SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING & ARCHITECTURE 2023/2015

Highway Engineering I
Course
Lecture note

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Table of Contents

CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................................. 4
1 Highway Route Surveys and Location.................................................................................................. 4
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Highway Alignment and Route Location Survey ......................................................................... 8
1.3 Guidelines for Alignment and Route Location ............................................................................. 9
1.4 Reconnaissance survey ............................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Preliminary Location Survey ...................................................................................................... 12
1.6 Final Location Survey ................................................................................................................. 14
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................................... 16
2 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS ......................................................................................... 16
2.1 Appropriate Geometric Standards ............................................................................................... 16
2.2 Design Controls and Criteria....................................................................................................... 18
2.3 Horizontal Alignment ................................................................................................................. 22
2.4 Vertical Alignment...................................................................................................................... 32
2.5 Cross-Section .............................................................................................................................. 38
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................................................... 42
3 EARTHWORK COMPUTATIONS ................................................................................................... 42
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 42
3.2 Volume of Earthwork.................................................................................................................. 47
3.3 Haul and Overhaul ...................................................................................................................... 47
3.4 Mass Diagram ............................................................................................................................. 48
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................................ 51
4 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE ................................................................................................................... 51
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 51
4.2 Surface drainage.......................................................................................................................... 51
4.3 Determination of Runoffs ........................................................................................................... 52
4.4 Design of Open Channels ........................................................................................................... 56
4.5 Subsurface Drainage ................................................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................................................... 63
5 INTERSECTION AND INTERCHANGES ....................................................................................... 63
5.1 Types of Intersection................................................................................................................... 63

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5.2 Design Consideration and Objectives ......................................................................................... 66

5.3 Conflict area at Intersection ........................................................................................................ 66
5.4 Type of Intersection Control ....................................................................................................... 67
5.4.1 Stop signs ............................................................................................................................ 67
5.4.2 Yield Signs .......................................................................................................................... 68
5.4.3 Intersection Channelization................................................................................................. 68
5.4.4 Uncontrolled Intersections .................................................................................................. 70
5.5 Interchanges ................................................................................................................................ 72

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CHAPTER 2
Highway Route Surveys and Location
2.1 Introduction
To determine the geometric features of road design, the following surveys must be conducted
after the necessity of the road is decided.

Type of surveys and investigations

A variety of survey and investigations have to be carried out by Road engineers and
multidiscipline persons.
A. Transport Planning Surveys

o Traffic Surveys
o Highway inventories
o Pavement Deterioration Study
o Accident study
B. Alignment and Route location surveys

o Desk study
o Reconnaissance survey
o Preliminary Survey
o Final location survey
C. Drainage Studies

o Surface run- off : hydrologic and hydraulic

o Subsurface drainage: Ground water & Seepage
o Cross –drainage: location and waterway area required for the
cross-drainage structures.
D. Soil Survey

o Desk study
oSite Reconnaissance
oDetermining the complete soil profile through appropriate soil
exploration techniques; obtaining both disturbed and undisturbed
samples and testing of samples
E. Pavement Design investigation

o Soil property and strength ,Material Survey

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2.2 Highway Alignment and Route Location Survey

Once the necessity of the highway is assessed, the next process is deciding the alignment and
route location. The position or the layout of the central line of the highway on the ground is
called the alignment. Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved paths. Vertical alignment
includes curves and gradients. Alignment decision is important because a bad alignment will
enhance the construction, maintenance and vehicle operating costs. Once an alignment is fixed
and constructed, it is not easy to change it due to increase in cost of adjoining land and
construction of costly structures by the roadside.

In general, the aim of alignment selection process is to find a location for the new road that will
result in the lowest total construction, land, traffic and environmental costs.

Before an attempt can be made at selecting a physical location for a highway improvement, data
must be available regarding traffic desires and needs the planning intentions within the area to be
traversed, and estimates or the future physical characteristics of the highway itself: Location
surveys involving geologic and photogrammetric skills provide the basic information for
structural design, as well as the economic analysis that have a considerable influence on the final
location of the highway.

❖ Steps in route location:

• Know the termini points of the scheme.

• From the study of a map of the area, identify and locate:
➢ National parks
➢ Any ancient relics, castles and the likes
➢ Existence of monasteries
➢ Mining sites
➢ Existing transport facilities
➢ Other public facilities (electricity, water)
➢ Location of construction materials

• Conduct preliminary and reconnaissance surveys and collect information on pertinent details
of topography, climate, soil, vegetation, and any other factors.
• Based on the information collected in the previous two steps select a corridor.
• Identify a number of possible centerlines within the corridor.
• Make a preliminary design for the possible alternative alignments and plot on a base map.
• Examine each of the alternative alignment with respect to grades, volume of earthwork,
drainage, crossing structures, etc to select the best alternative route.
• Make final design and location of the selected best alternative route

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2.3 Guidelines for Alignment and Route Location

There are certain guidelines that must be borne in mind in selecting the alignment and locating
the route. They are:

• The route of the highway should be so selected that it can handle the traffic most
efficiently and serve the inhabited localities.
• The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only when the initial
cost, maintenance cost, and operating cost are minimum.
• The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for the
operation of vehicles. So to the maximum extend easy gradients and curves should be
provided.
• The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as possible be
straight, but due to some practical considerations deviations may be needed.
• The gradients should not be steeper and curvature not sharper than the limiting values
specified for different types of terrain or standards. Excess of either or both may result in
economy of initial cost, but will involve extremely high operation costs, time costs and
accident costs.
• The location should minimize the use of agricultural land. If a road already exists, it may
be advisable to make use of the land already available to the maximum extent.
• The location should involve the least impact on the environment.
• Obstructions such as cemeteries, places of worship, archaeological and historical
monuments should be steered through.
• Proximity to schools, playgrounds, very costly structures, lakes/ponds and hospitals
should be avoided.
• Interference with utility services like electric overhead transmission lines, water supply
mains, sewers, pipelines, etc should be avoided as far as possible.
• Frequent crossing of railway lines should be avoided.
• Locate the highway close to sources of embankment materials and pavement materials.
• Avoid marshy and low-lying land areas having poor drainage.
• Avoid areas liable to flooding.
• Steep terrain should be avoided as much as possible.
• Deep cutting and costly tunnels should be avoided as far as possible.
• Avoid areas subjected to subsidence due to mining operations.
• When the alignment has to cross major rivers, the crossing point should be fixed
carefully.

Summary:

❖ Topography, slope stability, flood hazard and Erosion are likely to be the most
significant in the choice of alignment and design of cross section.
❖ Geology, Geomorphology and hydrology are key factors in the design,
construction and maintenance of road in Ethiopia. Road geometry, earth works,
retaining structures and drainage measures must be designed in such a manner as

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to cause the least impact on the stability of the surrounding slops and natural
drainage systems.

❖ To aid in the decision making process, a classical conceptual approach has tended to be
developed with regard to gathering information about the areas being evaluated.
Generally, these can be divided into:

➢ Reconnaissance survey
➢ Preliminary location survey
➢ Final location survey

2.4 Reconnaissance survey

The purpose of the reconnaissance survey is to evaluate the feasibility of one or more corridor
routes for a highway between specific points that may be many kilometers away. Mostly a desk
study, good reconnaissance survey can be the greatest single money-saving phase in the
construction of a new road. Hence the engineer should make ample provision in both time and
finance for this stage of highway location study.

The first step in the reconnaissance survey is the location and acquisition of all maps and data
relating to the area, as well as the most suitable air photographs usually called desk study .And
the second step of reconnaissance survey is visiting the site collecting additional data usually
called as field study.

Desk study

The first step in route survey and investigation is to study all available information in the office,
Comprises a review of published and unpublished information concerning the Physical,
economical and environmental characteristics of the study area .

Some of the data that may be required:

• Published literatures: Road construction and maintenance case histories and geological,
economical and environmental reviews.
• Topographic Map
• Geological maps, Agricultural or land development map, soil map and other natural
resource maps.
• Aerial Photography if possible satellite imagery (eg. Landsat/MSS and Radar images.

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Available maps

REFERENCE: SOURCE

- Index Map of Coverage Scales Ethiopian Mapping Authority

- Atlas of Ethiopia Ethiopian Mapping Authority

- Topographic Maps scale 1:250,000 Ethiopian Mapping Authority

- Topographic Maps scale 1:50,000 Ethiopian Mapping Authority

- Aerial photographs, approximate scale 1:50,000 Ethiopian Mapping Authority

- Geological Map of Ethiopia, scale 1:2,000,000 Geological Survey of Ethiopia

- Hydrological Map of Ethiopia, scale 1:2,000,000 Ministry of Agriculture

- Land Use and Land Cover Map, scale 1:1,000,000 Ministry of Agriculture

- Hydro geological Map, Scale 1:1,000, 000 Ethiopian Institute of Geological

• All possible routes shall be located and examined on maps, satellite and air photos.
Field study

It involves inspection of each band (identified during the desk study) to determine the most
corridor feasible route based on some basic criteria. A survey party inspects a fairly broad stretch
of land along the proposed routes identified on the map during the 1st phase and collects all
relevant details not available on the map.

o A team consisting of the following personal or Engineers should make a site inspection
visit (ERA)

✓ Highway Engineer
✓ Soil & material ( pavement ) Engineer
✓ Hydrologist
✓ Chief Surveyor
✓ Bridge/Structural Engineer
✓ Environmentalist / Sociologist ,and
✓ Local Administrative Personnel

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o The following information or data should be determined or collected during the

Reconnaissance survey

1. Terrain classification
2. Bridging requirements ( number ,length)
3. Existing means of communication (mule path, 4WD...)
4. Right-of way available ,bringing out constraints on account of built-up areas,
monuments and other structures
5. Slope stability and the location of pre-existing land slides
6. Geology of the area (Geological structures, rock strength...)
7. Percentage of rock in excavation
8. Construction Material sources, presence and distribution.
9. Water source
10. Location of existing or proposed utilities along the alignment
11. Soil type and depth
12. Land use and value of land (Agricultural, built-up, forest)
13. Necessity of by passes for town and villages
14. Likely foundation conditions for major structures.
15. Slope drainage and ground water condition
16. Soil erosion and soil erodibility.
17. Drainage Stability and location of shifting channels and bank erosion.
18. Flood levels and river training/ protection requirement
19. Ecology or environmental factors (land use impact)
20. The possibility of using any existing alignment.
21. Verify the accuracy of all collected data during the desk study.
Upon completion of the reconnaissance survey, the engineer should be at least in a position to
design the more detailed geotechnical investigations which are likely to follow, and should also
have sufficient information available which, when taken in combination with the social, ecology,
traffic, economic, and political inputs, will enable the selection of one or more apparently
feasible corridor routes. If the reconnaissance survey has been very thorough, and the necessary
data are readily available, it may be possible immediately to carry out the necessary economic
and environmental comparisons to aid in the determination of the best corridor route.

The results of these studies are presented in a reconnaissance report. In its barest essentials, this
report should state the service and geometric criteria to be satisfied by the project, describe the
preferred route(s), and present tentative estimates of the cost.

