BCA III – SAD Compiled By: GIRIJA 1

Unit 1: Overview of Systems Analysis and Design [6 Hrs.]

a. Introduction to system analysis and design
b. Information systems and its types
c. Stakeholders of Information systems
d. Systems Development Life Cycle and life cycle models (Waterfall, Spiral, Prototype)
e. Introduction to analysis and design tools

A. Introduction to system analysis and design

Systems are created to solve problems. One can think of the systems approach as an organized
way of dealing with a problem. In this dynamic world, the subject System Analysis and Design
(SAD), mainly deals with the software development activities.

Defining a System
A collection of components that work together to realize some objectives forms a system.
Basically there are three major components in every system, namely input, processing and
output.

In a system the different components are connected with each other and they are
interdependent.
Systems Analysis
Systems analysis is a process of collecting factual data, understand the processes involved,
identifying problems and recommending feasible suggestions for improving the system
functioning. This involves studying the business processes, gathering operational data,
understand the information flow, finding out bottlenecks and evolving solutions for overcoming
the weaknesses of the system so as to achieve the organizational goals.
The major objectives of systems analysis are to find answers for each business process: What is
being done, How is it being done, Who is doing it, When is he doing it, Why is it being done and
How can it be improved? It is more of a thinking process and involves the creative skills of the
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System Analyst. It attempts to give birth to a new efficient system that satisfies the current needs
of the user and has scope for future growth within the organizational constraints. The result of
this process is a logical system design. Systems analysis is an iterative process that continues until
a preferred and acceptable solution emerges.

System analysis involves:

 Problem Identification: Identify issues the system aims to address.
 Requirements Gathering: Communicate with stakeholders to outline system design.
 Feasibility Study: Assess technical, operational, and financial viability.
 Analysis and Modeling: Develop models (e.g., DFD, Use Cases, ER diagrams) for a deep
understanding.
 Scope Definition: Clearly define system boundaries to prevent feature creep.
Systems Design
Based on the user requirements and the detailed analysis of the existing system, the new system
must be designed. This is the phase of system designing. It is the most crucial phase in the
developments of a system. The logical system design arrived at as a result of systems analysis is
converted into physical system design. Normally, the design proceeds in two stages:

 Preliminary or General Design

 Structured or Detailed Design
Preliminary or General Design: In the preliminary or general design, the features of the new
system are specified. The costs of implementing these features and the benefits to be derived
are estimated. If the project is still considered feasible, we move to the detailed design stage.
Structured or Detailed Design: In the detailed design stage, computer oriented work begins in
earnest. At this stage, the design of the system becomes more structured. Structure design is a
blue print of a computer system solution to a given problem having the same components and
inter-relationships among the same components as the original problem. Input, output,
databases, forms, codification schemes and processing specifications are drawn up in detail. In
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the design stage, the programming language and the hardware and software platform in which
the new system will run are also decided.
Objectives of System Design
1. Practicality: We need a system that should be targetting the set of audiences(users)
corresponding to which they are designing.
2. Accuracy: Above system design should be designed in such a way it fulfills nearly all
requirements around which it is designed be it functional o non-functional requirements.
3. Completeness: System design should meet all user requirements
4. Efficient: The system design should be such that it should not overuse surpassing the cost of
resources nor under use as it will by now we know will result in low thorough put (output)
and less response time(latency).
5. Reliability: The system designed should be in proximity to a failure-free environment for a
certain period of time.
6. Optimization: Time and space are just likely what we do for code chunks for individual
components to work in a system.
7. Scalable(flexibility): System design should be adaptable with time as per different user needs
of customers which we know will keep on changing on time.

There are several tools and techniques used for describing the system design of the system.
These tools and techniques are:
 Flowchart
 Data flow diagram (DFD)
 Data dictionary
 Structured English
 Decision table
 Decision tree
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The system design involves:

i. Defining precisely the required system output
ii. Determining the data requirement for producing the output
iii. Determining the medium and format of files and databases
iv. Devising processing methods and use of software to produce output
v. Determine the methods of data capture and data input
vi. Designing Input forms
vii. Designing Codification Schemes
viii. Detailed manual procedures
ix. Documenting the Design

B. Information systems and its types

An information system (IS) is an interconnected set of components used to collect, store, process
and transmit data and digital information. At its core, it is a collection of hardware, software,
data, people and processes that work together to transform raw data into useful information. An
IS supports a variety of business objectives such as improved customer service or increased
efficiency.

