Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) – “An understanding of the manner
Building on this, this unit will explore diverse teaching approaches, including innovative
in which technology and content influence and constrain one another. Teachers
strategies such as the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and Fourth Industrial
need to master more than the subject matter they teach; they must also have a
Revolution (4IR) technologies, which are reshaping educational practices.
deep understanding of the manner in which the subject matter (or the kinds of
representations that can be constructed) can be changed by the application of Lastly, the unit will address the integration of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) into NSTech
particular technologies. Teachers need to understand which specific to enrich the curriculum and connect students to culturally relevant knowledge
technologies are best suited for addressing subject-matter learning in their systems. This holistic approach ensures that NSTech education remains dynamic,
domains and how the content dictates or perhaps even changes the technology inclusive and aligned with contemporary and traditional knowledge frameworks. This
– or vice versa” (Koehler & Mishra, 2009). learning unit will equip educators with the tools and insights to navigate the evolving
• Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) – “An understanding of how landscape of NSTech teaching.
teaching and learning can change when particular technologies are used in
particular ways. This includes knowing the pedagogical affordances and
2.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES
constraints of a range of technological tools as they relate to disciplinarily and
After you have completed this unit, you should be able to:
developmentally appropriate pedagogical designs and strategies” (Koehler &
• evaluate the role and responsibilities of an NSTech teacher by developing a
Mishra, 2009).
reflective teaching philosophy
• Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) – “Underlying
• evaluate the various aspects of teacher knowledge, including subject matter
truly meaningful and deeply skilled teaching with technology, TPACK is different
expertise and pedagogical skills, necessary for the effective teaching of
from knowledge of all three concepts individually. Instead, TPACK is the basis
NSTech
of effective teaching with technology, requiring an understanding of the
• integrate competencies required for NSTech teachers into comprehensive
representation of concepts using technologies; pedagogical techniques that
strategies for teaching the subject
use technologies in constructive ways to teach content; knowledge of what
• evaluate and enhance NSTech teachers’ personal competencies through
makes concepts difficult or easy to learn and how technology can help redress
professional development
some of the problems that learners face; knowledge of learners’ prior
knowledge and theories of epistemology; and knowledge of how technologies
62 15
 • evaluate and apply diverse teaching methodologies and differentiated kinds of knowledge that lie at the intersections between the three primary forms of
instruction techniques knowledge, namely Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), Technological Content
• integrate the TPACK model to design and implement technology-enriched Knowledge (TCK), and Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) and, ultimately,
lessons Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK).
• evaluate and synthesise AI tools to develop innovative teaching and learning Effective technology integration for pedagogy regarding specific subject matter
strategies requires sensitivity to the dynamic, transactional relationship between these
components of knowledge situated in unique contexts. Individual teachers, the
KEY CONCEPTS
gradelevel, school-specific factors, demographics, culture, and several other factors
Learning A description of how students receive, process and retain
theories knowledge during learning. mean that every situation is unique. As a result, no single combination of content,
technology and pedagogy will apply to every teacher, every course or every view of
Teacher The specialised understanding and skills that enable educators to teaching.
professional teach and facilitate student learning
knowledge • Content Knowledge (CK) – “Teachers’ knowledge about the subject matter to
be learned or taught. The content to be covered in middle school science or
Inquiry-based A teaching approach that moves students beyond general history is different from the content to be covered in an undergraduate course
teaching curiosity into the realms of critical thinking and understanding.
on art appreciation or a graduate seminar on astrophysics… As Shulman (1986)
noted, this knowledge would include knowledge of concepts, theories, ideas,
Lesson plan The instructor's road map of what students need to learn and how
it will be done effectively during class time. organizational frameworks, knowledge of evidence and proof, as well as
established practices and approaches toward developing such knowledge”
Traditional These approaches often rely on lecture-based instruction during (Koehler & Mishra, 2009).
teaching which the teacher delivers content through direct explanation and
methods learners passively receive information. • Pedagogical Knowledge (PK) – “Teachers’ deep knowledge about the
processes and practices or methods of teaching and learning. They
Artificial This refers to computer systems capable of performing complex encompass, among other things, overall educational purposes, values, and
Intelligence (AI) tasks that, historically, only a human could perform such as aims. This generic form of knowledge applies to understanding how learners
reasoning, making decisions or solving problems.
learn, general classroom management skills, lesson planning, and learner
assessment” (Koehler & Mishra, 2009).
Information and ICT or information and communications technology (or
• Technology Knowledge (TK) – “Knowledge about certain ways of thinking
Communication technologies) is the infrastructure and components that enable
modern computing. about, and working with technology, tools and resources. Working with
Technology
technology can apply to all technology tools and resources. This includes
(ICT)
understanding information technology broadly enough to apply it productively
Fourth Industrial It refers to the current period of technological advancement that at work and in everyday life, being able to recognize when information
is characterised by a fusion of technologies that blurs the lines technology can assist or impede the achievement of a goal and being able
Revolution (4IR)
between the physical, digital and biological spheres.
continually adapt to changes in information technology” (Koehler & Mishra,
2009).
16 61
well-prepared lectures and textbooks. This accessibility ensures that all learners, Virtual reality A technology that creates immersive, computer-generated
regardless of their school's lack of resources, acquire essential scientific knowledge. environments in which users can interact with and experience a
simulated world as if it were real.
2.8.2 Technology-infused teaching strategies
Before delving into strategies and/or approaches that involve the use of technology, it Augmented This is a technology that overlays digital content such as images,
reality sounds or data, onto the real world to enhance users’ perception
is important to examine a model that describes the teacher knowledge needed to teach
of their physical environment.
effectively.
2.8.2.1 The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) model Indigenous Indigenous knowledge refers to the understandings, skills and
In the context of NSTech, it is important to also position teachers’ technological knowledge philosophies developed by local communities after ages of
interaction with their natural surroundings. It often plays a crucial
knowledge and competence within their professional knowledge. In this regard, the
role in disaster risk reduction and environmental solutions.
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) model was developed by
Koehler and Mishra (2009) in an attempt to summarise the knowledge teachers require
to integrate technology into their teaching. Figure 1.1 below illustrates the complex,
multi-faceted and situated nature of teacher knowledge. 2.3 LEARNING THEORIES IN GENERIC TERMS
Learning theories play an important role in planning and teaching since they offer a
framework for understanding how students learn and how to best facilitate that
learning. Learning theories provide insights into how students process information,
how they acquire new knowledge and skills, and how their experiences shape their
learning.
By understanding learning theories, educators can make informed decisions about the
design and delivery of instruction. For example, a teacher who understands the
principles of constructivism might design a lesson that allows students to explore a
concept through hands-on activities and collaboration with their peers, rather than
simply lecturing on the topic. Similarly, a teacher who understands the importance of
feedback in the learning process might incorporate opportunities for formative
assessment throughout a lesson or unit to help students monitor their progress and
identify areas in which they need additional support.
Learning theories also inform the selection of instructional strategies, materials and
assessment methods. For example, a teacher who understands the principles of
Figure 2.1: The TPACK model (Koehler & Mishra, 2009)
behaviourism might use a system of rewards and consequences to encourage positive
At the heart of the TPACK framework is the complex interplay of three primary forms
behaviours and discourage negative ones, whereas a teacher who understands the
of knowledge: Content (CK), Pedagogy (PK), and Technology (TK). The TPACK
principles of cognitive load theory might use visual aids or other instructional materials
approach does not see the three knowledge bases in isolation and emphasises the
to help students manage the amount of information they need to process. Below we
60 17
will discuss some of the learning theories that can help teachers plan and teach experimentation and real-world application, which are crucial for developing practical
NSTech lessons. skills in NSTech (Laws et al, 2015). Although traditional teaching methods have their
place in education, more interactive and learner-centred approaches can enhance the
2.3.1 Behaviourism
overall effectiveness of teaching NSTech.
Behaviourism assumes that a learner is essentially passive and shaped by either
positive or negative reinforcement. Learning is, therefore, defined as a change in Traditional teaching approaches in NSTech offer several notable advantages that
behaviour. Skinner (1974) believes that behaviour is a function of its consequences, contribute to their continued use in many educational settings. One of their primary
strengths is the efficient delivery of large amounts of information. In a lecture-based
that is, learners will repeat the desired behaviour if positive reinforcement is given. The
behaviour should not be repeated if negative feedback is given. Your immediate format, teachers can cover a substantial amount of content in a relatively short time,
feedback, whether positive or negative, should enable your learners to behave in a thereby ensuring that all learners receive the same foundational knowledge.
certain way. Positive reinforcement or rewards can include verbal feedback such as Traditional teaching is particularly effective in introducing complex scientific theories
and concepts and providing a structured and clear explanation that can serve as a
That’s great, you’ve produced that document without any errors or You’re certainly
getting on well with that task, through to more tangible rewards such as a certificate at base for further study (Goodwin & Miller, 2012).
the end of the grade. Another advantage is the systematic coverage of the required curriculum. Traditional
teaching methods are often aligned with standardised educational frameworks and
2.3.2 Cognitivism
textbooks, which ensures that all necessary topics are addressed consistently across
Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive
different classes and schools. Standardisation prepares learners for standardised tests
development. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development,
and assessments as it ensures that they have been exposed to all the material that
detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but
may be tested.
ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities. Cognitivism focuses on what
happens in the mind such as thinking and problem-solving. New knowledge is built Traditional approaches also offer predictability and consistency in the classroom.
upon prior knowledge and learners need to participate in order to learn. Changes in Teachers can plan their lessons in advance, and learners can anticipate the format of
behaviour are viewed as an indication of what is taking place in a learner’s mind. instruction, which can create a stable learning environment. This consistency can be
Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as a computer: as incoming information is particularly beneficial for learners who thrive in structured settings and need clear
processed, learning takes place. guidelines and expectations to succeed.
2.3.3 Constructivism Moreover, traditional lecture-based instruction allows teachers to maintain control over
the classroom and the pacing of the lesson. This can be particularly useful when
Constructivism views learning as an active, contextualised process of constructing
managing large groups of learners or when dealing with complex topics that require
knowledge rather than acquiring it. Because each learner brings his or her past
careful explanation. Teachers can ensure that all learners are keeping up with the
experiences and cultural factors to a current situation, each has a different
material and can address misunderstandings immediately as they arise.
interpretation and understanding of the information they encounter. Constructivism
sees the learner as an active participant in the learning process, not simply a passive Finally, traditional methods can be advantageous in resource-limited settings. Schools
recipient of information. Learners are encouraged to engage in activities that promote with limited access to advanced technological tools, laboratory equipment or other
exploration, experimentation and problem-solving to construct their own understanding interactive learning resources can still deliver comprehensive S&T education through
of the world. Constructivism also emphasises the importance of context in learning.
18 59
Safety is paramount in the laboratory, especially during practical experiments, to Because learners construct knowledge within a particular context, context shapes their
prevent accidents and ensure a safe environment for all. The following are some of understanding and interpretation of information. Cultural factors such as values, beliefs
the major lab rules: and customs, also influence the way learners construct knowledge.
Because each learner brings their own unique experiences and perspectives to the
1. Wear the proper protective gear: Always wear lab coats, safety goggles and
learning process, constructivists believe that there is no right way to teach or learn,
gloves to protect yourself against chemical spills and accidents.
and that learners should be encouraged to explore and construct their own
2. Keep the lab organised: Ensure that all equipment and materials are in their
understanding of the world by adopting a variety of strategies and approaches.
designated places and keep workspaces clean to prevent hazards.
3. Handle chemicals with care: Follow all safety procedures when chemicals are Vygotsky’s (1978) theory lays the foundation of constructivism. Constructivism has
handled, including proper labelling, storage and disposal. three themes:
4. No eating or drinking in the lab: To avoid contamination and accidental
• Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive
ingestion of hazardous substances, food and drinks are strictly prohibited.
development. Vygotsky (1978) believes that social learning precedes
5. Know emergency procedures: Familiarise yourself with the location of safety
development: every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice:
equipment such as fire extinguishers, eyewash stations and first-aid kits.
first, on the social level and, later, on the individual level; first, between people
Second, understand the protocols for handling accidents or spills.
(inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-psychological).
2.8 APPROACHES FOR TEACHING NATURAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY • The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a
Owing to a variety of factors, each teacher teaches Science and Technology in a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner with respect to a
different way. These factors include the nature of the topic of interest and its particular task, process or concept. Although the MKO is normally a teacher or
teachability, teachers’ beliefs about teaching the topic, as well as contextual factors an older adult, it could also be a peer, a younger person or even the internet.
such as the availability of facilities.
• The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a
2.8.1 Traditional teaching approaches learner’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer
Traditional teaching approaches often rely on lecture-based instruction, which involves collaboration and their ability to solve the problem independently. According to
that a teacher explains the content and learners passively receive it. This method Vygotsky, learning occurs in this zone. It describes what the learner can do,
prioritises rote memorisation and the transmission of factual knowledge, often by way what the learner can do with help from others and what the learner can’t do yet,
of textbooks and structured curriculum guides. Although traditional approaches have but will attempt to do.
been the cornerstone of education for decades, they are severely criticised for not
2.3.4 Experiential learning
fostering critical thinking, creativity or practical problem-solving skills (Freeman et al,
Experiential learning is about learners experiencing things for themselves and learning
2014; Prince & Felder, 2019). In addition, they tend to promote passive learning. As a
from them. Kolb (1984) proposes a four-stage model known as the experiential
result, learners do not fully engage with the material nor do they develop a thorough
learning cycle. It is a way by which people understand their experiences and, as a
understanding of the concepts they are taught. Research indicates that active learning
result, modify their behaviour. It is based on the idea that the more often a learner
strategies, which involve learner participation and engagement, are more effective in
reflects on a task, the more often they can modify and refine their efforts. The process
improving comprehension and the retention of scientific concepts (Freeman et al,
of learning can begin at any stage and is continuous, in other words, there is no limit
2014). Furthermore, traditional methods often fail to provide opportunities for handson
58 19
to the number of learning cycles that can be made in a learning situation. This theory
• Topic, grade/level, date, name of the school or teacher, lesson
suggests that, without reflection, people would continue to repeat their mistakes.
duration
Concrete experience is about experiencing or immersing oneself in a task. It is the first
stage in which a person simply carries out a task assigned to them, it is the doing • Lesson objective/s
stage.
• Tasks and activities (for both the teacher and learners)
Observation and reflection involve stepping back from the task and reviewing what has
been done and experienced. One’s values, attitudes and beliefs can influence one’s • Resources/materials/equipment
thinking at this stage. This is the stage of thinking about what one has done.
• References
Abstract conceptualisation involves interpreting the actions that have been carried out
and making sense of them. This is the stage of planning how one will do things • Take-home tasks
differently.
Active experimentation enables one to take the new learning and predict what is likely
In some instances, NSTech teachers would find themselves planning for a hands-on
to happen next or what actions should be taken to refine the way in which the task is
lesson. Then the issue of safety needs to be taken into consideration. No practical
done again. This is the redoing stage based upon experience and reflection.
lesson should require learners to use an alternating current (AC) electrical mains
2.3.5 Humanism supply. Design suitable safety rules and have each learner (or, if the learner is a minor,
Humanism is an approach that believes learning is a personal act to fulfil one’s the learner’s parent or legal guardian) sign to acknowledge his or her understanding
potential. Humanists believe that it is necessary to study a person, particularly as they of those rules. This is to protect you against mischievous activity on the part of a learner
grow and develop over time. Rogers (1983) and others developed the theory of that may have serious or even fatal consequences.
facilitative learning, which is based on the belief that people have a natural eagerness Safety is of great importance in the workroom and it should be ensured during practical
to learn and that learning involves changing one’s own concept of oneself. This theory work to minimise or prevent accidents. Good housekeeping should be the order of day
suggests that learning will take place if the person delivering it acts as a facilitator. The in the workroom. The term “good housekeeping” means that there is a place for
facilitator should establish an atmosphere in which his or her learners feel comfortable, everything and everything must be in its place. Floors, steps, stairs and passages must
are able to discuss new ideas and learn from their mistakes as long as they are not be kept free of things that could cause a person to slip or fall. The workroom should
threatened by external factors. be organised to promote safe work ethics. Mapotse (2002:76) suggests that, in
2.3.6 Pragmatism organising the workroom, the following should be considered:
John Dewey (1859–1952) believes that formal schooling is falling short of its potential. • Tables or workbenches must be arranged in neat rows.
• Each learner must work at the table assigned to him/her or to the group of which
He champions the facilitation of learning through various activities instead of the
he/she is part.
traditional teacher-focused method. Dewey believes that learners learn more from
• Each learner must have his/her own materials and workbooks.
guided experiences than from authoritarian instruction. He subscribes to a pragmatist
• Each learner must tidy his/her own workplace at the end of each lesson.
theory, which places the learner – not the teacher – at the centre. Dewey further argues
that learning is life, not preparation for life. Different delivery approaches combined
20 57
a particular context (Sapkota & Hayes, 2024). In South Africa, teachers are provided with practical activities should accommodate the different learning preferences of the
with annual teaching plans (ATPs), which are documents handed out by the individuals you teach.
Department of Basic Education (DBE) containing guidelines on implementation and
2.3.7 Sensory theory
the minimum core content and skills to be taught. The ATPs are a detailed version of
Laird (1985) suggests that learning occurs when the five senses (sight, hearing, touch,
the curriculum statement in the sense that they outline the prior knowledge learners
smell and taste) are stimulated. Stimulation of learners’ senses is easy if you teach a
need to understand the current or next learning unit. Despite the availability of the
practical session but difficult if you teach a theoretical subject. But if you are willing to
ATPs, teachers are still expected to plan their lessons according to the contexts in
try something different, you can make your sessions interesting and memorable.
which they work. This is particularly important if a teacher has to consider the
Whenever possible, link theory to practice and use practical activities based on the
availability of materials, the cognitive levels of his or her learners and other
subject and the areas of interest of your learners. If you can make your session fun
contextspecific aspects.
and interesting by involving all the senses, your learners will remember the content
The Department of Education stresses that the planning process should be an ongoing
better. Don’t forget to use two other useful senses: your sense of humour and your
cycle and that planning is a critical part of managing the curriculum and an extremely
common sense.
important task for an NSTech teacher. Teacher activities in a classroom should cover
Discussion Forum 2.1
the aspects that undergird the NSTech lesson plan presentation. They include learning
styles; school policies; teaching methods; expanded opportunities; and conceptual Objective: Evaluate the role of learning theories in a Natural Science and Technology
links with previous plans. lesson.