2.5 Preliminary Location Survey

The preliminary survey is a large-scale study of one or more feasible corridor routes. It results in
a paper location and alignment that defines the line for the subsequent final location survey. This
paper location and alignment should show enough ties to existing topography to permit a
location party to peg the centerline. In many cases field details for final design may also be
obtained economically during the preliminary survey phase.It consists of running an accurate

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traverse line along the routes already recommended as a result of reconnaissance survey in order
to obtain sufficient data for final location.

o Establishing primary Traverse following the line recommended in the reconnaissance

survey
o Record all topographical features
o Levelling work: to determine the Centre Line, Profile & Typical Cross-sections (just
sufficient to approximate earthwork)
o Hydrological Data: to estimate type, number, & size of cross-drainage structures, and the
grade line is decided based on the hydrological and drainage data
o Soil Survey: the suitability of proposed alignment is to be finally decided based on the
soil survey data. The soil survey at this stage helps to workout details of earthwork,
slopes, suitability of materials, sub-soil and surface drainage requirements, pavement
type and approximate thickness requirements
The preliminary survey is made for the purpose of collecting the additional physical information
that may affect the location of the highway within a given corridor area, the shape of the ground,
any potential ground subsidence problems, the limits of the catchment areas, the positions and
invert levels of streams and ditches, and the positions of trees, banks and hedges, bridges,
culverts, existing roads, power lines and pipe lines, houses and monuments are determined and
noted. These are then translated into maps, profiles and (frequently) cross sections that can assist
the engineer in the determination of preliminary grades and alignments and the preparation of
cost estimates for alternative centerlines.

Two approaches are available for preliminary survey mapping: aerial surveys and ground
surveys, either separately or in various combinations.

The ground survey method is best used in the situation where then corridor is closely defined,
narrow right-of-way are contemplated, and the problems of man-made culture are clear. Ground
surveys, beginning with a traverse baseline, will probably furnish necessary data quite
economically. Additional operations that can be quite easily included are the profile levels and
cross-sections, and the ties to land lines and cultural objects.

The aerial survey is likely to be more suitable and economical in the following instances:

• Where the reconnaissance was unable to approximate closely the final alignment?
• Where a wide right-of-way is necessitated?
• Where it is desired to prevent the premature or erroneous disclosure of the details of
probable location (preventing any land speculation or the premature awakening of local
public concerns).

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In general, the objectives of preliminary surveys are

➢ Survey and collect necessary data (topography, drainage, soil, etc.) on alternate
corridor routes.
o Establishing primary Traverse following the line recommended in the
reconnaissance survey.
o Record all topographical features.
o Levelling work: to determine the Centre Line, Profile & Typical Cross-
sections (just sufficient to approximate earthwork)
o Hydrological Data: to estimate type, number, & size of cross-drainage
structures, and the grade line is decided based on the hydrological and
drainage data.
o Soil Survey: the suitability of proposed alignment is to be finally decided
based on the soil survey data. The soil survey at this stage helps to work
out details of earthwork, slopes, suitability of materials, sub-soil and
surface drainage requirements, pavement type and approximate thickness
requirements

➢ To estimate quantity of earthwork, material, … of different corridor routes

➢ Compare alternate corridor routes.
Finalize the best corridor routes from all consideration

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2.6 Final Location Survey

This survey, much of which is very often carried out as part of the preliminary survey, serves the
dual purpose to fix the centre line of the selected alignment and collect additional data for the
design and preparation of working drawings. If extensive data is collected earlier the survey
work here might be limited.

Steps in Final Location Survey

• Pegging the centre line: usually done at stations established at 30m intervals with
reference to preliminary traverse/ base line (if used earlier) or a control survey (if aerial
survey was used).
• Centre-line Levelling: at the stations and at intermediate points between stations where
there is a significant change in the slope to obtain the representative profile of the ground

• Cross-section Levelling: at each station and at points with significant change in ground
slope

• Intersecting Roads: the directions of the centre line of all intersecting roads, profiles, and
cross-sections for some distance on both sides.
• Ditches and Streams: horizontal alignment, profile, and cross section levelling of the
banks of the stream.

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The data, after the necessary investigation and final location survey, is sent to the design office to
be used for

o geometric design, pavement design, and design of drainage and other structures,
preparation of drawings, reports, and specifications
✓ A complete sets of drawings for a road design include:
o Site plan of proposed alignment
o Detailed Plan & Profile
o Cross-sections for Earth work
o Typical Roadway sections at selected locations (e.g. junctions)
o A mass-haul diagram
o Construction details of structures like bridges, culverts,

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CHAPTER 3
1 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road in the terrain is designed to meet
the needs of the road users.

3.1 Appropriate Geometric Standards

The needs of road users in developing countries are often very different from those in the
industrialized countries. In developing countries, pedestrians, animal-drawn carts, etc., are often
important components of the traffic mix, even on major roads. Lorries and buses often represent
the largest proportion of the motorized traffic, while traffic composition in the industrialized
countries is dominated by the passenger car. As a result, there may be less need for high-speed
roads in developing countries and it will often be more appropriate to provide wide and strong
shoulders. Traffic volumes on most rural roads in developing countries are also relatively low.
Thus, providing a road with high geometric standards may not be economic., since transport cost
savings may not offset construction costs. The requirements for wide carriageways, flat gradients
and full overtaking sight distance may therefore be inappropriate. Also, in countries with weak
economies, design levels of comfort used in industrialized countries may well be a luxury that
cannot be afforded.

When developing appropriate geometric design standards for a particular road in a developing
country, the first step should normally be to identify the objective of the road project. It is
convenient to define the objective in terms of three distinct stages of development as follows:

Stage 1 – Provision of access

Stage 2 - Provision of additional capacity

Stage 3 – Increase of operational efficiency

Developing countries, by their very nature, will usually not be at stage 3 of this sequence; indeed
most will be at the first stage. However, design standards currently in use are generally
developed for countries at stage 3 and they have been developed for roads carrying relatively
large volumes of traffic. For convenience, these same standards have traditionally been applied
to low-volume roads that lead to uneconomic and technically inappropriate designs.

A study to develop appropriate geometric design standards for use in developing countries has
been undertaken by the Overseas Unit of Transport Research Laboratory (TRL formerly TRRL).
The study revealed that most standards currently in use are considerably higher than can be
justified from an economic or safety point of view. Geometric design recommendations have
been published in Overseas Road Note 6.

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In the above-mentioned Overseas Road Note 6 rural access roads are classified into three groups.

Access roads are the lowest level in the network hierarchy. Vehicular flows will be very light
and will be aggregated in the collector road network. Geometric standards may be low and need
only be sufficient to provide appropriate access to the rural agricultural, commercial, and
population centers served. Substantial proportions of the total movements are likely to be by
non-motorized traffic.

Collector roads have the function of linking traffic to and from rural areas, either direct to
adjacent urban centers, or to the arterial road network. Traffic flows and trip lengths will be of an
intermediate level and the need for high geometric standards is therefore less important.

Arterial roads are the main routes connecting national and international centers. Trip lengths are
likely to be relatively long and levels of traffic flow and speed relatively high. Geometric
standards need to be adequate to enable efficient traffic operation under these conditions, in
which vehicle-to-vehicle interactions may be high.

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3.2 Design Controls and Criteria

The elements of design are influenced by a wide variety of design controls, engineering criteria,
and project specific objectives. Such factors include the following:

➢ Functional classification of the roadway

➢ Projected traffic volume and composition
➢ Required design speed
➢ Topography of the surrounding land
➢ Capital costs for construction
➢ Human sensory capacities of roadway users
➢ Vehicle size and performance characteristics
➢ Traffic safety considerations
➢ Environmental considerations
➢ Right-of-way impacts and costs

These considerations are not, of course, completely independent of one another. The functional
class of a proposed facility is largely determined by the volume and composition of the traffic to
be served. It is also related to the type of service that a highway will accommodate and the speed
that a vehicle will travel while being driven along a highway.

Of all the factors that are considered in the design of a highway, the principal design criteria are
traffic volume, design speed, sight distances, vehicle size, and vehicle mix.

Design Speed and Design Class

The assumed design speed for a highway may be considered as “ the maximum safe speed that
can be maintained over a specified section of a highway when conditions are so favorable that
the design features govern”. The choice of design speed will depend primarily on the
surrounding terrain and the functional class of the highway. Other factors determining the
selection of design speed include traffic volume, costs of right-of-way and construction, and
aesthetic consideration.

It is therefore recommended that the basic parameters of road function, terrain type and traffic
flow are defined initially. On the basis of these parameters, a design class is selected, while
design speed is used only as an index which links design class to the design parameters of sight
distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is presented with a reasonably consistent speed
environment.

Table 3.1 shows the design classes and design speeds recommended in Overseas Road Note 6 in
relation to road function, volume of traffic and terrain. The table also contains recommended
standards for carriageway and shoulder width and maximum gradient.

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The terrain classification as „level‟, „rolling‟ or „mountainous‟ may be defined as average ground
slope measured as the number of five-meter contour lines crossed per kilometer on a straight line
linking the two ends of the road section as follows:

• Level terrain: 0 – 10 ground contours per kilometer;

• Rolling terrain: 11 – 25 ground contours per kilometer;
• Mountainous terrain: > 25 ground contours per kilometer.

Table 3.1 Road design standards (TRRL Overseas Road Note 6)

Sight Distance
The driver‟s ability to see ahead contributes to safe and efficient operation of the road. Ideally,
geometric design should ensure that at all times any object on the pavement surface is visible to
the driver within normal eye-sight distance. However, this is not usually feasible because of
topographical and other constraints, so it is necessary to design roads on the basis of lower, but
safe, sight distances.

There are three different sight distances that are of interest in geometric design:
➢ Stopping sight distance;
➢ Meeting sight distance;
➢ Passing sight distance.

Stopping Sight Distance:

The Stopping sight distance comprises two elements: d1 = the distance moved from the instant
the object is sighted to the moment the brakes are applied (the perception and brake reaction
time, referred to as the total reaction time) and d2 = the distance traversed while braking (the
braking distance).

The total reaction time depends on the physical and mental characteristics of the driver,
atmospheric visibility, types and condition of the road and distance to, size color and shape of the
hazard. When drivers are keenly as in urban conditions with high traffic intensity, the reaction
time may be in the range of 0.5 – 1.0 seconds while driver reaction time is generally around 2 – 4

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seconds for normal driving in rural conditions. Overseas Road Note 6 assumes a total reaction
time of 2 sec.