Components:
 People: Users, analysts, developers, and anyone interacting with the system.
 Processes: The steps involved in collecting, processing, storing, and distributing
information.
 Technology: Hardware, software, networks, and databases that make the system function.
 Data: The raw information that goes through the system's processes.

Benefits:
 Better decision-making,
 Improved efficiency: Automation and streamlined processes save time and resources.
 Enhanced collaboration: Information sharing and communication are facilitated.
 Greater competitiveness: Organizations can adapt and respond to market changes quickly.

Examples:
 Enterprise resource planning (ERP): Manages core business processes like accounting,
inventory, and customer relations.
 Content management system (CMS): Creates, edits, and publishes website content.
 Social media platform: Connects users and enables information sharing.
 Point-of-sale (POS) system: Processes sales transactions in stores and restaurants.
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Types of Information Systems

There are six main Types of Information Systems. They are as follows:

Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)

Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) ensures seamless flow of data and transactions within
organisations. TPS is a computerised system that processes, records, and monitors transactions
in real time. These transactions can include anything from sales and purchases to inventory
management, payroll processing, and order fulfilment.

1) Essential components and functions:

At the heart of TPS lie several vital components, including databases, servers, and software
applications designed to record transactions instantly. When a transaction occurs, TPS captures
the pertinent data, processes it according to predefined rules, and stores the resulting
information in a centralised database. This rapid processing is vital, especially in sectors where
time-sensitive actions are crucial.

2) Uses of TPS in modern businesses:

a) Retail Operations: In retail, TPS ensures swift and accurate processing of sales
transactions. It manages inventory levels in real time, triggering reorder requests when
stocks run low, thus preventing shortages and ensuring customer satisfaction.

b) Banking and finance: Banks rely on TPS for handling numerous transactions daily,
including deposits, withdrawals, fund transfers, and loan processing. TPS guarantees
accuracy, security, and speed, thereby enhancing customer trust in financial institutions.

c) Online commerce: E-commerce platforms handle a vast number of transactions daily. TPS
manages online purchases, updates product availability, processes payments securely,
and tracks shipments, ensuring a seamless shopping experience for customers.
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d) Healthcare: TPS is instrumental in managing patient records, appointments, billing, and

insurance claims. It enhances efficiency in healthcare facilities, ensuring that medical
professionals have instant access to vital patient information.

e) Transportation and logistics: TPS optimises supply chain operations, helps in tracking
the movement of goods, manages inventory levels, and processes orders. This is
particularly vital for businesses engaged in global trade, enabling them to coordinate
complex logistics with precision.

Management Information Systems (MIS)

Management Information Systems (MIS) is another Types of Information Systems, where it
bridges the gap between raw data and strategic decision-making. MIS is a comprehensive
framework that leverages technology to gather, process, store, and disseminate information to
support managerial functions within an organisation. It serves as the backbone of modern
management, ensuring that decision-makers are equipped with accurate, timely, and relevant
data to steer their organisations toward success.

1) Key components and functions:

MIS comprises various elements, including databases, software applications, hardware
resources, and skilled personnel. These components collaborate to collect vast amounts of data
from diverse sources, such as transaction processing systems, and transform this data into
meaningful information. Through data analysis and reporting tools, MIS provides executives and
managers with insightful summaries, forecasts, and performance metrics, aiding in strategic
planning and tactical decision-making processes.

2) Uses of MIS in modern businesses:

a) Strategic planning: MIS plays a vital role in long-term planning by providing executives
with comprehensive insights into market trends, customer behaviour, and competitor
activities. This strategic foresight allows businesses to identify opportunities, mitigate
risks, and formulate effective business strategies.

b) Performance monitoring: MIS enables the continuous monitoring of Key Performance

Indicators (KPIs) and other metrics crucial to evaluating the organisation’s performance.
Managers can identify areas of improvement, assess the effectiveness of strategies, and
make data-driven decisions to enhance overall efficiency.

c) Resource management: MIS optimises resource allocation by analysing data related to

human resources, finances, inventory, and production. This ensures that resources are
utilised efficiently, reducing wastage and enhancing productivity.

d) Decision support: MIS empowers managers by providing them with ad hoc reports, data
visualisations, and predictive analytics. These tools aid in scenario analysis and 'what-if'
modelling, allowing managers to simulate various business scenarios and assess the
potential outcomes of different decisions.
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e) Communication and collaboration: MIS facilitates seamless communication and

cooperation between departments and teams within an organisation. By providing a
centralised platform for information sharing, MIS enhances teamwork, accelerates
problem-solving, and fosters innovation.