The NSTech department at each school needs to discuss the factors highlighted by Instructions:
the DoBE as part of their annual strategy plan and official curriculum documents. It
1. Step 1: Read up on the learning theories in your notes.
should be in line with available human resources and materials, and with possible
excursions to technology sites. The planning activity for the Technology class, 2. Compose Your Post: Prepare a forum post by doing the following:
workshop or laboratory culminates in assessment. The teacher-learner ratio plays a
• Compare and contrast any two theories explained here.
vital role in executing technological tasks and affects the core business of Technology
• Describe ways in which you think NSTech can be taught effectively.
classroom management, i.e., assessment.
• Choose a theory and explain how it aligns with your views of teaching
As we have explained, in the past, the teacher was considered to be the sole source
Natural Science and Technology.
of knowledge. Nowadays the orientation is different. The participative approach –
based on problem-solving and critical thinking on the part of learners – turns a teacher • No one theory about learning applies to all children. How will you cater
into a mediator of learning rather than a source of knowledge. for the diverse learner population in your class?
A lesson consists of different stages: the introduction, the lesson development and 3. Post in the Forum: Post your response by clicking “Reply” in the forum.
presentation, and the conclusion. It is important to know exactly what you are going to 4. Engage with Peers: After you have posted your response, read through your
do in each stage and to prepare thoroughly. classmates' posts. Respond to at least two of them by sharing your thoughts,
Table 4.1: Lesson Plan Example asking questions or offering a different perspective. Remember to be respectful
Lesson plan content and constructive in your responses.
56 21
2.4 BEING A NATURAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TEACHER 1. Step 1: Read the following case study carefully.
2.4.1 The role of an NSTech teacher Mrs Selato teaches Physical Sciences at a school in a disadvantaged township.
The previous year, only 18 of her 52 matric learners scored above 40% in
NSTech teachers are responsible for teaching students about scientific concepts and
Physical Sciences. She attributes their poor performance to a lack of motivation
principles, as well as technological skills. It is, therefore, necessary that teachers be
and believes that practical work could engage learners. Thanks to an NGO’s
knowledgeable in areas such as biology, physics, chemistry, and technology.
recent donation of equipment and chemicals, she planned a hands-on Grade
According to the CAPS document for NSTech, careful selection of content and a variety
10 lesson on the electrical conductivity of salt solutions. Hoping to foster
of ways of teaching and learning Science and Technology should promote learners’
investigative learning as recommended in the CAPS curriculum, she arranged
understanding of:
the classroom for group work, distributed the apparatuses, and instructed
• Science and Technology as activities that sustain enjoyment and curiosity about learners to plan before they conduct their experiments.
the world and natural phenomena
Her learners bypassed the planning step and immediately began to prepare the
• the history of science and the relationship between Natural Sciences and salt solutions. When their experiments failed, they asked Mrs Selato for help.
Technology and other subjects
She refused and insisted that they work it out for themselves. The ensuing
• the different cultural contexts in which indigenous knowledge systems were
commotion attracted the attention of the school principal who reprimanded her
developed
for the noise and emphasised the urgency of exam preparation. Embarrassed,
• the contribution of Science and Technology to social justice and societal
Mrs Selato abruptly ended the practical session and reverted to the traditional
development
teaching approach, which was to explain the concept while standing in front of
• the responsible use of scientific and technological knowledge in our own
the class. This incident highlights the challenges of transitioning to
interest and in the interest of society and the environment
learnercentred methods in a resource-limited and exam-focused context.
• the practical and ethical consequences of decisions based on Science and
2. Compose Your Post: Prepare a forum post in which you discuss the
Technology. Natural Sciences and Technology lay the foundation for further
challenges Mrs Selato faced, as well as some solutions that could assist her
studies in Science and Technology. It prepares learners for active participation
going forward.
in a democratic society that values human rights and promotes responsibility
3. Post in the Forum: Post your response by clicking “Reply” in the forum.
towards the environment. Natural Sciences and Technology can also prepare
learners for economic activity and self-expression. 4. Engage with Peers: After you have posted your answer, read through your
classmates' posts. Respond to at least two of them by sharing your thoughts,
2.4.2 Challenges facing NSTech teachers
asking questions, or offering a different perspective. Remember to be respectful
Teaching Natural Science and Technology in the 21st century can be challenging. Let’s
and constructive in your responses.
look at some of the challenges teachers face today.
2.7 LESSON PLANNING IN NSTECH
First, the range of learners we teach is vast since each learner is unique in terms of
The importance of lesson planning in teaching and learning cannot be overstated.
the way they process and understand science and technology concepts. This calls
Lesson planning refers to all the decisions related to teaching and learning prior to
upon teachers of science and technology to act as mediators of learning. In the past,
implementing a lesson, which comprises a teacher's interactions with the content,
the teacher was considered to be the only source of knowledge, but nowadays the
including what to teach, how to structure the content, and how well the content fits in
orientation is different. The participative approach – based on problem-solving and
22 55
informal assessments to help guide instruction. It also involves getting to know learners critical thinking on the part of the learner – is what makes a teacher a mediator of
beyond an instructional level. A teacher must have an idea of their interests, recognise learning rather than a source of knowledge.
changes in their mood and make sure that they are mentally and emotionally focused Another challenge is related to the emerging information and communication
on learning. technologies in education. New technologies have changed the way learners engage
Communication skills with content. According to researchers, some of these challenges can be attributed to
the technologies themselves whereas others are systemic. Both electronic and digital
As communicators, teachers must form relationships with learners and their families
media and the text of popular culture, as well as a print-rich environment, are part of
that facilitate the gathering and sharing of essential information for effective teaching
many learners’ social worlds (Yu, 2022). Some other challenges include:
and learning. Teachers must explore their learners’ perspectives, including their fears,
their views of the content and their understanding. They must integrate this knowledge Challenge 1: professional development. Key among all challenges is the lack of
with an understanding of the learner’s context. Central to a learner-centred approach adequate, ongoing, professional teacher development. Teachers are required to
is shared decision-making, in other words, finding common ground with the learner in integrate new technologies into their classrooms but are not familiar with them.
developing a plan to address his or her learning needs and goals in a manner that Challenge 2: resistance to change. Resistance to technology comes in many forms.
reflects the learner’s needs, values and preferences. One of the key resistance challenges identified in research is comfort with the status
Collaboration quo. According to researchers, teachers and school leaders often believe that
technological experimentation is not part of their job description.
A competent teacher must collaborate with other teachers and school staff. Teachers
Challenge 3: delivering informal learning. Rigid lecture-and-test models of learning
can learn from one another and grow into better teachers through collaboration. They
fail to challenge students to experiment and engage in informal learning. According to
can also collaborate to make the school a safe, effective learning environment for all
research, opportunities for informal learning can be found in non-traditional classroom
learners and to improve the overall image of the school and the instruction that takes
models such as flipped classrooms, which allow for a blend of formal and informal
place there.
learning.
Professionalism
Challenge 4: failures of personalised learning. There is a gap between the vision
As professionals, teachers are committed to the learning and well-being of individual of delivering personalised, differentiated instruction and the technologies available to
learners and society through their ethical practice, high standards of behaviour, and make this possible. Although teachers realise the need for personalised learning, they
their accountability to the profession and society. lack the tools to accomplish it or adequate tools simply do not exist.
Because their professionalism reflects society’s expectations of teachers, they have to Challenge 5: failure to assess effectively. Assessment is an important driver of
maintain a professional appearance at all times. This includes dressing appropriately educational practice and change. In the last few years we have seen a welcome rise
and acting professionally. Foul language, gossip about fellow teachers and learners or in the use of formative assessment in educational practice. However, there is still an
inappropriate dress can cause learners to lose respect for a teacher. assessment gap in how changes in curricula and new skill demands are implemented
Discussion Forum 2.3 because schools do not always adjust their assessment practices as a consequence
Objective: Evaluate the use of inquiry-based science education in some South African of these changes. Digital media tools such as webcams, allow non-disruptive peer
schools. observation and give teachers timely feedback.
Instructions:
54 23
In addition to the above challenges, all learners bring their own understandings of the prejudices and feelings and treat all learners with respect, provide them with equal
world to class, i.e., their prior knowledge. This shared knowledge is acquired through opportunities for learning and make them feel confident.
learners’ interaction not only with books, television, movies, DVDs, and digital
Knowledge of the school and learning environment
technologies, but also with other members of society. For instance, learners’ prior
knowledge could be that, except for some valleys and mountains, earth is flat. It would The teacher’s knowledge of his/her learners and school environment is crucial for
be difficult for such learners to imagine the earth as a sphere. These impressions from creating a safe, high-quality learning environment. Teachers must set high
learners’ initial conception of science establish their prior knowledge and perspective expectations for learner performance and behaviour. Rules must be enforced
of science. consistently and fairly. Learners should not have to worry about being bullied in the
classroom and should feel comfortable when they ask or answer a question.
As teachers of science, we need to understand how learners’ reactions to learning in
science are influenced by their own misconceptions, prior knowledge and personal Lesson planning
interests. We need to understand who they are at home to understand who they are All teachers must be capable of designing lesson plans to meet learners’ needs and
at school. cover the learning outcomes. This requires knowing how to choose and create
Discussion Forum 2.2 instructional materials to accommodate learners at different levels. It also requires
creating a scope and sequence that provides learners with enough time to master the
Objective: Evaluate likely challenges in an NSTech lesson and suggest strategies to
content.
address them.