The distance traveled before the brakes are applied is:

d1 = 10/36 * V * t
where:
d1 = total reaction distance in m;
V = initial vehicle speed in Km/h
t = reaction time in sec.
The braking distance, d2, is dependent on vehicle condition and characteristics, the coefficient of
friction between tyre and road surface, the gradient of the road and the initial vehicle speed.
d2 = V2 / (254(f + g/100))
where:
d2 = breaking distance in meters;
V = initial vehicle speed in km/h;
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction;
g = gradient( in %; positive if uphill and negative if downhill)
The determination of design values of longitudinal friction, f, is complicated because of the
many factors involved. The design values for longitudinal friction used in Overseas Road Note 6
are shown in table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Coefficient of Longitudinal friction

Design speed 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
(Km/h)
f 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.47 0.43 0.40 0.37 0.35

Meeting Sight Distance:

Meeting sight distance is the distance required to enable the drivers of two vehicles traveling in
opposite directions to bring their vehicles to a safe stop after becoming visible to each other.
Meeting sight distance is normally calculated as twice the minimum stopping sight distance.

Passing Sight Distance:

Factors affecting passing (overtaking) sight distance are the judgment of overtaking drivers, the
speed and size of overtaken vehicles, the acceleration capabilities of overtaking vehicles, and the
speed of oncoming vehicles.

Passing sight distances are determined empirically and are usually based on passenger car
requirements. There are differences in various standards for passing sight distance due to
different assumptions about the component distances in which a passing maneuver can be
divided, different assumed speed for the maneuver and, to some extent driver behavior.

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The passing sight distances recommended for use by Overseas Road Note 6 are shown in table
3.3.

Table 3.3 Passing sight distances

Design speed (Km/h) 50 60 70 85 100 120

Passing sight distance(m) 140 180 240 320 430 590

Traffic Volume
Information on traffic volumes, traffic composition and traffic loading are important factors in
the determination of the appropriate standard of a road. The traffic has a major impact on the
selection of road class, and consequently on all geometric design elements. The traffic
information is furthermore necessary for the pavement design.

For low volume roads the design control is the Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) in the
„design year‟. For routes with large seasonal variations the design control is the Average Daily
Traffic (ADT) during the peak months of the „design year‟. The design year is usually selected as
year 10 after the year of opening to traffic.

Design Vehicle
The dimensions of the motor vehicles that will utilize the proposed facility also influence the
design of a roadway project. The width of the vehicle naturally affects the width of the traffic
lane; the vehicle length has a bearing on roadway capacity and affects the turning radius; the
vehicle height affects the clearance of the various structures. Vehicle weight affects the structural
design of the roadway.

The design engineer will select for design the largest vehicle that is expected to use the roadway
facility in significant numbers on a daily basis.

Geometric Design Elements

The basic elements of geometric design are: the horizontal alignment, the vertical alignment and
the cross-section. The following elements must be considered when carrying out the geometric
design of a road:

1. Horizontal Alignment:
➢ Minimum curve radius (maximum degree of curvature);
➢ Minimum length of tangent between compound or reverse curves;
➢ Transition curve parameters;
➢ Minimum passing sight distance and stopping sight distance on horizontal curves.

2. Vertical Alignment:
➢ Maximum gradient;
➢ Length of maximum gradient;

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➢ Minimum passing sight distance or stopping sight distance on summit (crest)

curves;
➢ Length of sag curves.
3. Cross-section:
➢ Width of carriageway;
➢ Crossfall of carriageway;
➢ Rate of super elevation;
➢ Widening of bends;
➢ Width of shoulder;
➢ Crossfall of shoulder;
➢ Width of structures;
➢ Width of right-of-way;
➢ Sight distance;
➢ Cut and fill slopes and ditch cross-section.
Horizontal and vertical alignment should not be designed independently. They complement each
other and proper combination of horizontal and vertical alignment, which increases road utility
and safety, encourages uniform speed, and improves appearance, can almost always be obtained
without additional costs.

3.3 Horizontal Alignment

The horizontal alignment should always be designed to the highest standard consistent with the
topography and be chosen carefully to provide good drainage and minimize earthworks. The
alignment design should also be aimed at achieving a uniform operating speed. Therefore the
standard of alignment selected for a particular section of road should extend throughout the
section with no sudden changes from easy to sharp curvature. Where a sharp curvature is
unavoidable, a sequence of curves of decreasing radius is recommended.

The horizontal alignment consists of a series of intersecting tangents and circular curves, with or
without transition curves.

Straights (Tangents)
Long straights should be avoided, as they are monotonous for drivers and cause headlight dazzle
on straight grades. A more pleasing appearance and higher road safety can be obtained by a
winding alignment with tangents deflecting some 5 – 10 degrees alternately to the left and right.
Short straights between curves in the same direction should not be used because of the broken
back effect. In such cases where a reasonable tangent length is not attainable, the use of long,
transitions or compound curvature should be considered.
The following guidelines may be applied concerning the length of straights:

➢ Straights should not have lengths greater than (20 * V) meters, where V is the design
speed in km/h.
➢ Straights between circular curves turning in the same direction should have lengths
greater than (6*V) meters, where V is the design speed in km/h.

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➢ Straights between the end and the beginning of untransitioned reverse circular curves
should have lengths greater than two-thirds of the total superelevation run-off.

Circular Curves
Horizontal curvature design is one of the most important features influencing the efficiency and
safety of a highway. Improper design will result in lower speeds and lowering of highway
capacity.

Figure 3.1. Parts of a Circular Curve

Note:
• PC – point of curvature
• PI – point of intersection
• PT – point of tangency
• Δ – central angle
• R – radius of curve
• D – degree of curve that defines,

a. Central angle which subtends 20m arc (arc definition),

b. Central angle which subtends 20m chord (Chord definition)
From arc definition,
R = 1145.916 / D
From chord definition,

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R = 10 / Sin(D/2)

• Tangent (T): distance from PC to PI(backward tangent) or from PT to PI(forward

tangent)
T = R*tan(Δ/2)
• External distance (E): distance from PI to middle of curve.

E = R*(Sec(Δ/2) – 1 Or E = T*tan(Δ/4)

• Middle ordinate (M): length from the middle of chord to the middle of curve.

M = R*(1- Cos(Δ/2))
• Long chord(C): straight-line distance from A to B.

C = 2R*Sin(Δ/2)
• Length of Curve (Lc): distance from PC to PT along the curve.

Lc = 20* Δ/D Or Lc = R*π* Δ/180

• Sub-arc angles di: are angles subtended by an arc less than the degree of curve (D).
di = Ai*D/20
where:
di = angle subtended by sub-arc of length Ai
Ai = arc less than 20m.

• Sub chord angle (dj): are angles subtended by a chord less than the degree of curve (D).

cj = 2R*Sin(dj/2)
Also
cj = 20Sin(dj/2)/Sin(D/2)
Where:
dj = angle subtended by sub-chord of length cj
cj = chord less than 20m.

• Deflection angles: The angle that a chord deflects from a tangent to a circular curve is
measured by half of the intercepted arc.

o Deflection angle for Lc m = Δ/2

o Deflection angle for 20m = D/2
o Deflection angle for Ai m = di/2

• Stations of PC, PI, and PT:

PC = PI – T
P T = PC + Lc or PT = PI + T

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Several variations of the circular curve deserve consideration when developing the horizontal
alignment for a highway design. When two curves in the same direction are connected with a
short tangent, this condition is referred to as a “broken back” arrangement of curves. This type of
alignment should be avoided except where very unusual topographical or right-of-way
conditions dictate otherwise. Highway engineers generally consider the broken back alignment to
be unpleasant and awkward and prefer spiral transitions or a compound curve alignment with
continuous superelvation for such conditions.

Figure 3.2 identifies elements of a typical compound highway curve with variable definitions and
basic equations developed for a larger and smaller radius curve, based on the assumption that the
radius dimensions RL and RS and central angles ΔL and ΔS are given or have been previously
determined.

Figure 3.2 Properties of a Compound Curve

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Another important variation of the circular highway curve is the use of reverse curves, which
are adjacent curves that curve in opposite directions. The alignment illustrated in figure 3.3,
which shows a point of reverse curvature, PRC, and no tangent separating the curves, would be
suitable only for low-speed roads such as those in mountainous terrain. A sufficient length of
tangent between the curves should usually be provided to allow removal of the superelevation
from the first curve and attainment of adverse superelevation for the second curve.

Figure 3.3 Properties of a Reverse Curve

Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves:

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(a) (b)

Figure 3.4 Sight Distance Around Horizontal Curve: (a) S < Lc and (b) S > Lc

Situations frequently exist where an object on the inside of a curve, such as vegetation, building
or cut face, obstructs the line of sight. Where it is either not feasible or economically justified to
move the object a larger radius of curve will e required to ensure that stopping sight distance is
available. The required radius of curve is dependent on the distance of the obstruction from the
centerline and the sight distance.

Case 1. S < Lc
S = 40 * Cos-1 ((R-M)/R) / D
Case 2. S > Lc
M = Lc* (2S - Lc) / 8R

Night driving around sharp curves introduces an added problem related to horizontal sight
distance. Motor-vehicle headlights are pointed directly toward the front and do not provide as
much illumination in oblique directions. Even if adequate horizontal sight distance is provided, it
has little useful purpose at night because the headlights are directed along a tangent to the curve,
and the roadway itself is not properly illuminated.

Superelevation

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Anybody moving rapidly along a curved

path is subject to an outward reactive force
called the centrifugal force. If the surface is
flat, the vehicle is held in the curved path
by side friction between tires and
pavement. The total of these friction forces
balances the centrifugal force. Expressed in
terms of the coefficient of friction f and the
normal forces between the pavement and
the tires, the relationship is

m *v2/R = (NL + NR)*f = m*g*f

Figure 3.5 Forces acting on a vehicle moving or
along a curved path. f = v2 / ( g * R)
When velocity v(m/s) is stated in V(Km/h), and the radius of curve(R) in meters, the equation
reduces to
f = V2 / (127*R)
On highway curves, this centrifugal force acts through the center of mass of the vehicle and
creates an overturning moment about the points of contact between the outer wheels and the
pavement. But a stabilizing (resisting) moment is created by the weight acting through the center
of mass. Thus for equilibrium conditions,

(m * v2 / R) * h = m * g * d/2
and
h = d / (2v2 / gR) = d / 2f
where
h = height of the center of mass above pavement
d = lateral width between the wheels

For the moment equation, if f = 0.5, then the height to the center of mass must be greater than the
lateral distance between the wheels before overturning will take place. Modern passenger
vehicles have low center of mass so that relatively high values of f have to be developed before
overturning would take place. In practice, the frictional value is usually sufficiently low for
sliding to take place before overturning. It is only with certain commercial vehicles having high
center of mass that the problem of overturning may arise.

In order to resist the outward acting centrifugal force, and to enable vehicles to round curves at
design speed without discomfort to their occupants, the pavements are “tilted” or
“superelevated” so that the outer edges are higher than the inner edges. This tilting, plus

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frictional resistance between the tires and the pavement provides a horizontal resistance to the
centrifugal forces generated by the circular movement of the vehicle around a curve.

Analysis of the forces acting on a vehicle as it moves around a curve of constant radius indicates
that the theoretical superelevation can be expressed as:

e + f = V2 / (127*R) .................................................................... (*)

where:
e = rate of superelevation(m per m)
f = side friction factor (or coefficient of lateral friction)
V = speed (Km/hr)
R = radius of curvature (m)

Equation (*) above is the basic equation relating the speed of vehicles, the radius of curve, the
superelevation and the coefficient of lateral friction. This equation forms the basis of design of
horizontal curves.