Decision Support Systems (DSS)

Decision Support Systems (DSS) are sophisticated computer-based applications designed to assist
decision-makers in solving complex problems and making strategic choices. By harnessing
advanced analytics, data modelling, and artificial intelligence, DSS provide invaluable insights,
enabling managers to navigate uncertainties, explore alternatives, and make well-informed
decisions.

1) Key components and functions:

DSS consists of a range of components, including databases, analytical models, user interfaces,
and decision engines. These components synergise to analyse vast datasets, identify patterns,
and generate meaningful reports. It often employs technologies such as data mining, predictive
modelling, and machine learning algorithms to gather trends and forecast outcomes. The
intuitive interfaces allow decision-makers to interact with the system, posing queries and
exploring scenarios to gain deeper insights into complex problems.

2) Uses of DSS in modern businesses:

a) Strategic planning: DSS aids executives in strategic planning by providing in-depth

analyses of market trends, competitor strategies, and customer behaviours. By simulating
various scenarios, decision-makers can assess the potential impact of different methods,
enabling the selection of the most viable and lucrative options.
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b) Risk management: DSS is instrumental in risk assessment and management. By analysing

historical data and current market conditions, DSS can identify potential risks, allowing
organisations to develop proactive strategies to mitigate these risks effectively.

c) Resource optimisation: DSS optimises resource allocation by analysing factors such as

demand patterns, production capacities, and supply chain logistics. By identifying
bottlenecks and inefficiencies, organisations can streamline their operations, reduce their
overall costs, and enhance overall productivity.

d) Marketing and customer insights: DSS analyses customer data to identify preferences,
purchasing patterns, and feedback. This information is important for crafting targeted
marketing campaigns, personalised customer experiences, and improving customer
satisfaction.

e) Healthcare and diagnosis: In the healthcare sector, DSS aids medical professionals in
diagnosing diseases and recommending treatments. By analysing patient data and
comparing it with vast medical databases, DSS enhances the accuracy of diagnoses,
leading to improved patient outcomes.

Executive Support Systems (ESS)

Executive Support Systems (ESS) is another important Types of Information Systems, which is
designed to assist senior management in strategic decision-making processes. Tailored to the
needs of high-level executives, it provides comprehensive information from internal and external
sources, enabling leaders to analyse trends, assess organisational performance, and formulate
long-term strategies.
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1) Essential components and functions:

ESS integrates data from various sources, including internal databases, market
intelligence, and competitor analyses. Utilising advanced analytical techniques and
intuitive visualisation tools, ESS presents information in the form of concise reports,
charts, and graphs. Its user-friendly interface allows executives to explore data
effortlessly, enabling them to delve deep into critical aspects of the business
environment.

2) Uses of ESS in modern businesses:

a) Strategic decision-making: ESS assists executives in making strategic decisions by
providing a holistic view of the organisation's performance metrics, market trends, and
competitive landscapes. By analysing this data, leaders can identify emerging
opportunities, anticipate threats, and devise strategies to achieve long-term objectives.
b) Performance monitoring: It tracks KPIs and benchmarks organisational performance
against predefined goals. Executives can monitor real-time data, enabling them to assess
progress, identify areas of improvement, and align the organisation's efforts with its
strategic vision.

c) Scenario analysis: It facilitates scenario planning by allowing executives to simulate

various business scenarios. By altering variables such as market demand, pricing
strategies, or production capacities, executives can assess the potential outcomes of
different decisions, aiding in risk mitigation and strategic planning.

d) Competitor analysis: ESS provides in-depth insights into competitors' activities, market
positioning, and product strategies. By understanding the competitive landscape,
executives can fine-tune their strategy, identify market gaps, and develop offerings that
stand out in the industry.

e) Communication and collaboration: ESS enhances communication and collaboration

among top executives. By providing a centralised platform for accessing relevant
information, it ensures that all executives are on the same page, fostering cohesive
decision-making processes.