Instructions: Instructional practice
1. Step 1: Think of challenges that you believe NSTech teachers face when they Best practices and other appropriate teaching strategies allow competent teachers to
teach the subject. teach the curriculum effectively. Competent teachers may adopt a certain lecture
method but they also incorporate a variety of strategies, including non-traditional
2. Compose Your Post: Prepare a forum post in which you discuss the
teaching strategies, to help learners with multiple learning abilities learn and stay
challenges NSTech teachers face when they teach the subject.
engaged. Teachers also need to attend regular professional development sessions to
3. Post in the Forum: Post your response by clicking “Reply” in the forum.
keep abreast of new strategies and best practices.
4. Engage with Peers: After you have posted your response, read your
Assessment
classmates' posts. Respond to at least two of them by sharing your thoughts,
asking questions or offering a different perspective. Remember to be respectful Teachers must design effective assessments. An assessment must accurately
and constructive in your responses. measure what has been taught and what learners have learned. Competent teachers
combine informal and formal assessment techniques to monitor the performance of
2.5 TEACHERS AS MEDIATORS OF LEARNING IN NSTECH
their learners. They also incorporate technology, portfolios and other creative methods
To effectively mediate learning in an NSTech class, it is essential to understand and as assessment tools.
address the diverse needs of your learners. Such a targeted approach allows a teacher
Ability to identify learners’ needs
to create contextually relevant learning environments that inspire students to pursue
technology-related fields at tertiary level. The NSTech teacher's communication during The ability to identify and address learner needs is a crucial component of a teacher's
lessons must acknowledge the multicultural composition of the classroom and respect job. A teacher’s knowledge of his/her learners is gained partly by means of formal and
24 53
recognise patterns that scaffold towards generic conclusions (Frey & Shadle, 2019). learner differences. Killen (2007) maintains that teachers should have a thorough
Inquiry is divided into four types based on the role of the teachers and learners in the understanding of the subject matter and employ strategies and resources that are
learning process. The types of inquiry are confirmation inquiry, structured inquiry, appropriate to the South African educational context.
guided inquiry, and open inquiry. As they mediate learning, teachers should also reflect on the 1961 resolution of the
Confirmation inquiry Addis Ababa Conference of African States on the Development of Education in Africa.
In a confirmation inquiry, the teacher provides learners with all the necessary The 1961 resolution was taken more than six decades ago. It is only now, in the 21st
century, that African scholars are increasingly positioning and contextualising NSTech
information, including the problem or question to be answered and the materials to be
used to arrive at conclusions that are already known. This is typically given at the end within school curricula. The conference urged education authorities across Africa to
of a learning unit after the teacher has explained all the relationships between concepts reform their curricula, textbooks and teaching methods to reflect the African
and variables. The purpose of the inquiry is to confirm what the teacher has explained. environment, African child development, cultural heritage, and the demands of
technological progress and economic development (Singh-Pillay, Alant, & Nwokocha,
Structured inquiry
2017). In today's schools, both Heads of Department (HoDs) and Subject Advisors
Structured inquiry is similar to confirmatory inquiry. The only difference is that the should adopt strategies and monitoring tools that incorporate indigenous knowledge
conclusions are not known to learners but may be known to their teacher. This type of into NSTech content. This approach serves two key purposes: 1) the decolonisation of
inquiry could be used at the start of a learning unit when a teacher would like to let Technology curricula, and 2) the development of educational materials that teach
learners discover patterns for themselves beforehand. The inquiry has to be structured Technology from an African perspective.
so that learners arrive at predetermined conclusions that their teacher can use as a
De Beer (2015) contends that the intellectual heritage of non-Western cultures is often
foundation to explain concepts.
undervalued by the European academic elite. In South Africa, there is currently a
Guided inquiry growing consideration for Afrocentric approaches and the decolonisation of curricula
In guided inquiry, a teacher still provides guidance but it is not as extensive as the (De Villiers, De Beer & Golightly, 2016). The ongoing demand for professional
previous types of inquiry. The difference is that the teacher generates the problem and development programmes for Technology teachers reflects this shift towards a more
presents it to learners. They then have to design a procedure for solving the problem inclusive and culturally responsive educational framework.
or answering the question.
2.5.1 Strategies for Teaching NSTech as a Subject
Open inquiry
No single teaching strategy is effective for all learners in every situation (Killen, 2020).
In open inquiry, learners formulate the problem and question to be answered. There is The complexity of teaching and learning stems from a myriad of factors. NSTech
minimal involvement from the teacher. In addition to formulating the questions, teachers must be aware of them such as students' attitudes, abilities, learning styles,
learners also come up with procedures and steps that lead towards patterns that and the learning context. Moreover, teachers’ beliefs, knowledge and skills significantly
scaffold towards conclusions. shape the educational experience. According to McKenney and Reeves (2019),
2.6.3 Other teacher competences for teaching NSTech teaching today is more complex than ever before. Teaching requires educators to be
not only reflective, adaptable and technologically literate, but also knowledgeable,
Classroom interaction
Teachers must be able to positively interact with all learners, including fast learners, imaginative, resourceful, enthusiastic, and mindful of student diversity and learning
slow learners and learners with special needs. Teachers must put aside their modalities.
52 25
The role of South African teachers has evolved considerably since the pre-democracy Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H. & Krathwohl, D. R. 1956.
era. Back then, they were regarded as the sole source of information and rote learning Handbook I: cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.
was the dominant instructional method. In the current educational context, teachers
Gao, X., Li, P., Shen, J. & Sun, H. 2020. Reviewing assessment of student learning in
are regarded as facilitators of learning fostering environments that promote diverse
interdisciplinary STEM education. International Journal of STEM Education, 7: 1-14.
learning opportunities. Technology teachers can adopt several strategies, including
Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S. & Masia, B. B. 1973. Taxonomy of educational
direct instruction, discussion, small-group work, cooperative learning, problemsolving,
objectives, the classification of educational goals. Handbook II: affective domain. New
and research.
York: David McKay.
Small-group work combined with a community-of-inquiry approach is an effective
strategy for teaching Technology. This strategy involves learners working together in Osborne, J., Simon, S. & Collins, S. 2015. Attitudes towards science: A review of the
groups and driving the learning process independently for a time. The primary literature and its implications. International Journal of Science Education, 25(9):
advantage of this approach is that it can provide more significant learning opportunities 10491079.
than whole-class instruction (Killen, 2020). Group work can be viewed as an adaptation Simpson, E. J. 1966. The classification of educational objectives, psychomotor
of whole-class discussion. As Lipman’s principles of community of inquiry suggest, domain.
group work fosters an environment in which learners respect each other’s ideas, build
Tomažič, I., Hummel, E., Schrenk, M., Rupnik, T. & Randler, C. 2020. Cognitive and
on them, challenge unsupported opinions, assist in drawing inferences, and identify
affective outcomes of teaching about poisonous and venomous animals. Journal of
underlying assumptions (Garrison, 2017).
Biological Education, 54(1): 63-76.
In an NSTech classroom, group work within a community of inquiry can be facilitated
Zhang, X. & Lidbury, B. 2015. Using Reflective Journals to Assess Student Learning
through techniques such as experimentation, experiential learning and self-discovery.
in a First-Year Undergraduate Course. International Journal of Teaching and Learning
For example, students might test the strength of materials by designing a bridge and
in Higher Education, 27(2): 299-305.
assessing their products against a rubric to determine if they meet the intended
purpose, or independently follow the design process from start to finish, organising
materials and completing the product (Moalosi & Molwane, 2017).
2.5.2 Challenges in NSTech Education
A critical aspect of NSTech classes is the diverse range of learners in them. Because
each student has a unique understanding and processing of Technology concepts,
Technology teachers must assume the role of a mediator of learning. Contemporary
education prioritises a participative approach. Learners’ problem-solving and critical
thinking has transformed the teacher into a facilitator of learning. Today’s teacher is no
more the primary knowledge source (Fleming & Leman, 2018).
Another challenge facing NSTech education is the integration of emerging
technologies. These technologies have altered how learners interact with educational
content. Researchers note that while some challenges are systemic, others are related
26 51
 Exams Exam on Makes up to the technologies themselves and that teachers and educational leaders also play a
[60 Minutes] work from 25% of total
50 Marks role (Smith & Brown, 2020).
terms 3 & 4 marks for the
[50 marks] year
Douglas (Evans & Green, 2016) claims that education is a continuous dialogue
Number of Total 8 involving questions and answers that explore problems thoroughly. This principle is
formal
assessments 2 2 2 2 assessments 100% pertinent to NSTech education, which involves both cognitive and practical
[200 marks]
engagement. Effective instruction in NSTech requires an understanding of how
learners respond to the subject in view of their misconceptions, prior knowledge and
The cognitive demands assessments make should be appropriate to the age and personal interests. This awareness enables teachers to foster an environment in which
developmental level of the learners in the grade. Assessments in Natural Sciences and students can fully engage with learning opportunities by following these guidelines:
Technology must cater for a range of cognitive levels and abilities. Table 3.7 shows the
• Initiate a dialogue with learners based on your assumptions about their
cognitive levels prescribed in assessments.
understanding of a specific topic.