If the entire centrifugal force is counteracted by the superelevation, frictional force will not be
called into play. Proper design does not normally take full advantage of the obtainable lateral
coefficients of friction, since the design should not be based on a condition of incipient sliding.
In design, engineers use only a portion of the friction factor, accounting for the comfort and
safety of the vast majority of drivers.

From equation (*), the minimum radius or maximum degree of curvature for a given design
speed can be determined from the rate of superelevation and side friction factor.

R = V2 / (127*(e + f))
D = 1145.916 / R

Attainment of Superelevation:
The transition from a tangent, normal crown section to a curved superelevated section must be
accompanied without any appreciable reduction in speed and in such a manner as to ensure
safety and comfort to the occupants of the traveling vehicle.

The normal cambered surface on a straight reach of road is changed into a superelevated surface
into two stages. In the first stage, the outer half of the camber is gradually raised until it is level.
In the second stage, three methods may be adopted to attain the full super-elevation.
i. The surface of the road is rotated about the centerline of the carriageway, gradually
lowering the inner edge and raising the upper edge, keeping the level of the centerline
constant.
ii. The surface of the road is rotated about the inner edge, raising the center and the outer
edge.
iii. The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge depressing the center and the outer
edge.

Method (i) is the most generally used.

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The distance required for accomplishing the transition from a normal to a superelevated section,
commonly referred to as the transition runoff, is a function of the design speed and the rate of
superelevation.

Superelevation is usually started on the tangent at some distance before the curve starts, and the
full superelevation is generally reached beyond the point of curvature (PC) of the curve. In
curves with transitions, the superelevation can be attained within the limits of the spiral.

Value of Coefficient of Lateral Friction:

The value of coefficient of lateral friction depends upon a number of factors, chief among them
being the vehicle speed, type and condition of roadway surfaces, and type and condition of the
tyres.

Table 3.4 Coefficient of Lateral Friction as Recommended by AASHTO

Design 50 65 80 100 120 130
Speed
(Km/hr)
Maximum 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11
f

Table 3.5 Coeff. Of Lateral Friction as Recommended by TRRL Overseas Road Note 6
Design 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120
Speed(Km/hr)
f 0.33 0.30 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.15 0.15

Maximum Super-elevation Value:

If eqn (*) is to be used for design, it is desirable to know the maximum super-elevation that can
be permitted. Practice in this regard varies from country to country.

According to Transport Construction Design Enterprise (TCDE):

• emax = 10%
• fmax = 0.16

Transition Curves
Transition curves provide a gradual change from the tangent section to the circular curve and
vice versa. For most curves, drivers can follow a transition path within the limits of a normal
lane width, and a spiral transition in the alignment is not necessary. However, along high-speed
roadways with sharp curvature, transition curves may be needed to prevent drivers from
encroaching into adjoining lanes.

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A curve known as the Euler spiral or clothoid is commonly used in highway design. The radius
of the spiral varies from infinity at the tangent end to the radius of the circular arc at the end of
the spiral. The radius of the spiral at any point is inversely proportional to the distance from its
beginning point.

Figure 3.6 Main Elements of A Circular Curve Provided with Transitions

Some of the important properties of the spirals are given below:

▪ L = 2Rθ
▪ θ = (L / Ls)2 * θs
▪ θs = Ls / 2Rc (in radians) = 28.65Ls / Rc (in degrees)
▪ Ts = L2s /2 + (Rc + S)*tan(Δ/2)
▪ S = L / 24R
s c
▪ Es = (Rc + S)*sec(Δ/2) - Rc
Note:
θs = spiral angle
Δ = total central angle
Δc = central angle of the circular arc extending from BC to EC = Δ - 2 θs
Rc = radius of circular curve
L = length of spiral from starting point to any point
R = radius of curvature of the spiral at a point L distant from starting point.
Ts = tangent distance
Es = external distance
S = shift
HIP = horizontal intersection point

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BS = beginning of spiral
BC = beginning of circular curve
EC = end of circular curve
ES = end of spiral curve

Length of Transition:
The length of transition should be determined from the following two conditions:

➢ The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration adopted in the design should not cause
discomfort to the drivers. If C is the rate of change of acceleration,

Ls = 0.0215V3 / (C*Rc)
Where:
V = speed (Km/hr)
Rc = radius of the circular curve (m)

➢ The rate of change of superelevation (superelevation application ratio) should be such as

not to cause higher gradients and unsightly appearances. Since superelevation can be
given by rotating about the centerline, inner edge or outer edge, the length of the
transition will be governed accordingly.

Widening of Curves
Extra width of pavement may be necessary on curves. As a vehicle turns, the rear wheels follow
the front wheels on a shorter radius, and this has the effect of increasing the width of the vehicle
in relation to the lane width of the roadway. Studies of drivers traversing curves have shown that
there is a tendency to drive a curved path longer than the actual curve, shifting the vehicle
laterally to the right on right-turning curves and to the left on left-turning curves. Thus, on right-
turning curves the vehicle shifts toward the inside edge of the pavement, creating a need for
additional pavement width. The amount of widening needed varies with the width of the
pavement on tangent, the design speed, and the curve radius or degree of curvature.

The widening required can be calculated from

We = n *B2/ 2R + V / 10 R
Where:
We = total widening
B = wheel base
R = radius of curve
V = design speed (Km/hr)
n = number of lanes

3.4 Vertical Alignment

The vertical alignment of the roadway and its effect on the safe, economical operation of the
motor vehicle constitute one of the most important features of a highway design. The vertical
alignment, which consists a series of straight profile lines connected by vertical parabolic curves,
is known as the profile grade line. When the profile grade line is increasing from a level or flat

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alignment, this condition is referred to as a “plus grade”, and when the grade is decreasing from
a level alignment, the grade is termed a “minus grade”. In analyzing grade and grade controls,
the designer usually studies the effect of change on the centerline profile of the roadway.

In the establishment of a grade, an ideal situation is one in which the cut is balanced against the
fill without a great deal of borrow or an excess of cut material to be wasted. All earthwork hauls
should be moved in a downhill direction if possible and within a relatively short distance from
the origin, due to the expense of moving large quantities of soil. Ideal grades have long distances
between points of intersection, with long curves between grade tangents to provide smooth riding
qualities and good visibility. The grade should follow the general terrain and rise or fall in the
direction of the existing drainage. In rock cuts and in flat, low-lying or swampy areas, it is
necessary to maintain higher grades with respect to the existing ground line. Future possible
construction and the presence of grade separations or bridge structures can also act as control
criteria for the design of a vertical alignment.

Grades and Grade Control

Changes of grade from plus to minus should be placed in cuts, and changes from a minus grade
to a plus grade should be placed in fills. This will generally give a good design, and many times
it will avoid the appearance of building hills and producing depressions contrary to the general
existing contours of the land. Other considerations for determining the grade line may be of more
importance than the balancing of cuts and fills.

In the analysis of grades and grade control, one of the most important considerations is the effect
of grades on the operating costs of the motor vehicle. An increase in gasoline consumption, a
reduction in speed, and an increase in emissions and noise are apparent when grades are
increased. An economical approach would be to balance the added cost of grade reduction
against the annual costs and impacts of vehicle operation without grade reduction. An accurate
solution to the problem depends on the knowledge of traffic volume and type, which can be
obtained by means of a traffic survey.

Minimum grades are governed by drainage conditions. Level grades may be used in fill sections
in rural areas when crowned pavements and sloping shoulders can take care of the pavement
surface drainage. However, it is preferred that the profile grade be designed to have a minimum
grade of at least 0.3 percent under most conditions in order to secure adequate drainage.

Vertical Curves
The parabolic curve is used almost exclusively in connecting profile grade tangents. The primary
reason for the use of this type of curve in vertical highway alignments is the convenient manner
in which the vertical offsets can be computed and the smooth transitions created from tangent to
curve and then back to tangent. When a vertical curve connects a positive grade with a negative
grade, it is referred to as a “crest curve”. Likewise, when a vertical curve connects a negative
grade with a positive grade, it is termed a “sag curve”. Various configurations of crest and sag
curves are illustrated in figure 3.7. Various definitions and basic equations for a typical vertical
curve are presented in figure 3.8. The sign conventions for g1 and g2 allow the use of the same
formulas in the calculation of offsets and elevations for a sag curve also.

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All distances along vertical curves are measured horizontally, and all offsets from the tangents to
the curve are measured vertically. Accordingly, the length of a vertical curve is its horizontal
projection. The error resulting from this assumption is negligible in practice since the curve is
quite flat. Unless otherwise defined, vertical curves are symmetrical in the sense that the tangents
are equal in length.

Figure 3.7 Types of crest and sag vertical curves

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Figure 3.8 Properties of a typical vertical curve

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Length of Vertical Curves

A. Crest Curves:

For crest curves, the most important consideration in determining the length of the curve
is the sight distance requirement.

Case1: S < L

GS 2
L=
( 2 h1 + 2 h 2) 2

Case 2: S > L

2 ( h1 + h 2) 2
L=2*S−
G

AASHTO recommendations:
• For stopping sight distance over crest: h1 = 1.07m and h2 = 0.15m
• For passing sight distance over crest: h1 = 1.07m and h2 = 1.30m

B. Sag Curves:

For sag curves, the criteria for determining the length are vehicle headlight distance, rider
comfort, drainage control and general appearance.

B.1 Headlight Sight Distance:

Case 1: S < L

S 2G
L=
1 .22 + 0 .035 * S

Case 2: S > L

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 1 .22 + 0 .035 * S 
L=2S− 
 G 

B.2 Comfort

There is still a considerable difference of opinion as to what value of radial acceleration should
be used on vertical curves for comfort purposes. The most commonly quoted values are between
0.30 and 0.46m/s2, but lesser values are preferred. If the vertical radial acceleration is assumed to
be equal to ar (in m/s2), then

V 2G
L= V - Speed in Km/hr
13 a r

Sight Distances at Underpass Structures:

Case 1: S < L
S 2G
L=
8m
where:
m = C – (h1+h2)/2

C = Vertical clearance

Case 2: S > L

8m
L=2S−
G

• AASHTO recommendations: h1 = 1.829m, h2 = 0.457m and C = 5.182m

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3.5 Cross-Section
The cross-sectional elements in a highway design pertain to those features that deal with its
width. They embrace aspects such as right-of-way, roadway width, central reservations
(medians), shoulders, camber, side-slope etc.

Right- Of –Way
The right-of-way width is the width of land secured and preserved to the public for road
purposes. The right-of-way should be adequate to accommodate all the elements that make up
the cross-section of the highway and may reasonably provide for future development.

Road Width
Road width should be minimized so as to reduce the costs of construction and maintenance,
whilst being sufficient to carry the traffic loading efficiently and safely.

