PHY675 (QUANTUM

MECHANICS)
DR ROSDIYANA BINTI HASHAM@HISAM
HISTORICAL NOTE

• At the turn of 20th century, however, classical physics, which had been quite conclusive on two
major fronts:
➢Relativistic domain
➢Microscopic domain
• The failure of classical physics to explain several microscopic phenomena such as
➢Black-body radiation
➢The photoelectric effect
➢Atomic stability
 • Introduced the concept of quantum energy
• Explain phenomena black-body radiation
• Energy exchange between e.m wave of frequency and matter occurs only in integer number
Max Planck

• Recognize Planck’s idea of the quantization of the em waves must be valid for light as well
• Light itself is made of discrete bit of energy, called photons
Einstein

• Hydrogen atom
• Argued that atoms can be found only in discrete states of energy and that the interaction of atoms
Niels Bohr with radiation

• By scattering X-rays with electron, he confirmed that the X-ray photons behave like particles
• Argued that atoms can be found only in discrete states of energy and that the interaction of atoms
Compton with radiation
✓ This series of breakthroughs – due to Planck, Einstein, Bohr and Compton
gave both the theoretical foundations as well as the conclusive experimental
confirmation for the particle aspect of waves; that is, the concept that waves
exhibit particle behavior at the microscopic scale.
✓ At this scale, classical physics fails not only quantitatively but even
qualitatively and conceptually.
 BLACKBODY RADIATION

• Issue-how radiation interacts with matter

• When heated, a solid objects glows and emits thermal
radiation
• As temperature increases, the object become red, then yellow,
then white
• The thermal radiation emitted by glowing solid object consist
of a continuous distribution of frequencies tanging from IR to
UV.
• The energy density showed a pronounced maximum at given
frequency, which increases to temperature; the peak of
radiation spectrum occurs at a frequency that is proportional
to temperature.
• When radiation falls on an object, some of it might be absorbed and some reflected.
• An idealized “blackbody” is a material object that absorbs all of the radiation falling on it, and hence
appears as black under reflection when illuminated from outside.
• When an object is heated, it radiates electromagnetic energy as a result of the thermal agitation of
the electrons in its surface.
• The intensity of this radiation depends on its frequency and on the temperature; the light it emits
ranges over the entire spectrum. An object in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings radiates as
much energy as it absorbs. It thus follows that a blackbody is a perfect absorber as well as a perfect
emitter of radiation.
➢ A practical blackbody can be constructed by taking a hollow cavity whose internal
walls perfectly reflect electromagnetic radiation (e.g., metallic walls) and which has a
very small hole on its surface.

➢ Radiation that enters through the hole will be trapped inside the cavity and gets
completely absorbed after successive reflections on the inner surfaces of the cavity.

➢ The hole thus absorbs radiation like a black body.

➢ On the other hand, when this cavity is heated to a temperature T , the radiation that
leaves the hole is blackbody radiation, for the hole behaves as a perfect emitter; as the
temperature increases, the hole will eventually begin to glow.

➢ To understand the radiation inside the cavity, one needs simply to analyze the spectral
distribution of the radiation coming out of the hole.

➢ In what follows, the term blackbody radiation will then refer to the radiation leaving
the hole of a heated hollow cavity; the radiation emitted by a blackbody when hot is
called blackbody radiation.
Wein’s energy distribution density
• using thermodynamic argument
• Took Stefan-Boltzmann law and extended it to obtain the energy density per unit frequency of the emitted blackbody radiation ;
Rayleigh’s energy density distribution

• Focus on understanding the nature of electromagnetic radiation inside the cavity

• Considered the radiation to consist of standing waves due to harmonic oscillations of electric
charges, electron present in the wall of cavity.
• As the thermal equilibrium ;
em energy density inside the cavity = energy density of the charged particles in the walls of cavity
• Average total energy of the radiation leaving the cavity can be obtained by;
Number of modes of radiation between frequency interval x average energy of oscillator
• Infinite amount of energy, called as ultraviolet catastrophe
• Energy exchange between radiation and matter is continuous.
PLANCK’S ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• In contrast to Rayleigh’s assumption that standing waves can
exchange any amount of energy of matter, Planck considered that
energy of amount must be discrete.

Enhf n  1,2,3,...
h  6.6 1034 J s

The constant h is now called Planck’s

constant.
 Planck’s theory of radiation is therefore a quantum
theory, because energy is not a continuous quantity as
was believed for centuries; rather it is quantized, that is
exist only in discrete amounts.

E  hf , 2hf , 3hf , ...