Table 3.7: Cognitive levels for the assessment of content in Grades 4, 5 and 6 • Recognise the fact that learners are from diverse backgrounds and
as stated in the CAPS document (DoBE, 2011)
Cognitive Description Percentages Verbs
experiences.
Levels
Low order Knowing Science and Technology 50% State, name, label, list, and others ... • Implement mini-projects or smaller components within larger projects to boost
Middle order Understanding science and technology 35% Explain, describe, compare, plan, leadership and accountability among group members.
rearrange, give an example and
others …
Applying scientific and technological Predict, compare, design, use
• Engage in action research within learning circles, which helps to organise group
knowledge knowledge to demonstrate and others interactions and promote individual ownership of projects.
…
High order Evaluating, analysing, synthesising 15% Evaluate, suggest a reason, interpret
scientific and technological knowledge and others ...
• Clearly define ethical norms and expectations during lessons by using learning
circle outcomes as a foundation for further research projects.
3.10 CONCLUSION Given the scarcity of skills in NSTech, particularly the technology aspect, NSTech
teachers must be involved in collaborative-action research studies to enhance both
This unit has explored the assessment of learning in NSTech. The general principles
pedagogical practices and the teaching of Technology (Johnson & Roberts, 2019).
of assessment, including its purpose, methods and the evaluation of different domains
of knowledge, have been outlined. Building on this foundation, the unit then focused 2.6 NATURAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY TEACHER COMPETENCES
on how assessment is approached within the NSTech curriculum and offered valuable It is crucial for NSTech teachers to have certain competences. Pedagogical content
insights into assessing learners' understanding and skills in both science and knowledge as well as inquiry-based science education will be discussed in this learning
technology. This knowledge equips you with the tools to conduct effective, unit.
curriculumaligned assessments in the NSTech classroom.
2.6.1 Pedagogical content knowledge
The term “pedagogical content knowledge” (PCK) was coined by Shulman (1986) to
3.11 REFERENCES
describe the knowledge for transforming raw content into teachable forms. PCK is a
Arnon, S. & Reichel, N. 2017. Closed and Open-Ended Question Tools in a Telephone knowledge base that distinguishes teachers from subject specialists. It encompasses
Survey about "The Good Teacher". SAGE Open, 7(1). Link not only an understanding of the content of the subject but also an understanding of
50 27
how to best teach it. Some learners complain that their teacher understands the Exams Exam on Makes up
[60 Minutes] work from 25% of total
subject, but is not good at teaching it. In other words, such a teacher may well 40 Marks
terms 3 & 4 marks for the
understand the content, but not the ways to make the subject understandable to
[40 marks] year
learners. In a nutshell, PCK refers to the intersection between content and pedagogy.
Number of Total 8
Other knowledge bases informing teachers’ PCK are discussed below, including their formal
assessments 2 2 2 2 assessments 100%
roles. [160 marks]
GRADE 5
Content knowledge
FORMAL TERM 1 TERM 2 TERM 3 TERM 4 TOTAL TOTAL FOR
Content knowledge (CK) refers to understanding the major facts, concepts and ASSESS- MARKS FOR THE YEAR
MENTS THE YEAR
principles within a field, which is comprised of substantive and syntactic structures of
School-based 1 Test 1 Exam or 1 Test 1 Selected Together
knowledge (Grossman, 1990). Substantive structures refer to the organisation of a assessments
[15 marks] test on work [15 marks] practical 135 Marks make up
discipline and indicates how facts and concepts within it are related (Schwab, 1962). from terms 1 task [15 75% of
Syntactic structures refer to the understanding of the processes of knowledge 1 Selected &2 1 Selected marks] total
practical task [45 marks] practical task
construction; methods of inquiry, evidence that supports facts, as well as the evaluation marks for
[15 the year
of the knowledge by experts (Schwab, 1962). The C in CK stands for content, and
[15 marks] 1 Selected marks]
implies that without a knowledge of the facts and concepts within a subject, you cannot
practical
effectively teach it.
task [15
marks]
Pedagogical knowledge
Exams Exam on Makes up
Although scholars define pedagogical knowledge (PK) in different ways, there is [60 Minutes] work from 45 Marks 25% of total
consensus that classroom management is a key component of it (Shulman, 1987). terms 3 & 4 marks for the
[45 marks] year
Content knowledge has little impact on learning if it is delivered in environments that
Number of Total 8
are not conducive to learning. Therefore, a class must be managed in a way that formal
assessments 2 2 2 2 assessments 100%
creates a positive and constructive learning environment. Other aspects of PK that are [180 marks]
reported in the literature include teaching strategies, the organisation of resources and GRADE 6
materials, and the assessment of learners’ performance. Teachers also need to FORMAL TERM 1 TERM 2 TERM 3 TERM 4 TOTAL TOTAL FOR
ASSESS- MARKS FOR THE YEAR
develop teaching strategies that capture learners’ attention and lead to learning. Based
MENTS THE YEAR
on these descriptions of PK in the literature, it is not surprising that teaching experience School-based 1 Test 1 Exam or 1 Test 1 Selected Together
assessments
is a major source of teachers’ PK. [20 marks] test on work [20 marks] practical 150 Marks make up
1 Selected from terms 1 1 Selected task [15 75% of
Contextual knowledge &2
practical practical marks] total
task [15 [50 marks] task [15
Some scholars view contextual knowledge as a component of PCK. Shulman (2015) marks for
1 Selected
marks] marks] the year
admits that his theorisation of PCK neglects the social and cultural contexts. He practical
regards these contexts as envelopes in which aspects of teaching and learning are task [15
marks]
located. Teachers must have a comprehensive understanding of the learning context,
28 49
school-based assessments and that 25% be from the end-of-year examination. In as well as the contextual factors; not only of those that are distant from their learners,
table 3.5, the curriculum break-down of the assessment for NSTech is shown. but also of those that are closer to them. Several contextual factors are mentioned in
PCK literature, including districts, school settings, resources, class size, learners’
Table 3.5: The generic programme of formal assessment for NSTech as stated
in the CAPS document socio-economic status, curriculum materials, teachers’ workloads, and learners’
FORMAL TERM 1 TERM 2 TERM 3 TERM 4 TOTAL FOR attributes. It is through these contextual factors that the knowledge shared by a
ASSESSMENTS THE YEAR
community of teachers gets personalised into the unique PCK of individual teachers
School-based 1 Test 1 •1 Exam or test 1 Test 1 1 Selected
assessments Selected on work from Selected practical task (Carlson & Daehler, 2019).
practical task terms 1 & 2 1 practical task 75%
Selected
practical task
Knowledge of learners’ understanding
A knowledge of learners’ understanding as a component of PCK is highly regarded.
Exams Exam on work
Teachers need to be aware of learners’ typical misconceptions and difficulties, and to
from terms 3 25%
&4
use their awareness to shape their practice. If teachers acquaint themselves with their
Number of formal 100% learners’ difficulties and misconceptions, they can formulate effective strategies to
assessments
2 2 2 improve their understanding. Furthermore, they use this knowledge to address
unanticipated misconceptions that may arise during teaching. Addressing
The curriculum also explicitly states that grade-appropriate assessment on aspects of unanticipated difficulties develops teachers’ PCK even further.
investigations and technological processes should form part of the selected practical In some instances, teachers transfer some of their own misconceptions to their
tasks in the assessment programme for the year. Furthermore, the document learners during teaching. Furthermore, they may even regard correct concepts as
emphasises that examinations must include questions on both Natural Science and typical misconceptions of learners. A lack of content knowledge also makes it difficult
Technology. Table 3.6 shows how the assessments are structured for grades 4, 5 and to detect misconceptions because teachers seldom ask conceptual questions seeing
6 in the Intermediate Phase. that they themselves do not know the answers to those questions. It is evident that
Table 3.6: Specific formal assessment programme for NSTech as stated in the content knowledge influences teachers’ awareness of their learners’ misconceptions
CAPS document and, ultimately, affects their instructional strategies.
GRADE 4
Instructional strategies and representations
FORMAL TERM 1 TERM 2 TERM 3 TERM 4 TOTAL TOTAL FOR
ASSESS- MARKS FOR THE YEAR Teachers’ knowledge of instructional strategies and representations is shaped by their
MENTS THE YEAR
awareness of their learners’ thinking and understanding. To generate appropriate
School-based 1 Test [15 1 Exam or 1 Test 1 Selected Together
assessments explanations and representations, teachers must, to some extent, know what their
marks] test on work [15 marks] practical task 120 Marks make up
from terms 1 1 Selected [15 marks] 75% of students already know about a topic and what they are likely to find puzzling. In science
1 Selected & 2 [40 practical total education literature, several instructional strategies have been designed based on
practical task marks] task [15 marks for teachers’ awareness of learners’ typical misconceptions, for example, cognitive
[10 marks] marks] the year
1 Selected accommodation and conceptual change text. When they adopt these strategies,
practical task teachers must design an exposing event, which could be questions or a practical
[10 marks]
activity that require learners to apply their knowledge and, consequently, reveal their
48 29
misconceptions. Teachers must then create a discrepant event that induces cognitive Practicability
conflict between learners’ misconceptions following the realisation that their ideas
The operational feasibility and logistical requirements need to be assessed while
cannot explain the observed phenomenon. Finally, teachers can guide learners in their
creating a workstation or laboratory.