The following factors need to be taken into account when selecting the width of a road:

1. Classification of the road. A road is normally classified according to its function in the
road network. The higher the class of road, the higher the level of service expected and
the wider the road will need to be.
2. Traffic. Heavy traffic volumes on a road mean that passing of oncoming vehicles and
overtaking of slower vehicles are more frequent and therefore that paths of vehicles will
be further from the center-line of the road and the traffic lanes should be wider.
3. Vehicle dimensions. Normal steering deviations and tracking errors, particularly of
heavy vehicles, reduce clearances between passing vehicles. Higher truck percentages
require wider traffic lanes.
4. Vehicle speed. As speeds increase, drivers have less control of the lateral position of
vehicles, reducing clearances, and so wider traffic lanes are needed.
Figure 3.9 shows the typical cross-sections recommended by Overseas Road Note 6, for the
various road design classes A – F.

The cross-section of the road is usually maintained across culverts, but special cross-sections
may need to be designed for bridges, taking into account traffic such as pedestrians, cyclists, etc.,
as well as motor traffic. Reduction in the carriageway width may be accepted, for instance, when
an existing narrow bridge has to be retained because it is not economically feasible to replace or
widen it. It may also sometimes be economic to construct a superstructure of reduced width
initially with provision for it to be widened later when traffic warrants it. In such cases a proper
application of traffic signs, rumble strips or speed bumps is required to warn motorists of the
discontinuity in the road.

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Figure 3.9 Typical cross-sections (TRRL Overseas Road Note 6)

For single-lane roads without shoulders passing places must be provided to allow passing and
overtaking. The total road width at passing places should be a minimum of 5.0m but preferably

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5.5m, which allows two trucks to pass safely at low speed. The length of individual passing
places will vary with local conditions and the sizes of vehicles in common use but, generally, a
length of 20m including tapers will cater for trucks with a wheelbase of 6.5m and an overall
length of 11.0m.

Normally, passing places should be located every 300-500m depending on the terrain and
geometric conditions. They should be located within sight distance of each other and be
constructed at the most economic locations as determined by terrain and ground conditions, such
as at transitions from cut to fill, rather than at precise intervals.

Shoulders
Shoulders provide for the accommodation of stopped vehicles. Properly designed shoulders also
provide an emergency outlet for motorists finding themselves on a collision course and they also
serve to provide lateral support to the carriageway. Further, shoulders improve sight distances
and induce a sense of „openness‟ that improves capacity and encourages uniformity of speed.

In developing countries shoulders are used extensively by non-motorized traffic (pedestrians,

bicycles and animals) and a significant proportion of the goods may be transported by such non-
motorized means.

Cross-Fall
Two-lane roads should be provided with a camber consisting of a straight-line cross-fall from the
center-line to the carriageway edges, while straight cross-fall from edge to edge of the
carriageway is used for single-lane roads and for each carriageway of divided roads.

The cross-fall should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage whilst not being so great
as to be hazardous by making steering difficult. The ability of a surface to shed water varies with
its smoothness and integrity. On unpaved roads, the minimum acceptable value of cross-fall
should be related to the need to carry surface water away from the pavement structure
effectively, with a maximum value above which erosion of a material starts to become a
problem.

According to Overseas Road Note 6 the normal cross-fall should be 3% on paved roads and 4 –
6% on unpaved roads.

Due to the action of traffic and weather the cross-fall of unpaved roads will gradually be reduced
and rutting may develop. To avoid the rutting developing into potholes a cross-fall of 5 – 6%
should be reestablished during the routine and periodic maintenance works.

Shoulders having the same surface as the carriageway should have the same cross-slope.
Unpaved shoulders on a paved road should be about 2% steeper than the cross-fall of the
carriageway.

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Side Slopes
The slopes of fills (embankments) and cuts must be adapted to the soil properties, topography
and importance of the road. Earth fills of common soil types and usual height may stand safely
on slopes of 1 on 1.5 and slopes of cuts through undisturbed earth with cementing properties
remain in place with slopes of about 1 on 1. Rock cuts are usually stable at slopes of 4 on 1 or
even steeper depending on the homogeneity of the rock formation and direction of possible dips
and strikes.

Using these relatively steep slopes will result in minimization of earthworks, but steep slopes are,
on the other hand, more liable to erosion than flatter slopes as plant and grass growth is
hampered and surface water velocity will be higher. Thus the savings in original excavation and
embankment costs may be more than offset by increased maintenance through the years.

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CHAPTER 4
4 EARTHWORK COMPUTATIONS

4.1 Introduction
The term earthwork includes all clearing, grubbing, roadway and drainage excavation,
excavation for structures, embankments, borrow, overhaul, machine grading, subgrade
scarifying, rock fill, and all the operations of preparing the subgrade foundation for highway or
runway pavement. The quantity and cost of earthwork are calculated in terms of cubic meters of
excavation in its original position on the basis of cross-section notes from field measurements.
Modern grading operations are carried on by power equipment including power shovels,
scrapers, bulldozers, blade graders, rollers, dragline excavators, motor trucks, tractors, etc.

Classification of Excavated Material

Excavated material is usually classified as (1) common excavation, (2) loose rock, or (3) solid
rock. Common excavation is largely earth, or earth with detached boulders less than ½ cu yd.
Loose rock usually refers to rock which can be removed with pick and bar, although the use of
power shovels or blasting may be advantageous. Solid rock comprises hard rock in place and
boulders that can be removed only by the use of drilling and blasting equipment.

Shrinkage and Swell Factors

When earth is excavated and hauled to form an embankment, the freshly excavated material
generally increases in volume. However, during the process of building the embankment it is
compacted, so that the final volume is less than when in its original condition. This difference in
volume is usually defined as “shrinkage”. In estimating earthwork quantities, it is necessary to
make allowance for this factor. The amount of shrinkage varies with the soil type and the depth
of the fill. An allowance of 10 to 15 percent is frequently made for high fills and 20 to 25 percent
for shallow fills. The shrinkage may be as high as 40 or 50 percent for some soils. This generally
also allows for shrinkage due to loss of material in the hauling process.

When rock is excavated and placed in the embankment, the material will occupy a larger
volume. This increase is called “ swell” and may amount to 30 percent or more.

Percent shrinkage = (1 – (wt. bank measure / wt. compacted)) *100

% sh. = ( 1 – (γB / γC) ) * 100 ............................................................................ (1)

Percent swell = ( (wt. bank measure / wt. loose measure) – 1 ) * 100

% sw. = ((γB / γL ) - 1 ) * 100 ........................................................................... (2)

Cross-Sections and Templates

In order to determine earth excavation and embankment requirements by manual means, a
section outline of the proposed highway, commonly referred to as a template section, is placed
on the original ground cross-section; the areas in cut and the areas in fill are determined; and the

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volumes between the sections are computed. Figure 4.1 shows various conditions that may be
encountered when plotting these template sections. “Cut” and “fill” are the terms that are usually
used for the areas of the sections, and the terms “excavation” and “embankment” generally refer
to volumes.

Each cross-section should show the

location or station of the original
ground section and template section,
the elevation of the proposed grade at
the station, and the areas of cut and
fill for each section. The computed
volume of excavation and
embankment may also be placed on
the cross-section sheet between two
successive cross-sections.

Figure 4.1 Original ground line

and template sections

Slope Stakes
The final grade line having been established, slope stakes are set at points where the side slopes
of the graded road will intersect the ground surface; they mark the limits of the excavation and
embankment. The slope stakes are driven at points of zero cut or fill, but the numbers written on
them give the vertical distance with reference to the finished grade of the subgrade. On the inner
side of the stakes is marked in meters the “cut” or “fill” as the case may be. Thus, “C1.2”
indicates that the centerline elevation of the roadbed is to be cut 1.2m below the ground at the
slope stake; and “F2.3” indicates that the fill is to be 2.3m above the slope stake.

The stakes are driven with the tops slanting outward and with the sides upon which the cuts or
fills are marked facing the roadway. The station number is marked on the outside of the stake.

The usual equipment for setting slopes consists of a level, rod, tape, notebook, stakes, and keel.

If a profile map has been established from previous surveys and the final grade line drawn
thereon, the centerline cut or fill may be found from the map by subtracting the elevation of
grade from the elevation of ground.
Also, if a cross-section of the ground and finished shape of roadway have been plotted to scale,
the position of the slope stakes could be scaled from the map.

Aside from the elevation of grade, the most satisfactory procedure is to determine all distances
and elevations in the field. The method must necessarily be a “ measure and try” process, but the
work can be done rather easily.

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General Method of Procedure: Let ABEPD in Figs. 4.2 and 4.3 represent the cross-sectional
area of highway in fill or cut, for which we have the following general notation applying to both
excavation and embankment:
b = AB = AC + CB = width of roadbed
s = “slope ratio” for the banks AD and BE = ratio of horizontal to vertical (plus for cut,
minus for fill)
d = PC = depth of fill or cut at the center
x1 = horizontal distance from P to slope stake at D
x2 = horizontal distance from P to slope stake at E
y = vertical distance from P to slope stake
h1 = d + y1 = FD = vertical distance from C to D
h2 = d + y2 = GE = vertical distance from C to E

Figure 4.2 Cross section on fill

(slope stakes at E and D)

Figure 4.3 Cross section in

cut (slope stakes at E and
D)

The slope stake at point D on the right is correctly established if

x1 = ½ b + sh1 = ½ b + sd + sy1 ................................................................... (3)

Likewise, point E on the left is correctly established if

x2= ½ b + sh2 = ½ b + sd + sy2 ..................................................................... (4)

In the foregoing equations, b, d, and s are known, while x and h (or y) are measured and re-
measured in the field until the equations are satisfied (trial-and-error method).

If the ground is level, y1 = y2 = 0; then x1 = x2 = ½ b + sd.

In fig. 4.3, it is assumed that rod readings to all points within the cross profile under
consideration can be taken from a single position of the level (which of course is not always
possible). By means of previous differential leveling from the nearest benchmark, the HI (height
of instrument or elevation of line HJK) is established.

If we imagine the bottom of the road to be at grade at point C, the rod reading would be CJ,
which is called “grade rod”. That is
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Grade rod = HI – grade elevation

Negative values of grade rod would occur when the HI is below “grade”.
Since the actual reading at the centerline stake (fig. 4.3) is PJ (not CJ), the depth of cut is CP =
CJ – PJ; that is,
d = grade rod – ground rod

Negative values of d indicate fill.

Similarly at the slope stake D,
FD = FK – DK
That is, h1 (or h2) = grade rod – ground rod
Negative values of h indicate fill.
The values of x1 and h1 (or x2 and h2) corresponding to the intersection of two slopes are found
easily after two or three field measurements.

Area of Cross-Section
From the data supplied by slope stake or cross-section notes, the area of cross-section may be
calculated. If the ground is level or regular, simple geometry may be applied; for irregular
ground, two general methods are used; (1) the graphical method and (2) the coordinate method.