Office Automation System

Office Automation Systems (OAS) have become essential tools for businesses aiming to enhance
productivity, streamline workflows, and foster collaborative work environments. It refers to the
integration of computer hardware, software, and network connections to optimise routine office
tasks and facilitate efficient information management. By automating mundane and time-
consuming processes, it helps employees focus on more strategic and creative aspects of their
work, ultimately driving organisational success.
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1) Key components and functions:

OAS includes a range of applications such as word processing software, spreadsheets,
email systems, calendar and scheduling tools, and document management platforms.
These components automate tasks like document creation, data analysis, appointment
scheduling, and communication, reducing manual effort and minimising errors. OAS also
incorporates collaborative features, allowing multiple users to work on shared documents
in real time, fostering seamless teamwork.

2) Uses of Office Automation Systems:

a) Document management: OAS facilitates the creation, editing, and sharing of documents,
enabling teams to collaborate effortlessly. Version control features ensure that everyone
works on the latest document iteration, promoting consistency and accuracy.
b) Email and communication: It integrates email systems, enabling efficient communication
within and outside the organisation. It also automates email responses, schedules
appointments, and organises meetings, ensuring smooth correspondence and
coordination among team members.

c) Data analysis: Spreadsheets and data processing tools within OAS automate complex
calculations, data analysis, and reporting. This is particularly valuable for financial
analysis, budgeting, and forecasting, allowing businesses to make data-driven decisions.

d) Task automation: OAS automates repetitive tasks such as data entry, form submissions,
and report generation. By eliminating manual labour, employees can focus on more
strategic tasks, boosting overall productivity.

e) Collaborative work: OAS platforms enable real-time collaboration on projects, fostering

teamwork among geographically dispersed teams. Features like shared calendars,
collaborative editing, and instant messaging enhance communication and coordination.

f) Workflow automation: It streamlines workflows by automating approval processes, task

assignments, and document routing. This reduces delays, minimises errors, and ensures
that tasks progress smoothly through various stages.

Business Intelligence Systems

Business Intelligence Systems (BIS) encompasses a set of technologies, applications, and
processes that analyse and transform raw data into insights which are meaningful. This helps
businesses to gain a comprehensive understanding of their operations, customers, and market
dynamics. By employing advanced analytics and data visualisation techniques, BIS empowers
organisations to make informed decisions, identify patterns, and forecast trends, thereby gaining
a competitive edge in the fast-paced business landscape.
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1) Key components and functions:

BIS comprises data warehousing, data mining, reporting tools, dashboards, and predictive
analytics. These components work in harmony to gather data from various sources,
cleanse and transform it into usable formats, and then analyse it to provide actionable
insights. Through interactive dashboards and detailed reports, it presents complex data
in visually understandable formats, allowing decision-makers to interpret information
swiftly and accurately.

2) Uses of Business Intelligence Systems:

a) Data analysis and reporting: BIS enables in-depth analysis of historical and real-time data,
providing detailed reports on various aspects of business performance. This analysis helps
businesses track KPIs, assess operational efficiency, and identify areas for improvement.

b) Customer insights: BIS tools analyse customer data to identify purchasing patterns,
preferences, and behaviours. By understanding customer needs, businesses can tailor
their products and services, enhance customer experiences, and improve customer
retention rates.

c) Market intelligence: It gathers and analyses market data, enabling businesses to monitor
market trends, track competitors' activities, and identify emerging opportunities. This
intelligence is invaluable for strategic planning and staying ahead of market shifts.

d) Forecasting and predictive analytics: BIS employs predictive modelling to predict future
trends based on previous data. This capability aids businesses in demand forecasting,
inventory management, and financial planning, ensuring proactive decision-making.
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e) Operational optimisation: It optimises operational processes by analysing workflow

efficiencies and identifying bottlenecks. By streamlining operations, businesses can
reduce costs, enhance productivity, and improve overall business agility.
f) Strategic decision-making: Ultimately, BIS empowers strategic decision-making. By
providing executives with timely and accurate insights, BIS supports leaders in
formulating business strategies, allocating resources effectively, and positioning the
organisation for sustainable growth.