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
• The photoelectric effect provides a direct confirmation for the energy quantization of light
• The following experimental laws were discovered prior to 1905:
➢ If the frequency of the incident radiation is smaller than the metal’s threshold frequency — no electron
can be emitted regardless of the radiation’s intensity (Philip Lenard, 1902).
(a frequency that depends on the properties of the metal)
➢ No matter how low the intensity of the incident radiation, electrons will be ejected instantly the moment
the frequency of the radiation exceeds the threshold frequency, v0.
➢At any frequency above v0, the number of electrons ejected increases with the intensity of the light but
does not depend on the light’s frequency.
➢The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons depends on the frequency but not on the intensity of the
beam; the kinetic energy of the ejected electron increases linearly with the incident frequency.
• Inspired by Planck’s quantization of electromagnetic radiation, Einstein succeeded in 1905 in giving a
theoretical explanation for the dependence of photoelectric emission on the frequency of the incident
radiation.

• He assumed that light is made of corpuscles each carrying an energy hν, called photons.

• When a beam of light of frequency ν is incident on a metal, each photon transmits all its energy hν to
an electron near the surface; in the process, the photon is entirely absorbed by the electron.

• The electron will thus absorb energy only in quanta of energy hν, irrespective of the intensity of the
incident radiation.

If hν is larger than the metal’s work function W—the energy required to dislodge the electron from the
metal (every metal has free electrons that move from one atom to another; the minimum energy required
to free the electron from the metal is called the work function of that metal)—the electron will then be knocked
out of the metal. Hence no electron can be emitted from the metal’s surface unless hν > W:

hν = W+K
EXERCISE 1
 COMPTON EFFECT

• Compton provided the most conclusive confirmation of the

particle aspect of radiation.
• The Compton effect explains about stream of incident x-ray
radiation colliding elastically with individual electrons.
• The scattered x-ray radiation is observed to have a large
wavelength. This may be explained by considering x-ray as
particles.
• Compton reveals that the scattered x-ray wavelengths is only
dependent on the scattered angle.
• Classical theory says that the scattered x-ray would have the
same wavelength.
• Consider that the incident photon of energy E=hν and momentum p=hν/c, collide with electron that
initially at rest.
• If the photon scatter with momentum p’ at an angle θ while electron recoils with a moment Pe’, the
conversation of linear momentum yields:
• Classically;
• Since the energy of X-ray radiation is too high to be
absorbed by a free electron, the incident X-ray would then
provide an oscillatory electric field which sets the electron
into oscillatory motion
• Hence making it radiate light with the same wavelength but
with intensity I that depends on the intensity of the incident
radiation I0
• Experimental findings;
• The wavelength of the scattered X-radiation increases by an
amount ∆λ (wavelength shift) and that ∆λ depends not on
the intensity of the incident radiation, but only on the
scattering angle.
• This relation, which connects the initial and final wavelengths to the scattering angle, confirms Compton’s
experimental observation: the wavelength shift of the X-rays depends only on the angle at where they are
scattered not on the frequency or wavelength of the incident photons.
• In summary, the Compton effect confirms that photon behaves like particles; they collide with electron like
material particles.
EXERCISE 2
 PAIR PRODUCTION
• Dirac extended the theory of QM (due to Schrodinger and Heisenberg)
to the realm of relativistic phenomena.
• The theory of relativistic QM predicts the existence particle.
• Physical process which confirms that radiation(photon) has corpuscular
properties.
• High energetic photon, interact with nucleus, disappears and produces an
electron and positron.
Proton + N e+ +e-
• This process called as Pair Production.
• Due to the charge, momentum and energy conservation, pair production cannot occur in empty space.
• The photon must interact with an external field such as the Coulomb field of an atomic nucleus to absorb some of its
momentum.
• An electron-positron pair is produced when the photon comes near at nucleus at rest; energy conservation dictates
that

• The reverse is called pair annihilation.

• When an electron and positron collide, they annihilate each other and give rise to em radiation.
e+ +e- Photon + positronium (collision of positron with an electron produces a hydrogen-like atom)
EXERCISE 3

• Calculate the minimum energy of a photon so that it can converts into a electron-
positron pair. Find the wavelength the photon’s frequency and wavelength. (answer:1.02
MeV)
 WAVE ASPECT OF PARTICLES

• de Broglie suggested all material particles should be

display a dual wave-particle behaviour
• de Broglie hypothesis each material particle of momentum
p behaves as a group of wave (matter waves) whose
wavelength, λ and wavevector, 𝜅
𝑝 = ℎ/𝜆
CLASSICAL VIEW OF PARTICLE AND WAVE

• Particle and waves are mutually exclusive.