➢ Area For Level Ground. For level ground, the area of cross-section in cut (or fill) is
merely that of a trapezoid. In figure 4.4:
b = width of base AB
d = center cut (or fill)
s = slope of banks = MD / AM = NE / BN
Hence,
Area = d(b + sd) ....................................................................... (5)

Figure 4.4

➢ Area for Three-Level Section. With three readings taken directly from slope stake
notes, one at the center and one at each slope stake, the area of cross section may be
obtained. For regular ground, this is an accurate and very satisfactory method. Such a
section is known as a three-level section, and the area may be calculated readily from
field notes without plotting.

Imagine the area ABED (fig. 4.5) to be divided into four triangles, two having the
common base d and altitudes x1 and x2, and two having bases = ½ b and altitudes h1 and
h2. Hence the area of section is

A = ½ [d(x1 + x2) + ½ b(h1 + h2)] ............................................. (6)

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Figure 4.5

If the slope stake notes are not available and the center fill is known, the end area
A may be found conveniently from the four field measurements indicated in fig. 4.6.
Assuming uniform slope of the original ground underneath the fill,

A = ½ (h1x‟‟ + h2x‟) ................................................................... (7)

Figure 4.6

➢ Area By Coordinate Method. With the coordinates of all the corners of a cross-section
known, the end area may be computed by means of the coordinate method.

Let the corners A, B, C, and D of the area ABCD (fig. 4.7) be located by the coordinates
(x1,y1), (x2,y2), (x3,y3), and (x4,y4). Then the area is given by the algebraic sum of four
trapezoids. Thus,

Area = ABba + BCcb – ADda - DCcd

=1/2 [y1(x4 – x2) + y2(x1 - x3) + y3(x2 – x4) + y4(x3 – x1)] ........................ (8)

From eqn.(8) we may state the following rule

for area:

Multiply each ordinate by the algebraic

difference between the adjacent
abscissas, find the algebraic sum of the
products, and then take half of this
result.

Figure 4.7 Area by coordinate method

A simpler rule for area follows if we arrange in counterclockwise order the coordinates
(fig. 4.7) in the form of fractions, the initial fraction (beginning at any corner) being
repeated to give a closed boundary. Thus, we have

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y1 y2 y3 y4 y1
x1 x2 x3 x4 x1

Multiply along the marked diagonals and add the products (all positive); multiply along
the unmarked diagonals and add the products (all negative). The difference gives the
double area.

4.2 Volume of Earthwork

The volume of earthwork may be found by means of either the average end area or the
prismoidal formula. Although the former is less exact than the latter, it is generally accepted as
the standard earthwork formula, on account of its simplicity.

➢ Average End Area Formula. The volume of a right prism equals the average area
multiplied by the length. Assuming the average area to be the same as the average end
area,

Volume = V = ½ (A1 + A2)L

In which: A1 and A2 = area of end sections (m2)

L = length of solid (m)

This formula is applied to areas of any shape, but the results are slightly too large. The
error is small if the sections do not change rapidly.

➢ Prismoidal Formula. A prismoid is a solid whose ends are parallel and whose sides are
plane or wrapped surfaces. Fig. 4.8 represents a typical prismoid.

Figure 4.8

The volume of a prismoid is:

V = L/6 (A1 + 4Am + A2)

In which L is the distance between the two parallel bases A1 and A2 and Am is a section midway
between the two end bases and parallel to them. Am is not an average of A1 and A2, but each of
its linear dimensions is an average of the corresponding dimensions of A1 and A2.

4.3 Haul and Overhaul

In grading contracts for roads it is usually stipulated that the contractor shall be paid a certain
price per cubic meter for excavating, hauling, and dumping the material, regardless of distance

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hauled, provided it does not exceed a specified limit called free haul. The free haul distance may
be as low as 150m and as high as 900m or more.

If there is an overhaul on some of the material, that is, if the distance from excavation to
embankment is beyond the free haul limit, then an extra charge may be allowed.

A mass diagram is helpful in determining the amount of overhaul and the most economical
distribution of the excavated material.

Limit of Economic Haul

When there are long hauls, it may be more economical to waste and borrow materials rather than
pay for the cost of overhauling. Equating the cost of excavation plus overhaul to the cost of
excavation from both the roadway and borrow pit, one can estimate the limit of economic haul
for making the embankment. Thus, let
c = cost of roadway excavation per cubic meter
b = cost of borrow per cubic meter
h = cost of overhaul, on the bases of 1m3 per station
x = economical length of overhaul
Cost to excavate and move 1m3 material from cut to fill

= c + hx .......................................................................... (a)
Cost to excavate from cut, waste, borrow, and place 1m3 material in fill

= b + c ........................................................................... (b)
Equating equations (a) and (b) and solving for x, we have

x = b/h (s + a) ................................................................ (c)

adding the free haul distance to equation (c), we get the limit of economical haul.

4.4 Mass Diagram

A mass diagram is a graphical representation of the amount of earthwork and embankment
involved in a project and the manner in which the earth is to be moved. Its horizontal or x-axis
represents distance and is usually expressed in meters or stations. It is drawn to the same
horizontal scale as the profile. The vertical or y-axis represents the cumulative quantity of
earthwork in cubic meters. The quantity of excavation on the mass diagram is considered
positive, and embankment as negative. Preliminary to drawing the mass curve it is convenient to
tabulate the cumulative volumes of cuts and fills at each station.

The mass diagram allows a highway engineer to determine direction of haul and the quantity of
earth taken from or hauled to any location. It shows “balance points”, the stations between which
the volume of excavation (after adjustment for “shrinkage” or “swell”) and embankment are
equal.

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Figure 4.9 Profile and mass diagram. AC = free-haul distance; HJ – AC = overhaul distance; BB
= free-haul volume; A‟A = C‟C = overhaul volume; OD = length of balance.

A study of the mass diagram (or curve) shown in figure 4.9 will verify the following statements:

• The ordinate at any point on the mass curve represents the cumulative volume to that point
on the profile.
• Within the limits of a single cut, the curve rises from left to right; within the limits of a single
fill, it falls from left to right.
• Sections where the volume changes from cut to fill correspond to a maximum; sections
where the volume changes from fill to cut correspond to a minimum. Evidently the maximum
and minimum points on the diagram occur at, or near, grade points on the profile.
• Any horizontal line, as AC, cutting off a loop of the mass curve, intersects the curve at two
points between which the cut is equal to the fill (adjusted for shrinkage). Such a line is
called a balance line.
• The loops convex upward indicate that the haul from cut to fill is to be in one direction (to
the right in this case); loops concave upward indicate a reverse direction of haul.
• The final point on a mass diagram for a given project gives the overall net amount of
earthwork for the entire project. This amount, if positive, would indicate a surplus of
excavation material and a need to waste that quantity of material. If the final point on the
mass diagram is a negative amount, it indicates a net shortage of earthwork for the project
and a need to borrow that quantity of earthwork material.

Determination of Overhaul from the Mass Diagram: One of the important uses of the mass
diagram, aside from balancing cuts and fills and indicating the most advantageous distribution of
the same, is to establish definitely the overhaul distance and the portion of the total volume
which is to be regarded as hauled beyond the specified free-haul limit.

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Referring to figure 4.9, proceed as follows:

i. Assuming the free-haul distance to be 150m, find by trial a horizontal line intersecting
the curve at points A and C, such that AC = 150m. Then the material above line AC will
be hauled at no extra cost. The amount of this material is given by the ordinate from line
AC to point B and is a measure of the volume in cut from a to b, which makes the fill
from b to c.

ii. Consider now the volume above the balance line OD. A study of the mass curve and the
corresponding profile shows that the cut from o to b will make the fill from b to d. But
since part of this solidity, the part above the balance line AC, is included in the free-haul
limit, the other part between lines OD and AC – which is measured by the ordinate A‟A –
is subject to overhaul unless wastage and borrow take place. That is, some or all of the
volume from o to a may be “overhauled” to make the fill from c to d.

The average length of haul of the solidity from o to a to make the fill from c to d is the
distance between the centers of gravity of cut o to a and fill c to d. The gravity lines are
found as follows: Bisect AA‟ at M and draw a horizontal line intersecting the mass curve at
H and J. These points H and J are assumed to be vertically below the desired centers of
gravity. Therefore the average haul is given by the length of line HJ, and the overhaul is this
distance HJ less the free haul distance AC. The overhaul distance (in stations) multiplied by
the net volume gives the station-volumes of overhaul.

It should be note that the foregoing graphical method of determining the center of gravity of
the masses in cut and fill is inaccurate when there is abruptness in the mass curve. In such
cases, a more accurate method is to divide the volume in parts and take moments about a
vertical line of reference just as is done in finding the center of gravity of a system of forces.

The mass diagram may be used to indicate the most economical procedure for disposing of
excavated material, what part of it should be moved forward or backward, and whether
borrowing and wasting are advisable. Thus if the balance line OD is continued horizontally
to point X, it will be seen that the cuts and fills from o to f are balanced, but the solidity
represented by the ordinate at G is excess cut (from f to g) which may be carried forward,
backward, or wasted. If the project ends at point g or if there are no fills immediately ahead,
then this excavated material should be carried backward to help make the fill from b to c (it
being downhill and within the free-haul limit), while an equivalent amount of volume from
the cut o to a would be wasted, thus reducing the station-volume of overhaul.

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CHAPTER FIVE
5 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE

5.1 Introduction
Provision of sufficient drainage is an important factor in the location and geometric design of
highways. Drainage facilities on any highway or street should adequately provide for the flow of
water away from the surface of the pavement to properly designed channels. Inadequate drainage
will eventually result in serious damage to the highway structure. In addition, traffic may be
slowed by accumulated water on the pavement, and accidents may occur as a result of
hydroplaning and loss of visibility from splash and spray. The highway engineer is concerned
primarily with two sources of water. The first, surface water is that which occurs as rain or snow.
Some of this is absorbed into the soil, and the remainder remains on the surface of the ground
and should be removed from the highway pavement. Drainage for this source of water is referred
to as surface drainage. The second source, ground water, is that which flows in underground
streams. This may become important in highway cuts or at locations where a high water table
exists near the pavement structure. Drainage for this source is referred to as subsurface drainage.
In this chapter, we present the fundamental design principles for surface and subsurface drainage
facilities.

5.2 Surface drainage

Surface drainage encompasses all means by which surface water is removed from the pavement
and right of way of the highway or street. A properly designed highway surface drainage system
should effectively intercept all surface and watershed runoff and direct this water into adequately
designed channels and gutters for eventual discharge into the natural waterways. Water seeping
through cracks in the highway riding surface and shoulder areas into underlying layers of the
pavement may result in serious damage to the highway pavement. The major source of water for
this type of intrusion is surface runoff. An adequately designed surface drainage system will
therefore minimize this type of damage. The surface drainage system for rural highways should
include sufficient transverse and longitudinal slopes on both the pavement and shoulder to ensure
positive runoff and longitudinal channels (ditches), culverts, and bridges to provide for the
discharge of the surface water to the natural waterways. Storm drains and inlets are also provided
on the median of divided highways in rural areas. In urban areas, the surface drainage system
also includes enough longitudinal and transverse slopes, but the longitudinal drains are usually
underground pipe drains designed to carry both surface runoff and ground water. Curbs and
gutters also may be used in urban and rural areas to control street runoff, although they are more
frequently used in urban areas.