C. Stakeholders of Information systems

Stakeholder of IS: Refers to any person who is interested in or impacted by an information
system.
Diverse Group:
 Technical and Non-technical People: This group comprises individuals with both technical
expertise (like IT professionals) and those without technical knowledge (like managers,
employees, customers).
 Internal and External Workers/Individuals: Encompasses people within the organization
(internal workers) and those outside the organization (external workers or individuals).

Examples of Stakeholders:
 Internal Workers: Employees, managers, executives within the organization.
 External Workers/Individuals: Customers, suppliers, partners, regulatory authorities.
 Technical Stakeholders: IT professionals, developers, system administrators.
 Non-technical Stakeholders: Business managers, end-users, customers.
There are five main groups of IS Stakeholders:
o System Owners
o System Users
o System Designers
o System Builders
o System Analysts & Project Managers

System Owner
– Own the system! Upper levels of Management,
– Mainly interested in the business objectives of the system,
• What will the system cost?
• What strategic benefits will the system bring to our business?
• How do we measure the value of the system to the business?

System User
– System Users are the majority of information workers affected by IS
– Less concerned with the business and strategic imperatives underpinning IS
– More concerned with the functionality of the IS
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• Does it let them do what they want to do?

• How easy is the system to use?
System Designers
– Technology Specialists for Information Systems
– Translate business requirements into a feasible technical solution
– Interested in IT choices such as:
• Databases
• Networking
• Security
• Programming Languages
System Builders

– Another layer of technology specialists but are different from System Designers in
that they construct the IS based on the design specifications!
– In small organisations the system designers and system builders are often the
same but in larger organisations they are not. Why?
System Analysts

– Each of the other stakeholders have very different perspectives on IS. For instance,
the System Owner will likely have very different perspectives on an IS than that of
a System Designer.
• Some are only concerned with technical issues
• Others only with business issues
• A communications gap exists between people who need the IS and those
that understand IT
• A key role of System Analyst is to bridge this gap!
• Their role overlaps all the other roles of the other stakeholders. They need,
at the least, a general understand of each of the other stakeholder
concerns.
• Facilitates interaction between groups of stakeholders.
• Analyse current and possible future IS for a business. This is not just a
technology issue but concerns people, process, and technology
• Role of System Analyst will be discussed in greater detail later in the year!

D. Systems Development Life Cycle and life cycle models (Waterfall, Spiral,
Prototype)
The system development life cycle or SDLC is a project management model used to outline,
design, develop, test, and deploy an information system or software product. In other words, it
defines the necessary steps needed to take a project from the idea or concept stage to the actual
deployment and further maintenance.
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SDLC Cycle
SDLC Cycle represents the process of developing software. SDLC framework includes the following
steps:

Stage1: Planning and requirement analysis

Requirement Analysis is the most important and necessary stage in SDLC.
The senior members of the team perform it with inputs from all the stakeholders and domain
experts or SMEs in the industry.
Planning for the quality assurance requirements and identifications of the risks associated with
the projects is also done at this stage.
Business analyst and Project organizer set up a meeting with the client to gather all the data like
what the customer wants to build, who will be the end user, what is the objective of the product.
Before creating a product, a core understanding or knowledge of the product is very necessary.
For Example, A client wants to have an application which concerns money transactions. In this
method, the requirement has to be precise like what kind of operations will be done, how it will
be done, in which currency it will be done, etc.
Once the required function is done, an analysis is complete with auditing the feasibility of the
growth of a product. In case of any ambiguity, a signal is set up for further discussion.
Once the requirement is understood, the SRS (Software Requirement Specification) document is
created. The developers should thoroughly follow this document and also should be reviewed by
the customer for future reference.
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Stage2: Defining Requirements

Once the requirement analysis is done, the next stage is to certainly represent and document the
software requirements and get them accepted from the project stakeholders.

This is accomplished through "SRS"- Software Requirement Specification document which

contains all the product requirements to be constructed and developed during the project life
cycle.
Stage3: Designing the Software

