Qn. Structure of radiography film.

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Qn. Which are the different types of radiographic inspection techniques,

Radiographic inspection is used to check for internal defects in materials. The technique chosen depends
on the geometry, size, sensitivity requirements and available space. The three main techniques are:
1. Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) Technique

• Used when both sides of the material

are accessible.
• Suitable for plates, cylinders, shells
and large diameter pipes.
• How it works:
o Radiation passes through only
one wall.
o The radiation source is kept outside and the film is placed inside (or vice versa).
o Exposes the specimen part by part.

Panoramic Technique (Type of SWSI):

• Radiation source is placed at the center of

a pipe and the film is wrapped around the
pipe’s outer surface.
• Exposes the entire circumferential weld in
one go, saving time.
• Requires adequate source-to-film distance
for proper sensitivity.
• The Image Quality Indicator (IQI) is placed outside the pipe, under the film.

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 oThe processed image is
displayed on a monitor for
immediate analysis.
4. Image Intensifier:
o Used to brighten the image
by 100 times or more.
o Converts radiation into
light, light into electrons
for intensification and
electrons back to light.
o Components include input
phosphor, photocathode,
electrodes and output
phosphor.

Advantages of RTR:

1. Fast Inspection: Provides immediate viewing of defects.

2. Cost-Effective: Inspection costs are lower after installation.
3. Moving Parts Analysis: Can inspect moving parts in real time.
4. Multiple Angles: Allows viewing internal structures from various perspectives.

Disadvantages of RTR:

1. High Initial Cost: Equipment is expensive to set up.

2. Not Portable: Unlike gamma ray testing, RTR systems are stationary.
3. Special Cabinets Needed: To ensure safety and limit radiation exposure.
4. Lower Sensitivity: Screens have higher un-sharpness compared to traditional methods.

Applications of RTR:

1. Laser Welds: Used in thin-wall sections.

2. Electron Beam Welds: Inspects thin pipes.
3. Electrical Components: Examines switches, capacitors and similar devices.

Qn ; Neutron Radiography ?

Introduction
Neutron radiography is a non-destructive testing
(NDT) technique used to inspect materials and detect
internal defects. It is particularly useful for imaging
objects with low atomic numbers embedded in high
atomic number materials, where traditional X-rays or
gamma rays face limitations.

Principle of Neutron Radiography

• Attenuation: As atomic number increases, X-

ray and gamma ray attenuation (energy loss) also increases. Neutrons, however, can penetrate
high atomic number materials and detect low atomic number objects effectively.
• Production of Neutrons: Neutrons are produced through the fission of high atomic number
elements like uranium in nuclear reactors.

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Flash radiography is a technique used to capture images of fast-moving objects such as projectiles,
moving machinery, fuel injection, high-speed impacts and dynamic processes like welding and casting.

• Key Features:
o It uses high-energy X-rays and short exposure times (lasting only a few microseconds)
compared to regular radiography.
o The X-ray tube generates a very strong current, often reaching several thousand
amperes.
o Operates with energy levels ranging between 50 kV and 2000 kV, depending on the
application.
• Screen Selection:
o Salt screens are used for low-energy imaging to enhance image quality.
o Lead screens are preferred for high-energy imaging to improve contrast and sharpness.

Flash radiography is particularly suited for analyzing rapid, transient phenomena that cannot be
captured using conventional radiographic techniques.

Qn. Explain the principle and working of phased array inspection technique.

Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT) is an advanced non-destructive testing (NDT) method used
to detect flaws, measure thickness, inspect welds and check for corrosion. It provides detailed
visualization of defect size, shape, depth and orientation, making it superior to conventional ultrasonic
testing (UT).
Principle:

• PAUT uses special probes with multiple small transducers (piezoelectric elements).
• Each element transmits/receives ultrasonic waves independently.
• A time delay is applied to the pulses sent by each transducer, enabling control over the beam
angle, focus and coverage area.
• These time delays create constructive interference, allowing the beam to focus on specific
depths and angles within the test material.
• The beam can be steered electronically without moving the probe.

Working:

• The probe contains multiple piezoelectric

crystals, each acting as an independent
transducer.
• Ultrasonic waves are transmitted into the
material and the reflected waves are
received by the probe.
• Time delays between pulses from individual
elements are used to:

o Steer the beam at different angles.

o Focus the beam on specific depths.
o Sweep the beam across the material, similar
to a searchlight.
• The radiated spherical waves from each element converge to form a planar wavefront
at the desired focus point.
• The scanning and focusing capability allow for detailed inspection of complex
geometries, making it more effective than traditional UT.

Advantages:

• Detailed visualization: Identifies size, shape, depth and orientation of defects.

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 o Used in non-destructive testing (NDT) to inspect materials at various angles without
repositioning the probe.
o Helps in detecting flaws in complex geometries and improving coverage in inspections.

Beam steering allows flexibility, precision and efficiency in ultrasound applications, making it a
valuable technique in mechanical engineering and NDT.