Transverse Slopes
The main objective for providing slopes in the transverse direction is to facilitate the removal of
surface water from the pavement surface in the shortest possible time. This is achieved by
crowning the surface at the center of the pavement, thereby providing cross slopes on either side
of the centerline or providing a slope in one direction across the pavement width. . Shoulders,
however, are usually sloped to drain away from the pavement, except on highways with raised
narrow medians. The need for high cross slopes to facilitate drainage is somewhat in conflict

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with the need for relatively flat cross slopes for driver comfort. Selection of a suitable cross slope
is therefore usually a compromise between the two requirements. It has been determined that
cross slopes of 2 percent or less do not significantly affect driver comfort, particularly with
respect to the driver‟s effort in steering

Longitudinal Slopes
A minimum gradient in the longitudinal direction of the highway is required to obtain adequate
slope in the longitudinal channels, particularly at cut sections. Slopes in longitudinal channels
should generally not be less than 0.2 percent for highways in very flat terrain. Although zero
percent grades may be used on uncurbed pavements with adequate cross slopes, a minimum of
0.5 percent is recommended for curbed pavements. This may be reduced to 0.3 percent on
suitably crowned high-type pavements constructed on firm ground.

Longitudinal Channels
Longitudinal channels (ditches) are constructed along the sides of the highway to collect the
surface water that runs off from the pavement surface, subsurface drains, and other areas of the
highway right of way. When the highway pavement is located at a lower level than the adjacent
ground, such as in cuts, water is prevented from flowing onto the pavement by constructing a
longitudinal drain (intercepting drain) at the top of the cut to intercept the water. The water
collected by the longitudinal ditches is then transported to a drainage channel and next to a
natural waterway or retention pond.

Curbs and Gutters

Curbs and gutters can be used to control drainage in addition to other functions, which include
preventing the encroachment of vehicles on adjacent areas and delineating pavement edges.
Curbs and gutters are used more frequently in urban areas, particularly in residential areas, where
they are used in conjunction with storm sewer systems to control street runoff. When it is
necessary to provide relatively long continuous sections of curbs in urban areas, the inlets to the
storm sewers must be adequately designed for both size and spacing so that the impounding of
large amounts of water on the pavement surface is prevented.

5.3 Determination of Runoffs

The amount of runoff for any combination of intensity and duration depends on the type of
surface. For example, runoff will be much higher on rocky or bare impervious slopes, roofs, and
pavements than on plowed land or heavy forest. The highway engineer is therefore interested in
determining the proportion of rainfall that remains as runoff. This determination is not easy,
since the runoff rate for any given area during a single rainfall is not usually constant. Several
methods for estimating runoff are available. Two commonly used methods are presented.

Rational Method
The rational method is based on the premise that the rate of runoff for any storm depends on the
average storm intensity, the size of the drainage area, and the type of drainage area surface. Note
that for any given storm, the rainfall intensity is not usually constant over a large area, nor during
the entire storm‟s duration. The rational formula therefore uses the theory that, for a rainfall of
average intensity (I) falling over an impervious area of size (A), the maximum rate of runoff at
the outlet to the drainage area (Q) occurs when the whole drainage area is contributing to the

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runoff and this runoff rate is constant. This requires that the storm duration be at least equal to
the time of concentration, which is the time required for the runoff to flow from the farthest point
of the drainage area to the outlet. This condition is not always satisfied in practice, particularly in
large drainage areas. It is therefore customary for the rational formula to be used for relatively
small drainage areas not greater than 200 acres. The rational formula is given as:
Q = 0 .00278  CIA

C 1 A1 + C 2 A 2 +
C=
A+A+
1 2

• Q= runoff (m3/sec)
• C=coefficient, representing ratio of runoff to rainfall
• I= intensity of rainfall (mm/hr) for a duration equal to the time of concentration
• A= catchment area tributary to the design location, ha

Rainfall Intensity
Runoff is obtained by considering expected sever storm.
▪ Return period of 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, and 100 years
• Quantity of runoff depends on intensity and duration.
• Duration= Time of Concentration
▪ The time required for water from the remotest place to reach a specific point on
the drainage system.
▪ =T1+T2
• T1= over land flow time
• T2= time of flow in the longitudinal drain

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Figure 5.1 Intensity duration frequency diagram for region A1 and A4

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Figure 5.2 Watercourse slope vs Velocity diagram

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Figure 5.3 Overland time of flow

5.4 Design of Open Channels

An important design consideration is that the flow velocity in the channel should not be so low
as to cause deposits of transported material nor so high as to cause erosion of the channel. The
velocity that will satisfy this condition usually depends on the shape and size of the channel, the
type of lining in the channel, the quantity of water being transported, and the type of material
suspended in the water. The most appropriate channel gradient range to produce the required
velocity is between 1 percent and 5 percent. For most types of linings, sedimentation is usually a
problem when slopes are less than 1 percent, and excessive erosion of the lining will occur when
slopes are higher than 5 percent.

Attention also should be paid to the point at which the channel discharges into the natural
waterway. For example, if the drainage channel at the point of discharge is at a much higher
elevation than the natural waterway, then the water should be discharged through a spillway or
chute to prevent erosion.

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Design Principles
The hydraulic design of a drainage ditch for a given storm entails the determination of the
minimum cross-sectional area of the ditch that will accommodate the flow due to that storm and
prevent water from overflowing the sides of the ditch. The most commonly used formula for this
purpose is Manning‟s formula, which assumes uniform steady flow in the channel and gives the
mean velocity in the channel as
1
V= R
2/3
S
1/2
Q=VA
n
where:

• V= mean velocity (m/sec)

• R= hydraulic radius (m)= Area/wetted perimeter
• S=slope of the channel (m/m)
• n=Manning‟s roughness coefficient

Figure 5.4 Trapezoidal channel capacity charts

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Figure 5.5 Design chart for open channel ditch

5.5 Subsurface Drainage

Subsurface drainage systems are provided within the pavement structure to drain water in one or
more of the following forms: Water that has permeated through cracks and joints in the
pavement to the underlying strata. Water that has moved upward through the underlying soil
strata as a result of capillary action.

Water that exists in the natural ground below the water table, usually referred to as ground water.
The subsurface drainage system must be an integral part of the total drainage system, since the
subsurface drains must operate in consonance with the surface drainage system to obtain an
efficient overall drainage system.

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The design of subsurface drainage should be carried out as an integral part of the complete
design of the highway, since inadequate subsurface drainage also may have detrimental effects
on the stability of slopes and pavement performance. However, certain design elements of the
highway such as geometry and material properties are required for the design of the subdrainage
system. Thus, the procedure usually adopted for subdrainage design is first to determine the
geometric and structural requirements of the highway based on standard design practice, and
then to subject these to a subsurface drainage analysis to determine the subdrainage
requirements. In some cases, the subdrainage requirements determined from this analysis will
require some changes in the original design.

It is extremely difficult, if not impossible; to develop standard solutions for solving subdrainage
problems because of the many different situations that engineer come across in practice.
Therefore, basic methods of analysis are given that can be used as tools to identify solutions for
subdrainage problems. The experience gained from field and laboratory observations for a
particular location, coupled with good engineering judgment, should always be used in
conjunction with the design tools provided. Before presenting the design tools, discussions of the
effects on the highway of an inadequate subdrainage system and the different subdrainage
systems are first presented.

Effect of Inadequate Subdrainage

Inadequate subdrainage on a highway will result in the accumulation of uncontrolled subsurface
water within the pavement structure and/or right of way, which can result in poor performance of
the highway or outright failure of sections of the highway. The effects of inadequate subdrainage
fall into two classes: poor pavement performance and instability of slopes.

Pavement Performance
If the pavement structure and subgrade are saturated with underground water, the pavement‟s
ability to resist traffic load is considerably reduced, resulting in one or more of several problems,
which can lead to premature destruction of the pavement if remedial actions are not taken in
time. In Portland cement concrete pavement, for example, inadequate subdrainage can result in
excessive repeated deflections of the pavement, which will eventually lead to cracking. When
asphaltic concrete pavements are subjected to excessive uncontrolled subsurface water due to
inadequate subdrainage, very high pore pressures are developed within the untreated base and
subbase layers, resulting in a reduction of the pavement strength and thereby its ability to resist
traffic load. Another common effect of poor pavement performance due to inadequate
subdrainage is frost action. As described later, this phenomenon requires that the base and/or
subbase material be a frost-susceptible soil and that an adequate amount of subsurface water is
present in the pavement structure. Under these conditions, during the active freezing period,
subsurface water will move upward by capillary action toward the freezing zone and
subsequently freeze to form lenses of ice. Continuous growth of the ice lenses due to the
capillary action of the subsurface water can result in considerable heaving of the overlying
pavement. This eventually leads to serious pavement damage, particularly if differential frost
heaving occurs. Frost action also has a detrimental effect on pavement performance during the
spring thaw period. During this period, the ice lenses formed during the active freeze period
gradually thaw from the top down, resulting in the saturation of the subgrade soil, which results
in a substantial reduction of pavement strength.

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Slope Stability
The presence of subsurface water in an embankment or cut can cause an increase of the stress to
be resisted and a reduction of the shear strength of the soil forming the embankment or cut. This
can lead to a condition where the stress to be resisted is greater than the strength of the soil,
resulting in sections of the slope crumbling down or a complete failure of the slope.

Highway Subdrainage Systems

Subsurface drainage systems are usually classified into five general categories:
• Longitudinal drains
• Transverse drains
• Horizontal drains
• Drainage blankets
• Well systems

Longitudinal Drains
Subsurface longitudinal drains usually consist of pipes laid in trenches within the pavement
structure and parallel to the center line of the highway. These drains can be used to lower the
water table below the pavement structure, as shown in Figure 16.29, or to remove any water that
is seeping into the pavement structure, as shown in Figure 16.30. In some cases, when the water
table is very high and the highway is very wide, it may be necessary to use more than two rows
of longitudinal drains to achieve the required reduction of the water table below the pavement
structure.

Figure 5.6 Longitudinal drains

Transverse Drains
Transverse drains are placed below the pavement, usually in a direction perpendicular to the
center line, although they may be skewed to form a herringbone configuration. An example of
the use of transverse drains is shown in Figure 16.32 where they are used to drain ground water
that has infiltrated through the joints of the pavement. One disadvantage of transverse drains is
that they can cause unevenness of the pavement when used in areas susceptible to frost action,

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where general frost heaving occurs. The unevenness is due to the general heaving of the whole
pavement, except at the transverse drains.

Figure 5.7 Transverse drains on superelevated curves

Horizontal Drains
Horizontal drains are used to relieve pore pressures at slopes of cuts and embankments on the
highway. They usually consist of small diameter, perforated pipes inserted into the slopes of the
cut or fill. The subsurface water is collected by the pipes and is then discharged at the face of the
slope through paved spillways to longitudinal ditches.