The next phase is about to bring down all the knowledge of requirements, analysis, and design of
the software project. This phase is the product of the last two, like inputs from the customer and
requirement gathering.
Stage4: Developing the project
In this phase of SDLC, the actual development begins, and the programming is built. The
implementation of design begins concerning writing code. Developers have to follow the coding
guidelines described by their management and programming tools like compilers, interpreters,
debuggers, etc. are used to develop and implement the code.
Stage5: Testing
After the code is generated, it is tested against the requirements to make sure that the products
are solving the needs addressed and gathered during the requirements stage.
During this stage, unit testing, integration testing, system testing, acceptance testing are done.
Stage6: Deployment
Once the software is certified, and no bugs or errors are stated, then it is deployed.
Then based on the assessment, the software may be released as it is or with suggested
enhancement in the object segment.
After the software is deployed, then its maintenance begins.
Stage7: Maintenance
Once when the client starts using the developed systems, then the real issues come up and
requirements to be solved from time to time.
This procedure where the care is taken for the developed product is known as maintenance.
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SDLC Models
Software Development life cycle (SDLC) is a spiritual model used in project management that
defines the stages include in an information system development project, from an initial
feasibility study to the maintenance of the completed application.

There are different software development life cycle models specify and design, which are
followed during the software development phase. These models are also called "Software
Development Process Models." Each process model follows a series of phase unique to its type
to ensure success in the step of software development.
Here, are some important phases of SDLC life cycle:

Waterfall Model
The waterfall is a universally accepted SDLC model. In this method, the whole process of software
development is divided into various phases.
The waterfall model is a continuous software development model in which development is seen
as flowing steadily downwards (like a waterfall) through the steps of requirements analysis,
design, implementation, testing (validation), integration, and maintenance.
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Linear ordering of activities has some significant consequences. First, to identify the end of a
phase and the next, some certification techniques must be used at the end of each step. Some
verification and validation usually do this mean that will ensure that the output of the stage is
consistent with its input (which is the output of the previous step), and that the output of the
stage is consistent with the overall requirements of the system.
Advantages of Waterfall Model:

 Clarity and simplicity

 Well-defined phases
 Easy to manage
 Emphasis on documentation
 Limited client involvement during development

Disadvantages of Waterfall Model:

 Inflexibility to changes
 Limited client involvement during development
 Late product delivery
 Risk and uncertainty with evolving projects
 High cost of changes after initial phases

Spiral Model
The spiral model is a risk-driven process model. This SDLC model helps the group to adopt
elements of one or more process models like a waterfall, incremental, waterfall, etc. The spiral
technique is a combination of rapid prototyping and concurrency in design and development
activities.
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Each cycle in the spiral begins with the identification of objectives for that cycle, the different
alternatives that are possible for achieving the goals, and the constraints that exist. This is the
first quadrant of the cycle (upper-left quadrant).

The next step in the cycle is to evaluate these different alternatives based on the objectives and
constraints. The focus of evaluation in this step is based on the risk perception for the project.
The next step is to develop strategies that solve uncertainties and risks. This step may involve
activities such as benchmarking, simulation, and prototyping.

These are following advantages and disadvantages of using Spiral Model :

Advantages of Spiral Model:

 Software is produced early in the software life cycle.

 Risk handling is one of important advantages of the Spiral model, it is best development
model to follow due to the risk analysis and risk handling at every phase.
 Flexibility in requirements. In this model, we can easily change requirements at later
phases and can be incorporated accurately. Also, additional Functionality can be added
at a later date.
 It is good for large and complex projects.
 Strong approval and documentation control.
 It is suitable for high risk projects, where business needs may be unstable. A highly
customized product can be developed using this.

Disadvantages of Spiral Model:

 It is not suitable for small projects as it is expensive.

 It is much more complex than other SDLC models. Process is complex.
 Too much dependable on Risk Analysis and requires highly specific expertise.
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 Difficulty in time management. As the number of phases is unknown at the start of the
project, so time estimation is very difficult.
 Spiral may go on indefinitely.
 End of the project may not be known early.
 It is not suitable for low risk projects.
 May be hard to define objective, verifiable milestones. Large numbers of intermediate
stages require excessive documentation.

Prototype Model
The prototype model suggests making a simple version of the software before creating the final
product. This simple version, called a prototype, might not work perfectly and could have limited
features, lower reliability, and may not perform as well as the actual software. This approach is
useful when the client doesn't have a clear idea of what they want from the software, especially
when details about the inputs, processing, and outputs are not well-known. The prototype helps
to better understand and refine the client's expectations.
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Steps of Prototype Model

i. Requirement Gathering and Analyst
ii. Quick Decision
iii. Build a Prototype
iv. Assessment or User Evaluation
v. Prototype Refinement
vi. Engineer Product

Advantages of Prototyping Model:

 Early customer satisfaction and comfort with partial product visibility.
 Easy accommodation of new requirements and refinement.
 Identification of missing functionalities.
 Early error detection, saving effort and cost.
 Reusability of developed prototypes for future projects.
 Flexibility in design.
 Early feedback from customers guides development.
 Testing and validating design decisions before significant investment.
 Risk reduction through early issue identification.
 Improved communication and collaboration among stakeholders.
 Bridging the gap between technical and non-technical stakeholders.