Qn. Explain the theory and significance of time-of-flight diffraction.

Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) is an advanced ultrasonic testing method used to detect, locate and
measure cracks and flaws in materials, particularly in welds. Unlike regular Ultrasonic Testing (UT),
which relies on the amplitude of the signal (which can vary with crack orientation), TOFD uses the time
it takes for the sound wave to travel to identify defects.

Principle of TOFD

• TOFD is based on the diffraction of ultrasonic waves at the edges (tips) of cracks or flaws.
• When ultrasonic waves encounter a crack, they diffract (bend) at the crack's tips, creating a
distinct signal.
• The time of travel of these diffracted waves is used to measure the depth and size of the crack
accurately.

Working of TOFD

1. Two ultrasonic probes are placed on

opposite sides of the weld:
o One probe acts as a transmitter
(sends ultrasonic waves).
o The other acts as a receiver
(captures ultrasonic signals).
2. Signals received by the receiver include:
o Surface wave traveling along the
material surface.
o Wave reflecting from the far wall of
the material.
o Diffracted waves from the crack tips, if a crack is present.
3. The depth of the crack is calculated using the time taken by the diffracted wave and basic
trigonometry.

Significance of TOFD

• Accurate Flaw Detection: TOFD is highly sensitive and provides precise information about
crack location and size, including depth and orientation.
• Wide Area Coverage: It inspects the entire thickness of the material in a single scan.
• Non-Directional: Unlike traditional UT, TOFD is not affected by the crack's orientation.
• Reliable Results: Produces detailed data with fewer false positives compared to other methods.
• Rapid Inspection: Suitable for inspecting large welds quickly and effectively.

Advantages of TOFD

• High Sensitivity: Detects even small cracks and defects.

• Quantitative Data: Provides exact measurements of crack depth and size.
• Permanent Records: Generates clear images of defects for further analysis.

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 5. Weld Inspection:
Probe angles are particularly significant in weld inspections, as they allow for precise
targeting of critical zones like the weld root, fusion lines and heat-affected zones.
6. Beam Steering:
The phased array technique enables the probe angle to be adjusted electronically, allowing
dynamic focusing and better adaptability during inspections.

Principle of Structural Health Monitoring:

• Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) is a process used to monitor the condition of structures
like bridges, buildings and aircraft over time.
• It relies on sensors installed on the structure to collect data about stress, strain, vibration,
temperature and other parameters.
• The collected data is analyzed to detect damage or changes in structural integrity before they
lead to failure.
• SHM works by comparing real-time data with baseline data (from when the structure was in
good condition). Any significant deviation indicates potential damage.

Applications of SHM:

1. Aerospace Industry:
o Monitors aircraft wings and fuselage for cracks or fatigue.
2. Civil Engineering:
o Ensures the safety of bridges, dams and buildings by detecting issues like corrosion,
cracks and deformation.
3. Wind Turbines:
o Tracks the condition of blades and towers to prevent catastrophic failure.
4. Oil and Gas Industry:
o Monitors pipelines for leaks, corrosion, or structural damage.
5. Automotive Industry:
o Evaluates vehicle components for fatigue during operation.

Advantages:

• Real-time Monitoring: Early detection of damage.

• Improved Safety: Reduces the risk of sudden structural failures.
• Cost-Effective: Minimizes downtime and repair costs through preventive maintenance.

Qn. What are the different types of probes used in phased array technique? List their
characteristics?

Phased array ultrasonic testing uses different types of probes, each designed for specific
applications. The common types and their characteristics are:

1. Linear Array Probes

• Description: Contains multiple piezoelectric elements arranged in a straight line.

• Application: Used for inspecting flat or slightly curved surfaces.
• Key Feature: Provides a focused and detailed scan over a linear region.

2. Matrix Array Probes

• Description: Contains elements arranged in a 2D grid pattern.

• Application: Useful for complex geometries, such as components with variable curvature.
• Key Feature: Allows for 3D imaging and advanced beam steering.

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Qn. Explain the Data Acquisition and Interpretation in TOFD?

Lateral Wave:

• A longitudinal wave generated near

the surface by the wide beam of the
transducer.
• It is not a surface wave but travels
just below the surface, taking the
shortest path between the probes.
• Frequency: Lower frequency
compared to the center of the beam,
causing the wave to spread more.
• The amplitude decreases quickly as
the wave moves away from the
surface.
• On a curved surface, lateral waves travel straight across the material between probes.
• They might not be visible if the probes are placed far apart.

Back Wall Signal:

• A strong reflection from the back wall of the material, appearing after the lateral wave.
• Travels a longer distance, thus arriving later than the lateral wave.

Defect Signal (Diffracted Wave):

• Weaker than the back wall signal but stronger than the lateral wave.
• If there is a crack or flaw in the weld, the signal will appear from the top and bottom of the
crack.

Mode Converted Shear Signals:

• These signals appear after the back wall signal and are larger in magnitude.
• They take longer to arrive at the receiver due to the nature of the mode conversion.