search for solutions and subsequently build new knowledge by providing correct
explanations. Preparing a list of logistical requirements
A knowledge of various teaching strategies is an important aspect of PCK since it The logistical requirements for some practical assessment activities should be
enhances teachers’ deployment of PCK when it is combined with the knowledge of identified well in advance. The list of items required and how they will be acquired and
learners’ understanding (Van Driel et al, 1998). Teachers’ ability to select and adopt assembled should be part of the practical assessment activities documents for ready
teaching strategies during teaching is influenced by their knowledge of the content. reference and to avoid any inconvenience during practical assessment activities. The
Teachers who lack content knowledge predominantly use direct instruction by logistical requirements could be:
presenting facts as they are in their teaching materials, as well as procedural teaching • space for conducting the practical assessment activities
and algorithms. Furthermore, some of the representations and analogies that they use • learner waiting area
have the potential to induce misconceptions. • seating and writing arrangements for examiners and the candidate
• specific tools, e.g., a measuring tape, a torch light, writing material, and a timer
Knowledge of the curriculum
bell, depending upon the practical assessment activities
Knowledge of the curriculum refers to teachers’ knowledge of curricular materials for
Discussion Forum 3.3
teaching a topic consisting of vertical and horizontal curricular knowledge. Vertical
knowledge refers to the knowledge that learners have acquired in previous grades, Objective: Design a task that can assess all three domains of learning in an NSTech
along with what they will learn in the next grade levels. Horizontal knowledge refers to context.
teachers’ understanding of the curriculum of different topics in the same grade. It is 1. Step 1: Discuss the design of an activity in an NSTech context to assess all
believed that PCK and curriculum knowledge influence each other. PCK helps three domains of learning at once.
teachers make decisions related to the curriculum, for example, to eliminate
2. Compose Your Post: Now identify the formal and informal assessments used
challenging concepts or include mandatory prerequisite ideas.
by Mr Ndlovu with supporting reasons.
Purposes for teaching a subject
3. Post in the Forum: Post your response by clicking “Reply” in the forum.
The purposes for teaching a subject, which are defined as “orientations towards 4. Engage with Peers: After you have posted your response, read through your
teaching science” by Magnusson et al (1999), describes teachers’ beliefs and goals
classmates' posts. Respond to at least two of them by sharing your thoughts,
about the purpose of teaching a subject. This knowledge base is regarded as a central
asking questions or offering a different perspective. Remember to be respectful
component of PCK because it shapes other knowledge bases. For example, teachers’
and constructive in your responses.
beliefs guides their selection of teaching strategies. Those who believe in discovery,
3.9 ASSESSMENT OF NSTECH IN THE CURRICULUM
inquiry or activity-driven approaches might select practical investigations as a teaching
The CAPS document on NSTech explicitly states that learners should be assessed in
strategy (Magnusson et al, 1999). Thus, a single strategy can be characteristic of a
a variety of ways. It also stipulates that 75% of the learners’ final grades be from
variety of beliefs, which suggests that teachers’ PCK is indicated not by the strategies
30 47
factor and the availability of appropriate space and equipment must also be they adopt, but rather by the purpose(s) of adopting those strategies (Magnusson et
considered. al, 1999).
b) Planning Assessment
Planning is critical. Laboratory and other resources must be available in the required How does one know that teaching and learning has taken place effectively? This
quantities. Checklists must be reviewed before they are printed and their format must component answers this question. It refers to teachers’ knowledge of the concepts that
be compatible with the marking method, which should, ideally, be computerised. are important for assessment, as well as the methods, activities, instruments and
approaches of assessment. Content knowledge plays an important role in this
c) Steps in designing practical assessment activities
component as indicated earlier. A lack of content knowledge makes it difficult for
The process for designing practical assessment activities is described below. teachers to engage in assessment because they ask lower-order questions that they
Deciding on the purpose can easily answer. When teachers lack a knowledge of the concepts they teach, it is
difficult for them to ascertain whether learning has taken place or not.
The first step in constructing a practical assessment activity or any other test for that
2.6.2 Inquiry-based science teaching
matter, is to decide on its purpose. Ideally, this purpose will be known even before you
decide to use a practical assessment activity rather than some other format such as Inquiry-based learning is a collection of pedagogical practices of learning driven by a
multiple-choice questions or workplace-based assessment. stimulating question. This approach is inductive in nature and learners are expected
to make use of data or any other available source of information to make observations
Identifying the content area
and
Each content area needs to be analysed for what must be assessed in it. What is
important and relevant? Which topics are useful for assessing the learning outcomes? LEARNING UNIT 3: ASSESSMENT IN NATURAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
Content areas are mapped to various competencies to be assessed, as stated in the
curriculum. While conceptualising the practical assessment activities, the following 3.1 OVERVIEW
points need consideration: This unit will focus on the assessment of learning in Natural Science and Technology.
Relevance It will start by describing assessment in generic terms and focusing on the purpose of
assessment, methods of assessment, as well as the assessment of various domains
The problem should be:
of knowledge. Following that, the assessment of NSTech, as described in the South
• relevant African curriculum, will be examined.
• useful to measure the learning outcomes 3.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES
• critical for assessment of skills required to become a professional, for instance,
After you have completed this unit, you should be able to:
a doctor, plumber, carpenter, mechanic, or nurse.
• evaluate appropriate assessment types for various NSTech learning objectives
Objectivity and standardisation
• justify the purposes of assessment to inform and improve instructional practices
The problem should be clear and devoid of any ambiguity. The objective of assessment • develop assessment guidelines for evaluating practical tasks and projects and
as well as its content should be standardised by validation and evidence sourced to providing constructive feedback
standard texts and the literature.
46 31
 • apply assessment guidelines for evaluating practical tasks and projects and or other similar instruments can be used to systematically measure students’ attitudes
providing constructive feedback towards science (Osborne, Simon & Collins, 2015).
• design assessments that accurately measure knowledge and skills and reflect
Reflective journals in which students regularly write about their learning experiences
real-world applications
and feelings towards the subject are another effective method of assessing the
• implement assessments that accurately measure knowledge and skills and
affective domain. This practice encourages self-reflection and provides teachers with
reflect real-world applications
insights into students' personal connections to the material (Zhang & Lidbury, 2015).
KEY CONCEPTS Additionally, student-teacher conferences allow for personalised feedback and a
Assessment deeper understanding of student perspectives. These assessments help teachers to
The process of gathering, analysing and interpreting evidence to
measure learners' understanding, skills and abilities. It serves identify areas in which students may have negative attitudes or misconceptions and
various purposes such as informing instruction, providing feedback, tailor their instructional strategies to foster a more positive and supportive learning
and evaluating progress.
environment (Arnon & Reichel, 2009).
3.3.5.3 Skills – the psychomotor domain
Formative Ongoing assessment to monitor learners' progress and provide
assessment feedback to improve learning during instruction. Skill-based assessments are designed to measure the knowledge, skills and judgment
required for competency in a given domain. Although the assessment of practical skills
Summative Evaluation conducted at the end of a unit or course to measure
has formed a key part of science education for hundreds of years, the basic
assessment learners' overall achievement and understanding.
requirements for reliability and validity have not always been achieved in traditional
“long-case” and “short-case” assessments.
Baseline Initial assessment to determine learners' prior knowledge and skills
assessment before instruction starts. Skills-based assessments have to contend with case specificity, which is the variance
in performance that occurs over different cases or problems. Case specificity means
Diagnostic Assessment to identify learners' strengths, weaknesses and learning
assessment gaps, and often to inform future instruction. that excellent performance in one practical activity does not reliably predict sterling
performance in another practical activity. For a reliable measure of practical skills,
performance has to be sampled across a range of practical problems. Below is a
3.3 WHAT IS ASSESSMENT?
guideline for how to design skill-based assessment.
Assessment is a continuous, planned process of identifying, gathering, interpreting,
and diagnosing information about the performance of learners. All forms of a) Design
assessment involve generating and collecting evidence of achievement, evaluating The design of a practical assessment is usually the result of a compromise between
this evidence and using it to understand and assist the learner’s development and the the assessment objectives and logistical constraints. Nonetheless, the content should
teaching process. always be linked to the curriculum as this link is essential for content validity. Several
Assessment should be both informal and formal. In both cases, regular feedback short activities should generate scores that are sufficiently reliable for making passfail
should be provided to enhance the learning experience. Most importantly, assessment decisions within a reasonable testing time. Fewer but longer activities maximise the
should be mapped out against the content (concepts and skills) and specific aims for assessment of student learning relative to the selected practical tasks, especially when
Natural Sciences and Technology. students receive feedback on their performance. The number of students, the time
32 45
data, making them ideal for higher-level cognitive objectives. Constructing essay items Informal assessment involves a daily monitoring of learners’ progress. It can be done
is relatively easy when they are based on a table of specifications that ensure their through observation; discussion; practical demonstrations; informal classroom
relevance and focus. They emphasise essential communication skills, particularly in interactions; classwork; investigations; and so on. Informal assessment may be as
written communication, which is valuable in complex academic disciplines. Finally, simple as stopping during a lesson to observe learners or to enquire about the
essay items eliminate guessing because learners must provide valid answers based progress of their learning. Informal assessment should also be used to provide
on the correct lines of argument. feedback and inform planning for teaching.