Disadvantages of Prototyping Model:

 Time and cost-intensive.
 Variations in requirements during prototype evaluations.
 Poor documentation due to changing requirements.
 Difficulty for developers to accommodate constant changes.
 Uncertainty in determining the required number of iterations.
 Customer demands for the final product after seeing an early prototype.
 Risk of sub-optimal solutions due to rushed prototype development.
 Potential loss of customer interest if unsatisfied with the initial prototype.
 Lack of scalability for future customer needs.
 Inaccurate representation of the final product due to limited functionality.
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Agile Methodology
Agile software development is an iterative approach to creating software products based on
quickly releasing a minimum viable product (MVP) and then adjusting it and adding features and
functionalities in stages based on user behaviour and feedback. The methodology is designed to
address the fact it can be difficult to accurately predict the most intuitive user journeys, features
and functionalities users need, prefer and desire from software.
As a methodology, agile software development stands in contrast to the once dominant Waterfall
approach. When building software to the Waterfall methodology, software development teams
create highly detailed specifications and functionality requirements upfront. The software is then
built to that blueprint and released as a ‘completed’ product.

Principles of Agile Methodology

The steps of the agile process revolve around repetition as priorities can be shifted from one
repetition to another with new features that often add to the subsequent iteration. An agile
manifesto can follow certain agile principles that businesses should be aware of and adapt to
their agile software development process.
• Individuals and interactions over processes and tools
• Working software over comprehensive documentation
• Customer collaboration over contract negotiation
• Responding to change by following a plan

Benefits of Agile Methodology

• Ensures early and quality deliverables
• It deals with any changes within the project with the adoption of changes
• Ensures faster releases to enable quicker time to market
• Ensure high-quality development by breaking up the task into manageable units of sprints
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• Ensure effective collaboration between teams and stakeholders to deliver value to the
customer
• Eases dealing with costs & schedules with better interaction to ensure a more controlled
environment
• Deliver working software at frequent intervals through sprints
• Overall ensures cost-effectiveness

E. Introduction to analysis and design tools

Software analysis and design includes all activities, which help the transformation of requirement
specification into implementation. Requirement specifications specify all functional and non-
functional expectations from the software.
System design is the process of defining the architecture, components, modules, interfaces, and
data for a system to satisfy specified requirements. System design could be seen as the
application of systems theory to product development. The tools which are used to design the
system are known as system design tools. Following are the tools which are used to design the
system.

 Context diagram
 Data Flow Diagram (DFD)
 E-R Diagram
 Algorithm
 Flowchart
 Pseudo Code
 Use Case
 Decision Tree
 Decision Table
 Unified Modelling Language (UML)

Context Diagram
A context diagram is a top-level data flow diagram. It only contains one process node that
generalizes the function of the entire system relationship to external entities. It provides no
information about the timing, sequencing, or synchronization of processes such as which
processes occur in sequence or in parallel. Therefore it should not be confused with a flowchart
or process flow which can show these things. Some of the benefits of the Context Diagram are:

 Shows the scope and boundaries of a system at a glance including the other systems that
interface with it.
 No technical knowledge is assumed or required to understand the diagram.
 Easy to draw and amend due to its limited notation.
 Easy to expand by adding different levels of DFDs.
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 Can benefit a wide audience including stakeholders, business analysts, data analysts,
developers.

Fig. Context Diagram Example

Data Flow Diagram (DFD)
A data flow diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation of the “flow” of data through an
information system, modeling its process aspects. A DFD is often used as a preliminary step to
create an overview of the system, which can later be elaborated. DFDs can also be used for the
virtualization of data processing (structured design). A data flow diagram (DFD) illustrates how
data processing (structured design). A data flow diagram (DFD) illustrates how data is processed
by a system in terms of inputs and outputs. As its name goes and how it gets stored.
It also shows what kind of information will be input to and output from the system, where the
data will come from and go to, and where the data will be stored. It does not show information
about the timing of the process or information about whether processes will operate in sequence
or in parallel (which is shown on a flowchart).
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Example of DFD
E-R Diagram
An entity-relationship diagram (ERD) is a graphical representation of an information system that
shows the relationship between people, objects, places, concepts, or events within that system.
An ERD is a data modeling technique that can help define business processes and can be used as
the foundation for the relational database.