Qn. Explain the significance of heat sensitive paints during NDT

Heat-sensitive paints, also known as thermochromic paints, are special coatings that change color in
response to temperature variations. These paints contain pigments that react to changes in temperature,
making them a useful tool in Non-Destructive Testing (NDT).

Functions:

1. Temperature Indication: The primary function of heat-sensitive paint is to visually indicate

temperature changes on a surface. When exposed to heat, the paint changes color, providing a
clear visual representation of the temperature distribution on an object.
2. Thermal Mapping: During NDT, heat-sensitive paints are often used to identify hot spots or
areas of heat concentration. This is particularly useful for detecting overheated components,
uneven heating, or thermal imbalances in materials and structures.

Applications in NDT:

1. Insulation Check: The paint can help assess the effectiveness of insulation materials by showing
temperature variations across a surface. If the paint changes color, it indicates areas where
insulation might be insufficient.

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 2. Performance: Ensures systems function reliably under pressure or vacuum.
3. Environmental Protection: Minimizes pollution by preventing fluid leaks into the environment.

Key Terms in Leak Testing:

• Leak: A small gap or opening allowing fluid to pass through.

• Leakage: The fluid (liquid or gas) that escapes through a leak.
• Leakage Rate: The speed at which fluid escapes, measured in units like Pascal-liters/second or
cc/min.
• Leak Detector Sensitivity: The smallest amount of tracer gas a detector can sense.
• Leak Test Sensitivity: The minimum detectable leakage under specific test conditions.

Measurement of Leakage:

• Leakage is measured by the amount of fluid escaping under certain conditions.

• Leak Rate Units:
o Torr-liters per second
o Atmospheric cubic centimeters per second

Types of Leaks:

1. Real Leaks:
o Visible openings like cracks or holes where fluid escapes.
o Provides a specific path for the fluid.
2. Virtual Leaks:
o Gases escape slowly from surfaces or components inside a vacuum system.
o No visible openings, but gases are released over time.
3. Permeation:
o Fluid slowly passes through solid materials (e.g., rubber or plastic).
o No visible holes, but small molecules can move through the barrier.

Qn. With diagram, explain acoustic emission testing technique?

Acoustic Emission (AE) is a Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) method that detects the release of energy
in the form of sound waves within a material. These waves are generated when the material undergoes
internal changes such as plastic deformation, crack initiation, or crack propagation.

Working Principle

• AE occurs when strain energy is suddenly released within a material.

• This release produces sound waves that travel through the material and are detected using
piezoelectric sensors placed on the surface.

Types of Acoustic Emission

1. Continuous AE:
o Low-amplitude emissions.
o Caused by plastic deformation, dislocation movement, or fluid leakage.
2. Burst AE:
o Short-duration, high-amplitude pulses.
o Caused by crack formation, crack propagation, or stress corrosion cracking.

Steps in AE Testing

1. Detection of AE Activity:

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Qn. Explain any four types of leak testing?
Hydrostatic Test
This test checks for leaks in welded pressure vessels, piping and fittings.
It works by filling the pressure vessel with water at high pressure, then observing if water seeps out,
which would indicate a leak or defect.
While it’s straightforward to perform, it can be time-consuming.
This test is widely used because it’s reliable for identifying weak points or discontinuities in pressure
vessels.
Liquid Film Test
Pressurize the Vessel: First, the vessel is pressurized with gas.
Apply Liquid Film: A thin layer of soap solution (or a similar liquid) is applied to the outer surface of
the vessel, especially on areas where leaks are suspected.
Observe for Bubbles: If there is a leak, gas will escape through the flaw, causing bubbles to form in the
liquid film on the surface.
Identify Leak Location and Size: The bubbles show the exact location of the leak and can give an idea
of its size.
This method is a simple way to detect leaks in pressurized vessels
Halogen Diode Leak Testing
Principle: This method uses a tracer gas and a detector to locate leaks by detecting the presence of
halogen gas.
Process:
First, pressurize the system with a mix of air and a halogen-based gas (like Freon).
After allowing some time for the gas to spread, use a halogen diode detector, known as a “sniffer,” to
check for halogen.
Leak Indication: If the detector senses halogen gas across a pressure boundary, it indicates a leak in the
system.
This method is widely used due to its high sensitivity for detecting small leaks.
Helium Mass Spectrometer Leak Testing
Helium mass spectrometer testing uses helium or other tracer gases, like nitrogen or carbon dioxide, to
detect very small leaks in equipment.
This technique is commonly applied to check leaks in sealed devices, vacuum chambers, cryogenic
tanks and heat exchanger tubes.
The test chamber is filled with helium or a helium-air mix and then evacuated, creating a vacuum around
it.
Helium from inside the chamber escapes through any leaks and enters the vacuum space.
Inside the spectrometer, helium is ionized (charged) by an electron beam and is then subjected to a
magnetic field, directing the ions toward a detector.
When helium ions hit the detector, they produce a tiny electrical current, which is amplified and
measured. This current represents the leak rate and is displayed on an indicator.
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