Essays also have their disadvantages. Scoring essay items can be tedious and Formal assessment is a systematic way of evaluating how well learners are
subjective in, for example, the application of assessment rubrics to grade learners’ progressing in a particular grade and subject. All formal assessments are marked and
responses. Subjectivity leads to unreliable scores because of low inter-rater and recorded by the teacher for progression purposes. In Natural Sciences and
intrarater reliability. Essay items also offer a limited sample of instructional content as Technology, formal assessment tasks entail tests, examinations and practical tasks,
fewer questions can be completed in the same amount of time compared to objective which may include projects.
items.
Discussion Forum 3.1
Furthermore, learners might bluff by writing long essays with a low content quality to
Objective: Propose suitable assessments for various teaching and learning scenarios.
get higher grades.
9. Step 1: Read the following scenario and decide which type of assessment is
3.3.5.2 Attitudes – the affective domain formal and which is informal.
The affective domain of science and NSTech is seldom assessed by teachers. Mostly
Mr Ndlovu, a Natural Science and Technology teacher, engages his learners by
researchers focusing on learners’ attitudes, interests, values, and emotional
asking questions as he teaches. He asks, for example: "What materials make
responses for various research purposes assess the affective domain. For example,
up the Earth's mantle?" and "How does the outer core differ from the inner
Gao et al (2019) studied learners’ interest, engagement, attitude, and motivation for
core?" This allows him to gauge his students’ understanding in real time and
STEM contents and practices and career aspiration for STEM professions. Tomazic et
provide immediate feedback without the pressure of a formal test. Later in the
al (2020) conducted a similar study on learners’ affective domain on venomous snakes.
week, he administers a unit test on the layers of the Earth. The test includes
Some of these studies are reported on in the literature. What would the assessment of
multiple-choice questions, short-answer questions, and a labelling section that
the affective domain look like within the confines of a school?
requires students to identify and describe Earth’s crust, mantle, outer core, and
Assessing the affective domain in a school context would still involve evaluating inner core.
learners' attitudes, interests, values, and emotional responses towards their learning 10. Compose your Post: Now identify the formal and informal assessments used
experiences. This type of assessment can be through various methods such as
by Mr Ndlovu with supporting reasons.
observation, self-report surveys, reflective journals, and student-teacher conferences.
11. Post in the Forum: Post your response by clicking “Reply” in the forum.
Teachers can observe learners’ behaviour during class activities to gauge their
engagement and enthusiasm. Learners’ participation in discussions, their willingness 12. Engage with Peers: After you have posted your answers, read through your
to ask questions and their collaborative efforts in group tasks can provide valuable classmates' posts. Respond to at least two of them by sharing your thoughts,
indicators of their attitudes and interests. Tools such as the Science Attitude Inventory asking questions, or offering a different perspective. Remember to be respectful
and constructive in your responses.
44 33
3.4 PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT offers a great middle ground: the chance to measure a student’s brief composition of
In general, assessment in education is multifaceted and serves the following purposes: facts, concepts and attitudes in a paragraph or less. The student is expected to provide
a word, phrase or a numeral in response to a question. Such a question may also
• measuring learner progress over time, which can help them to improve
request the examinee to draw and label a diagram. Its make-up is the same as that of
continuously
well-stated multiple-choice items, but without the alternatives. SAQs require the
• identifying learners with barriers to learning so that they can be informed in a examinee to supply rather than select the answer.
timely fashion and helped
Short-answer questions have several merits and demerits. Merits include their ease of
• determining each learner’s mastery of essential knowledge, skills and attitudes construction compared to that of multiple-choice questions (MCQs). Because they are
to decide whether he/she is to progress to the next stage of education or not more specific than essays, they are also more reliable. SAQs are quick to answer and
• ranking learners according to their results a wide range of topics can be tested in a short period. They can be graded quickly and
provide several separate, storable responses per page or unit of testing time.
• motivating learners to study and encouraging them to do their best
• evaluating the educational programme on the understanding that unsatisfactory Additionally, SAQs are less prone to guessing than MCQs and a checklist for
results from a considerable proportion of learners might indicate ineffectiveness responses can be constructed to ensure inter-marker reliability and objectivity. On the
of the teaching and learning process other hand, SAQs have some demerits. They can test factual knowledge but not its
application. They do not cover as much of the syllabus as MCQs and take longer to
3.5 ASSESSMENT METHODS IN NATURAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
prepare because possible ambiguous responses must be avoided.
There are many ways and stages of assessment. In this section, we will reflect on
formative and summative assessment. Formative assessment is assessment for Essay type questions
learning (to improve learning) whereas summative assessment is assessment of Essays are ideal for assessing how well students can summarise, hypothesise, find
learning (to confirm if learning has taken place). relations, and apply known procedures to new situations. They can also give insight
3.5.1 Formative assessment into learners’ writing ability and their ability to process information. Since answering
Formative assessments are conducted during the learning process to monitor learners’ essay type questions is time consuming, their reliability is, unfortunately, limited.
progress and provide ongoing feedback. This type of assessment takes many forms, Scoring them is also time consuming. When essay questions are set, the criteria
ranging from administering a baseline assessment to new learners to identify according to which the answers will be judged must be defined. A common pitfall is to
knowledge gaps and asking questions while teaching to check if learners follow, to “over-structure” these criteria in the pursuit of objectivity, which often leads to
giving them homework. The idea is to determine what learners need because their trivialising questions. Even though a structure and criteria are necessary, too detailed
needs inform the presentation of the rest of the lesson. Some additional information a structure results in unreliability and a considerable loss of validity. Because essays
about formative assessment is given below. involve such high costs, they should be used sparingly and only if short-answer,
openended questions or multiple-choice questions would be inappropriate.
• It helps both teachers and learners to review the progress that has been made
to achieve the desired learning. Essay items in assessments have significant advantages and disadvantages. They are
• Formative assessment helps the teacher decide on ways to approach particularly effective in evaluating complex learning outcomes and high-level cognitive
enrichment or remedial learning in areas that require support and further skills. Some other advantages of essays are as follows. They excel in assessing
practice. learners' ability to organise information, solve problems, and analyse and evaluate
34 43
not hint at the answer of another (avoid "cueing"). Items should relate to instructional • It is usually conducted before or during learning.
objectives, test at the same learning level as the objectives, and reflect different levels • Formative assessment allows the teacher to provide feedback.
of learning. Each item should focus on a single construct and provide a complete • It is usually informal.
statement with only relevant information. Although the item stem must be concise, it • Formative assessment can be administered multiple times during a unit, course
must contain as much of the question as possible. Since the focus is on asking for the or an academic programme.
correct answer, certain terms must be avoided. They include negative terms such as • It provides teachers with real-time feedback about what students are learning
"wrong" answers; absolute terms such as "always", "never", "all" or "none"; and or not learning so that instructional approaches, teaching materials and
imprecise terms such as "seldom", "rarely", "occasionally", "sometimes", "few", or academic support can be modified accordingly.
"many". Cues like "may", "could" or "can" should also be avoided. • Formative assessment is usually not graded.
• It may take a variety of forms, including quizzes, assignments, informal
Eponyms, acronyms or abbreviations must be defined. The options must be
questioning techniques, and discussions with students.
grammatically consistent with the stem, and incorrect options (distractors) should be
• Formative assessment also includes baseline and diagnostic assessment,
plausible but clearly incorrect. Options should be of the same type, in other words,
which also serve the purpose of informing teaching and ultimately learning.
they must all be diagnoses, tests, or treatments. Distractors should be similar to the
correct answer in terms of grammar and length. Lastly, avoid using "none of the above" Baseline assessment
or "all of the above" as an option.
Baseline assessment is done at the beginning of learning to determine what learners
Open-ended questions requiring short answers know before new knowledge is learnt. It is done to later determine whether or not
learning has taken place by comparing the results of baseline assessment with those
Although open-ended questions are flexible in that they test issues that require, for
obtained during or at the end of learning. Baseline assessment is also used to
example, creativity and spontaneity, they are less reliable. Because answering
determine prior knowledge. Prior knowledge refers to what a learner already knows
openended questions is much more time consuming than answering multiple-choice
about a topic in which he or she is going to receive further instruction. It may include
questions, they are less suitable for broad sampling. They are also time consuming to
misconceptions, which are incorrect conceptions about a topic.
produce and to score. When you set open-ended questions, it is important to describe
clearly how detailed the answer should be without giving away the answer. A good Diagnostic assessment
open-ended question should include a detailed answer key for the person marking the
Diagnostic assessment is defined as assessment to identify not only a student’s needs
paper. Short-answer, open-ended questions are not suitable for assessing factual
and abilities, but also his or her readiness to acquire the knowledge and skills outlined
knowledge.
in the curriculum expectations. Diagnostic assessment can take place at the start of or
Short-answer, open-ended questions should be aimed at the aspects of competence during a school year, term, semester, or teaching unit. Diagnostic assessment helps
that cannot be tested in any other way. Short-answer questions are typically composed teachers identify areas of concern where a greater effort must be made. Teachers use
of a brief prompt that demands a written answer that varies in length from one or two it to plan instruction and set appropriate learning goals.
words to a few sentences. They are most often used to test students’ basic knowledge
Discussion Forum 3.2
of key facts and terms.
Objective: Apply formative assessment in different teaching contexts.
Stronger than the multiple-choice question, yet not quite as revealing (or
timeconsuming to grade) as the essay question, the short-answer question (SAQ) 1. Step 1: Read your notes on formative assessment.