Example of ER Diagram
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Algorithm
The algorithm is a set of steps that are followed in order to solve a mathematical problem or to
complete a computer process. The word “algorithm” is derived from the name of the Arabian
mathematician Al-Khwarizmi, which means a method, technique, or procedure. It is the most
commonly used tool by the programmer for planning the program and solving the problems. It is
an effective method for solving a problem.
An algorithm is a specific set of instruction or rules for carrying out a procedure or solving a
particular problem.

Flowchart
A flowchart is a diagrammatic or pictorial representation of a problem or algorithm that illustrates
the sequence of operations to be performed. A flowchart is a formalized graphic representation
of a logic sequence, work or manufacturing process, organization chart, or similar formalized
structure. The purpose of the flow chart is to provide people with a common language or
reference point when dealing with a project or process. Flowcharts use simple geometrical
symbols and arrows to define relationships.

Example of system flowchart for transaction processing system

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Pseudocode
Pseudocode is one of the system development tools in which the preliminary steps of solutions
are written using simple English language rather than programming keywords. It is an informal
high-level description of the operating principle of a computer program or other algorithm. The
pseudocode uses the structural conventions of a normal programming language but is intended
for human reading rather than machine reading. Pseudocode typically omits details that are
essential for machine understanding of the algorithm, such as variable declarations, system-
specific code, and some subroutines.

Use case
In software and systems engineering, a use case is a list of actions or event steps, typically defining
the interactions between a role (known in the Unified Modeling Language as an actor) and a
system, to achieve a goal. The actor can be a human or other external system. In systems
engineering, use cases are used at a higher level than within software engineering, often
representing missions or stakeholder goals.

Simple Use Case Diagram

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Decision Tree
Decision tree provides a graphical representation of decision logic that helps non-computer
people find it easy to understand. The principles for the development of decision trees are relative
forward. A decision tree is a decision support tool that uses a tree-like graph or model of decisions
and their possible consequences, including chance event outcomes, resource costs, and utility. It
is one way to display an algorithm.

Decision tree

Decision Table
A decision table is a tabular method for describing the logic of the decisions to be taken. The
decision table accompanies the flowcharts defining the possible outcomes. A decision table is an
excellent tool to use in both testing and requirements management. Essentially it is a structures
exercise to formulate requirements when dealing with complex business rules. Decision tables
are used to model complicated logic.

Decision Table
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Unified Modelling Language (UML)

The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a general-purpose, development, modeling language in
the field of software engineering, that is intended to provide a standard way to visualize the
design of a system. It is a standard language for specifying, visualizing, constructing, and
documenting the artifacts of software systems, as well as for business modeling and other non-
software systems. The UML represents a collection of best engineering practices that have proven
successful in the modeling of large and complex systems.

UML Activity Diagram

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Assignment:

1. Define system analysis and design and explain its significance in today's information
systems landscape.
2. Identify and explain the key challenges faced during system analysis and design phases.
3. Differentiate between transaction processing systems (TPS) and management
information systems (MIS) based on their functionalities and user needs.
4. Provide examples of decision support systems (DSS) and discuss their role in
organizational decision-making.
5. Compare and contrast the characteristics and purposes of enterprise resource planning
(ERP) systems and customer relationship management (CRM) systems.
6. Identify different types of stakeholders involved in information systems development and
explain their respective roles and interests.
7. Describe potential conflicts that might arise between different stakeholders and suggest
strategies to manage these conflicts effectively.
8. Explain the importance of stakeholder engagement throughout the entire system
development lifecycle.
9. Outline the different phases of the SDLC and explain the key activities performed in each
phase.
10. Compare and contrast the Waterfall, Spiral, and Prototype SDLC models, highlighting their
strengths and weaknesses in different scenarios.
11. Discuss which SDLC model you would recommend for a specific type of information
system development project, justifying your choice with relevant arguments.