• A particle may be described by a position vector r(t), but waves requires two parameter,
amplitude and phase.
• A 3-D plane wave can be described by wave function;
QUANTUM MECHANICAL VIEW
OF PARTICLE & WAVES

• Measurement interference with the state of microscopic

object
• Indeterministic
• Not possible to determine which slit the electron went
through
• Impossible to predict where electron will hit the screen
• When both slits are open (Fig. 1.10), an interference pattern.
• Placing a strong light source behind the wall containing the slits (Fig.1.1), the interference disappeared, but if we turn
off the light source, the interference pattern appears again.
• Turning down the brightness (intensity) of the light source so that it is weak enough to disturb electrons.
• Notice that with such a slow rate, each photon (or electron) is not interacting with other photons to produce the
interference pattern
• In fact, the photons are interacting with themselves, within their own wave packets to produce interference.
• In QM we defined the electron wavefunction as 𝜓 𝑥. 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑥𝑃𝑥−𝐸𝑡)/ℏ
• Probability that electron hit screen at point x within dx
𝜌 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑥= 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑𝑥
• In order to account for the existence of interference pattern in the double slit exp with
particles (electrons) we considered the superposition of the electron wavefunction
from/through S1 and S2.
• Summary
1. In classical view of particles, the intensities add, I1=I1+I2
2. In quantum view of particles the amplitude adds, not intensities.
We have phenomena such as diffraction and interference that
show that light is a wave, and phenomena such as the
photoelectric effect and the Compton effect that show that it is
a particle.
Which is it?
This question has no answer;
we must accept the dual wave–particle nature of light.
 LIGHT

Photoelectric effect, Interference (and diffraction)

Compton effect experiments

is a particle is a wave

Some experiments indicate that light behaves like a wave, others like
a stream of particles.
 LIGHT

Photoelectric effect, Interference (and diffraction)

Compton effect experiments

is a particle is a wave

we must accept the dual wave–particle nature of light

WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY

• In various expect of findings, reveal that photons, electrons and other microscopic
particles display particle behaviour as well as a wave behaviour.
• In a quantum system manifest themselves only when subjected by penetrating means of
observation. (Dependent on the type of equipment used to observe the particle ~ it has
the capability to display particle or waves features)
• The particle or waves manifestation do not contradict or prelude one another.
• The complimentary principle means that both the wave and particle feature of quantum
system are equally important to obtain a complete description of the system.
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
https://ed.ted.com/lessons/what-is-the-heisenberg-uncertainty-principle-chad-orzel

• The position and momentum of a particle cannot be accurately measured at the same
time.
• If the x-component of the momentum of a particle is measured with an uncertainty ∆px,
then its x-position cannot, at the same time, be measured more accurately than
∆𝑥 = ℏ/(2∆𝑝𝑥 )
ATOMIC TRANSITION AND SPECTROSCOPY

Classical physics
• Fail to explain blackbody radiation, photoelectric effect, Compton effect, pair production
and wave particle duality.
• Also fail to explain about atom.
• Atoms exist as stable, bound systems that have discrete number of energy levels.
• Classical physics, however, states that such bond system must have continuum of energy
levels.
RUTHERFORD PLANETARY MODEL OF THE ATOM

• After experimental discovery of atomic nucleus in 1911, Rutherford proposed an atomic

model inspired by planetary motion, consisting of electron orbiting around the nucleus.
• In terms of classical physics, atom based on the model is unstable;
1. Orbiting electron is basically accelerating according to Maxwell em
theory it would radiates energy.
❖ The radius of orbit would decrease until the electron collapses
onto the nucleus.
2. The radiated energy- same as orbiting energy
❖ Radiated energy is continuously increasing.
#These two conclusion contradicts with experiments.
 BOHR MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

• Bohr Model combines ; Rutherford Planetary model, Planck quantum hypothesis, Einstein’s photon concept.
• Bohr proposed a model that gives an accurate account of the observed spectrum of hydrogen atom as well as its stability.
• Based on electron orbit around nucleus under influenced of electrostatic attraction. He introduced arbitrary assumption that
contradict classical physics;
 WAVE PACKETS

• The wave and particle aspect of electromagnetic

radiation and matter can be united through the
concept of wave-packet.
• A wave packet is a superposition of waves.
• It consist of a group of waves of slightly different
wavelengths, with phase and amplitudes so chosen
that they interfere constructively over a small region
of space and destructively elsewhere.
• The wave-packet concept represents a unifying
mathematical tool that can cope and embody nature’s
particle-like behaviour and wave-like behaviour.
• In terms of probability interpretation, the particle has a greater probability of being found
near x=0 and less likely far away from x=0
• A particle is represented by a wave packet that is obtained by adding a large number of
different frequencies (wavelength)
• The physical interpretation of wave packet;
𝜓𝑜 (𝑥) –wave function of probability amplitude for finding a particle at position x
∅ 𝑘 - probability amplitude for measuring a wavevector k for a particle in state ∅ 𝑘
∅(𝑘) 2 -probability density for measuring k as the particle wavevector
and P(k)dk = ∅(𝑘) 2 gives the probability of finding the particle’s wavevector between k and
k+dk