Drainage Blankets
A drainage blanket is a layer of material that has a very high coefficient of permeability, usually
greater than 30 ft /day, and is laid beneath or within the pavement structure such that its width
and length in the flow direction are much greater than its thickness. The coefficient of
permeability is the constant of proportionality of the relationship between the flow velocity and
the hydraulic gradient between two points in the material. Drainage blankets can be used to
facilitate the flow of subsurface water away from the pavement, as well as to facilitate the flow
of ground water that has seeped through cracks into the pavement structure or subsurface water
from artesian sources. A drainage blanket also can be used in conjunction with longitudinal
drains to improve the stability of cut slopes by controlling the flow of water on the slopes,
thereby preventing the formation of a slip surface. However, drainage blankets must be properly
designed to be effective.

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Well Systems
A well system consists of a series of vertical wells, drilled into the ground, into which ground
water flows, thereby reducing the water table and releasing the pore pressure. When used as a
temporary measure for construction, the water collected in the wells is continuously pumped out,
or else it may be left to overflow. A more common construction, however, includes a drainage
layer either at the top or bottom of the wells to facilitate the flow of water collected.

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CHAPTER SIX
6 INTERSECTION AND INTERCHANGES
6.1 Types of Intersection
Intersections are inevitable parts of any street system. A road or street intersection can be defined
as the general area where two or more roads join or cross, including the roadway and roadside
facilities for traffic movement within it (AASHTO, 2001). An intersection needs to be designed
considering the efficiency, safety, speed, cost of operation, and capacity that it can offer to users.

In general, there are three types of intersections:

(1) At-grade intersection
(2) Grade separated without ramps, and
(3) Interchanges
The common intersection is at-grade intersection where two or more highways join. The
approaches are referred to as intersection legs. When it becomes necessary to accommodate high
volume of traffic through intersections, intersections that are separated by grade are used, and
these are generally referred to as interchanges. When two highways or streets cross each other at
a different grade, with no connections, the arrangement is referred to as a grade separation.
Details of the geometric design of at-grade intersections and interchanges are given in A policy
on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets published by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO, 2001).

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Figure 6-1 Examples of At-Grade Intersections

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Figure 6-2 Types of Interchanges

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6.2 Design Consideration and Objectives

The objective of intersection design is to reduce the severity of potential conflicts between
vehicles (including pedestrians) while providing maximum convenience and ease of movement
to vehicles. Four basic elements are generally considered in the design of at-grade intersections.

a. Human factor, such as driving habits and decision and reaction times
b. Traffic considerations, such as capacities and turning movements, vehicle speeds, and
size and distribution of vehicles
c. Physical elements, such as characteristics and use of abutting property, sight distance,
and geometric features
d. Economic factors, such as costs and benefits and energy consumption
The design and type of interchanges is influenced by many factors, such as highway
classification, character and composition of traffic, design speed, and degree of access
control. Interchanges are high-cost facilities, and because of the wide variety of site
conditions, traffic volumes, and interchange layouts, the warrants that justify an interchange
may differ at each location. AASHTO (2001) provides details regarding grade separations
and interchanges. The main important thing when considering interchanges is clearly the
economic justification.

6.3 Conflict area at Intersection

Fig. 5.3 shows vehicle streams and the merging, diverging, and crossing maneuvers for a simple
four-leg intersection, and for a more complicated staggered intersection. Such diagrams are
useful because the number and type of conflicts may indicate the accident potential of an
intersection. In the case of a regular two-lane, four-leg intersection there are 16 potential
crossings conflict points, 8 merging and 8 diverging conflict points. The staggered T-intersection
shown in the figure serves about the same function as the four-leg intersection, and consists of
only six potential crossing conflict points, three diverging and three merging conflict points.

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Figure 6-3 Vehicle Streams and the Merging, Diverging,and Crossing Maneuvers

6.4 Type of Intersection Control

There are at least six principal ways of controlling traffic at intersections, depending on the type
of intersection and the volume of traffic in each of the vehicle streams. In an ascending order of
control exercised at the intersection, these include no control, channelization, yield or stop signs,
roundabouts and traffic signals. The FHWA, 2000 provides guidelines for adopting any
particular type of intersection control, in the form of warrants.

6.4.1 Stop signs

Stop signs are warranted at intersections under the following conditions:
I. Intersection of less important road with a main road, where application of the
normal right-of-way rule is unduly hazardous
II. Intersection of a county road, city street, or township road with a state highway
III. Street entering a through highway or street
IV. Unsignalized intersection in a signalized area
V. Unsignalized intersection where a combination of high speed, restricted view and
serious accident record indicates a need for control by the stop sign

Multiway (fourway or all-way) stops can be used as a safety measure at some locations where the
volume on the intersecting roads is approximately equal and following conditions exist:

I. An accident problem, as indicated by five or more reported accidents in a 12 months

period, which may be corrected by a multiway stop installation

II. (a) The total vehicular volume entering the intersection from all approaches averages
at least 500 vehicles per hour for any 8 hours of an average day, and (b) the combined

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vehicular and pedestrian volume from the minor street or highway averages at least
200 units per hour for the same 8 hours, with an average delay to minor street
vehicular traffic of at least 30 seconds per vehicle during the maximum hour, but (c)
when the 85th percentile approach speed of the major street traffic exceeds 40mph, the
minimum vehicular volume warrant is 70% of the foregoing requirements.

III. Where traffic signals are warranted, the multiway stop control can be used as an
interim measure while arrangements are being made for installation of the signal.

6.4.2 Yield Signs

Yield signs are established as follows:

i. On a minor road at the entrance to an intersection when it is necessary to assign the right-
of-way to the major road, but where a stop is not necessary at all times, and where the
safe approach speed on the minor road exceeds 10mph.
ii. On the entrance ramp to an expressway, where an adequate acceleration lane is provided
iii. Where there is a separate or channelized right-turn lane without an adequate acceleration
lane
iv. At any intersection where a problem can be possibly corrected by a yield sign installation
v. Within an intersection with a divided highway, where a stop sign is present at the
entrance to the first roadway, and further control is necessary at the entrance to the
second roadway. Median width between roadways must exceed 30 ft.

6.4.3 Intersection Channelization

Channelization is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements into definite paths
of travel by traffic islands or pavement markings to facilitate the safe and orderly movements of
both vehicles and pedestrians. Proper channelization increases capacity, improves safety,
provides maximum convenience, and increases driver confidence. Channelization is frequently
used along with stop or yield signs or at signalized intersections.

Some basic principles to help design channelized intersection are as follows:

i. Motorists should be provided with channel lines that are easy to follow.

ii. Sudden and sharp reverse curves should be avoided.

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iii. Areas of vehicle conflict should be reduced as much as possible.

iv. Traffic streams that cross without merging and weaving should intersect at or near right
angles.

v. Islands should be carefully selected and be as few as possible.

vi. Over channelization should be avoided, as it has proved to be counterproductive.

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Figure 6-4 Typical Examples of Channelized Intersections (AASHTO, 2001)

Rotaries and Roundabouts

Rotaries and roundabout are channelized intersections comprising a central circle surrounded by
a one-way roadway. The basic difference between rotaries and roundabouts is that rotaries are
generally signalized, whereas roundabouts are not. Naturally, in the case of roundabouts,
entering traffic yields to traffic within.
Roundabouts generally have good safety records and traffic does not have to stop when traffic
volumes are low. A well-designed roundabout should deflect the path of vehicles passing
through an intersection by the use of a sufficiently large central island, properly designed
approach islands, and staggering the alignment of entries and exits.

6.4.4 Uncontrolled Intersections

Where an intersection has no control device, the operator of a vehicle approaching an
intersection must be able to perceive a hazard in sufficient time to alter the vehicle‟s speed,
before reaching the intersection. The time needed to start decelerating is the driver‟s perception
and reaction time and may be assumed to be 2.0 sec. In addition, the driver needs to begin
braking some distance from the intersection. This distance from the intersection, where a driver
can first see a vehicle approaching on the intersecting road, is that which is traversed during 2.0
seconds for perception and reaction, plus an additional 1.0 second to actuate braking or to

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accelerate to regulate speed. By referring to Fig. 5.5, the sight triangle is determined by the
minimum distances along the road. For instance, if highway A has a speed limit of 50 mph and
highway B has one of 30 mph, it would require an unobstructed sight triangle, with legs
extending at least 220 ft and 130 ft, respectively, from the intersection, based merely on the
average distance traveled in 3 seconds.

Fig. 6.5 Sight Triangle (AASHTO 2001)

These minimum distances will permit a vehicle on either road to change speeds before reaching
the intersection, but this fact by itself does not imply that the intersection is safe.

There can be potential danger to vehicle operators on such intersections, especially when
successions of vehicles are approaching the intersection, when time is sufficient to avoid only a
single vehicle. Because the distance covered in 3 seconds ranges from 70% of the safe stopping
distance at 20 mph to only 36% at 70 mph, the use of sight triangles for design purposes must be
approached with caution.

A safer design for such intersections should allow drivers on both highways to see the
intersection and traffic in sufficient time to stop the vehicle before reaching the intersection. The
safe stopping distances in this case are the same as those used for designing any other section of
highway.

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6.5 Interchanges
Interchanges are combinations of ramps and grade separations designed as a system of
interconnecting roadways to separate the turning and through movements at the junction of two
or more roads. They provide the greatest efficiency, safety and capacity for handling large
volumes of traffic in these situations. Interchange design is a special form of intersection design.
The traffic interchange is the best solution available to the problems encountered in intersections
at grade, as it separates the major crossing movements and enables maximum traffic volumes to
operate uninterrupted on at least the freeway. Crossing conflicts are eliminated and turning
conflicts are minimized depending on the type and degree of development of the interchange,
and on the degree of access limitation imposed. Interchanges can be provided between freeways,
between freeways and arterial roads, and between arterial roads. The general principles of design
are similar but standards for clearance, curvature, sight distance and visibility depend on the
standard and the design speed of the roadway to which the element of the interchange connects.
Each interchange is an individual problem and even standard types require customization to suit
a particular site. Consistency of form assists in driver understanding and the design must be
considered in conjunction with the design of adjacent interchanges. An interchange or series of
interchanges on a route through an area may affect large adjacent areas or even the entire
community. Interchanges should therefore be located and designed so that they will provide the
best possible traffic service consistent with community interests. To this end all interchanges
should provide for flexibility of operation and be subject to reasonably easy modification if
required by future traffic patterns. When interchanges are required at relatively close spacing, the
weaving maneuvers between the interchanges may limit capacity. Weaving occurs when an entry
ramp is followed by an exit ramp within a distance of about 1.5km. Weaving involves lane
changing as well as merging and diverging. Longer distances between the entry and exit ramp
results in freeway capacity being limited by merge and diverge capacity. The influence of lane
changing is not the limiting factor as more opportunities to change lanes arise on longer stretches
of road. Weaving may be reduced or eliminated by special design features. Freeway capacity
may be modeled by use of the Highway Capacity Manual (either using manual calculation or
HCS 2000 software). Microscopic simulation software such as Paramics or Aimsun may also be
used to assess freeway operating conditions under different traffic loadings and geometric layout
options.

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