42 35
 2. Compose Your Post: Describe how you’d use baseline and diagnostic and techniques. The psychomotor domain is divided into seven categories arranged
assessments, as well as the circumstances that would require such from the most basic to the most advanced.
assessments in the topic of electric circuits.
Table 3.4: Assessment of the psychomotor domain
3. Post in the Forum: Post your response by clicking “Reply” in the forum. Category Key Words Examples
4. Engage with Peers: After you have posted your answer, read through your Perception detects, identifies, selects, distinguishes Detect differences in soil types for planting.
classmates' posts. Respond to at least two of them by sharing your thoughts, Set (readiness to act) begins, displays, proceeds, shows Show readiness to use
scientific equipment safely.
asking questions, or offering a different perspective. Remember to be respectful
Guided Response copies, follows, responds, traces Follow instructions to build a model of the
and constructive in your responses. solar system.
3.5.2 Summative assessment Mechanism assembles, calibrates, Use a ruler to measure plant growth
manipulates, repairs accurately.
Summative assessments are used to evaluate evidence of learning, skill acquisition,
Complex Overt manoeuvres, operates, Conduct a series of experiments to test
and academic achievement at the conclusion of a defined instructional period, typically
Response performs, processes water quality.
at the end of a project, unit, course, semester, programme, or school year. Summative
Adaptation adapts, changes, reorganizes, revises Modify an experiment to test different
assessment is important because: variables.
Origination combines, creates, designs, invents Create a new method for collecting and
• the information indicates progress and achievement in, usually, grade-related analysing data.
or numerical terms
• it is a more formal summing-up of a pupil’s progress
3.8 TECHNIQUES FOR ASSESSING KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND ATTITUDES
• this information can then be submitted to parents or used for certification as part
of a formal examination course More often than not, the assessment of NSTech and many other subjects focuses on
learners’ knowledge or the cognitive domain of learning. In this section, we will discuss
• it offers pupils, parents and teachers valuable information about a pupil’s overall
some techniques to assess learning in terms of the cognitive, affective and
performance at a specific point in their learning. It provides information about
psychomotor domains.
their progress in:
 subject knowledge 3.3.5.1 Knowledge – the cognitive domain
 understanding Various techniques can be used to assess learners’ knowledge in the NSTech subject.
 skills and capabilities In this unit, the focus will be on multiple-choice questions, short-answer and
• A grade or percentage can indicate a pupil’s rank in the class, year group or openended questions, along with essay type questions.
performance in a subject. Multiple-choice questions
3.6 METHODS OF ASSESSMENT Multiple-choice questions (MCQs) are popular because they are easy to grade.
Teachers could use many methods to assess learning both in summative and in Nonetheless, MCQs meant to test learners’ knowledge (lower-level learning) are not
formative assessment. It is important that teachers use different assessment methods appropriate for testing their comprehension (higher-level learning).
because learners have different learning styles. Different assessment methods can
Some guidelines for formulating MCQs include the following. Each item should be
also help them identify different learning needs. The table below summarises some
answerable without reading all the options and be independent so that one item does
common assessment methods.
36 41
represent increasing levels of difficulty that require mastery of one level to advance to Table 3.1: Some formative assessment methods and their descriptions
Formative Assessment Description
the next.
Methods
Table 3.2: Assessment of the cognitive domain
Short quizzes Brief assessments to check understanding of recent material.
Category Key Words Examples
Online polls Real-time polling to gauge comprehension and opinions.
Knowledge defines, describes, identifies, lists, names Identify the parts of a plant.
Exit tickets Students answer quick questions at the end of a lesson to summarise their
Comprehension explains, infers, interprets, paraphrases Explain how the water cycle affects weather. learning.
Application applies, demonstrates, solves, uses Use a model to show how energy is transferred Quick questions Teacher poses questions to gauge learners’ understanding during or after a
in a food chain. lesson.
Analysis analyses, compares, Compare the needs of different plants. Reflections Students write brief reflections on what they have learned or found challenging.
differentiates, distinguishes
Think-pair-share Students think about a question individually, discuss it with a partner, and then
Synthesis creates, designs, organises, plans Design a simple experiment to test soil types for share with the class.
plant growth.
Brainstorming sessions Collaborative idea generation activities.
Evaluation evaluates, justifies, critiques, supports Judge the effectiveness of different methods to Concept mapping Students create visual representations of relationships between concepts.
reduce waste.
Group discussions Students discuss topics or questions in groups to improve their understanding
and provide feedback.
Learning journals Students keep learning journals in which they reflect on their learning processes
According to Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia (1973), the affective domain pertains to and progress.
how we engage with our emotions, including our feelings, values, appreciation, Pre-tests Brief assessments given before new instruction to gauge prior knowledge and
enthusiasm, motivation, and attitudes. The affective domain is organised into five inform instructional planning.
categories ranging from the simplest to the most complex behaviours. Thumbs up/down Quick visual check where students indicate their understanding of a concept or
instruction by showing a thumbs up or down.
Table 3.3: Assessment of the affective domain Practical investigations Hands-on activities and experiments that allow students to explore and apply
Category Key Words Examples scientific concepts in a controlled setting.
(formative)
Receiving Phenomena chooses, identifies, listens, names Observe and identify different types of
plants.
Table 3.2: Some summative assessment methods and their descriptions
Responding to answers, assists, helps, participates Participate in a class discussion about
ecosystems. Summative Assessment Description
Phenomena
Methods
Valuing demonstrates, justifies, shares, values Show appreciation for wildlife
conservation efforts. Final exams Comprehensive tests covering all course material.
Organisation arranges, organises, Plan a project to reduce plastic use in
End-of-term projects Projects that synthesise and apply course content.
prioritises, synthesises the classroom.
Internalising Values acts, displays, practices, values Consistently recycle and lobby for Standardised tests Formal assessments that measure student performance against national or
sustainability. state standards.
Cumulative essays Essays that require students to integrate and reflect on their learning
throughout the course.
According to Simpson (1966), the psychomotor domain encompasses physical Performance tasks Tasks that require students to demonstrate their knowledge and skills through
practical application.
movement, coordination and the application of motor skills. Mastery of these skills
Portfolios Collections of student work over time, demonstrating growth and proficiency.
requires practice and is evaluated based on speed, accuracy, distance, procedures,
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 Oral presentations Students present their findings or arguments verbally. • Relevance: Evaluates how well the assessment aligns with the curriculum and
Final performances Demonstrations of skills in arts or music, which often occurs in
learning objectives and ensures that questions measure the key concepts and
performancebased subjects.
skills taught.
Research papers In-depth papers exploring specific topics, requiring extensive research and • Depth of Knowledge: Considers the various cognitive levels required to
critical thinking.
answer questions, ranging from basic recall to higher-order thinking.
Summative portfolios Collections of best work with reflections, demonstrating mastery of course
objectives. • Feedback Potential: Examines how effectively the assessment provides useful
Online final exams or Exams delivered and sometimes automatically scored using digital platforms. feedback so that students understand their strengths and areas for
comprehensive tests
improvement.
Practical investigations Comprehensive experiments or projects that assess students’ understanding
• Engagement: Looks at how engaging and motivating the assessment is to
and application of scientific concepts in a real-world context.
(summative)
enhance students’ interest and involvement in the subject matter.
Different criteria can be applied to evaluate the effectiveness of an assessment. These • Scorability: Evaluates the ease and objectivity of scoring the assessment,
include the following: ensuring that the process is efficient and minimises subjective interpretation.
• Reliability: Measures the consistency and stability of assessment results. A • Security: Considers how well the assessment is protected from cheating and
reliable assessment yields consistent scores across different instances and unauthorised access, maintaining the integrity of the assessment process.
individuals. • Scalability: Assesses whether or not the assessment can be effectively
• Validity: Assesses whether the assessment accurately measures what it is implemented across different classes or educational settings, ensuring
intended to measure. Valid assessments align with the learning objectives and adaptability to various contexts.
outcomes. • Authenticity: Evaluates how well the assessment mirrors real-world tasks and
• Educational Impact: Examines how the assessment influences student problems and allows students to apply their knowledge in practical and relevant
learning and preparation, ensuring that it encourages focus on relevant material contexts.
and aligns with educational goals. 3.7 ASSESSING THE DOMAINS OF LEARNING
• Cost-Effectiveness: Evaluates the resources needed to develop, administer, According to Bloom et al (1956), there are three domains of learning:
and score the assessment, including the financial, time and effort
1. cognitive domain: mental skills (knowledge)
considerations, to ensure efficient use of the available resources.
• Acceptability: Considers the appropriateness and the reception of the 2. affective domain: growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude)
assessment format and content by both educators and students, and focuses 3. psychomotor domain: manual or physical skills (skills)
on fairness, clarity and overall reception.
The cognitive domain encompasses the acquisition and enhancement of intellectual
• Fairness: Ensures that the assessment provides equal opportunities for all
skills and knowledge. It involves the ability to recall and recognise facts, procedural
students to demonstrate their knowledge by avoiding biases that might
patterns and concepts that contribute to intellectual development. This domain is
disadvantage any group.
divided into six categories, also known as levels, arranged from the most basic to the
• Clarity: Assesses whether the meaning of questions is clear and easily
most complex. It is commonly known as Bloom’s taxonomy. The six categories
understood to minimise ambiguity and help students accurately demonstrate
their knowledge.
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