WJEC​ (​ Eduqas)​ ​

Economics A-level
Microeconomics

Topic​ 7:​ Market Failure

7.2 Why and how governments intervene

Notes

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Government intervention to target market failure:

Governments intervene in the market to correct market failure. For example, they
might provide healthcare and education, which the free market would underprovide.

Indirect taxes:

Indirect taxes are taxes on expenditure. They increase production costs for
producers, so producers supply less. This increases market price and demand
contracts. They could be used to discourage the production or consumption of a
demerit good or service. For example, the government could impose a £1 tax per
packet of cigarettes.

There are two types of indirect taxes:

o Ad valorem taxes are percentages, such as VAT, which adds 20% of the unit
price. This is the main indirect tax in the UK.

o The incidence of tax might fall differently on consumers and producers.

Producers could make consumers pay the whole tax (P3 – P2), or if they feel
this would lower sales and lose them revenue, they could choose to pay part
of the tax. Producers might pay P1 – P2, whilst consumers might pay P3 – P1.

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 o The incidence of the tax depends on the price elasticity of demand of the
good. For cigarettes, since the demand is fairly price inelastic, consumers
might have the larger burden of tax.
o This should, in theory, discourage consumption of the demerit good and
reduce negative externalities.
o Government revenue from ad valorem taxes is larger if demand is price
inelastic. This is because demand falls only slightly with the tax.

o Specific taxes are a set tax per unit, such as the 58p per litre fuel duty on
unleaded petrol.

o The more inelastic the demand, the higher the tax burden for the consumer,
and the lower the burden of tax for the producer.

Indirect taxes could reduce the quantity of demerit goods consumed, by increasing
the price of the good. If the tax is equal to the external cost of each unit, then the
supply curve becomes MSC rather than MPC, so the free market equilibrium
becomes the socially optimum equilibrium. This internalises the externality. In other
words, the polluter pays for the damage.

Subsidies:

A subsidy is a payment from the government to a producer to lower their costs of

production and encourage them to produce more.

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Subsidies encourage the consumption of merit goods. This includes the full social
benefit in the market price of the good. Therefore, the external benefit is
internalised.
For example, the government might subsidise recycling schemes so it is cheaper for
consumers to recycle waste, which will yield positive externalities for the
environment.
The supply curve shifts to the left. More of the merit good is produced and the price
falls from P1 to P2.
The vertical distance between the supply curves shows the value of the subsidy per
unit.

Consumers gain more from the subsidy when demand is price inelastic, whilst
producers supply more when demand is price elastic.
The disadvantages of subsidies include the opportunity cost to the government and
potential higher taxes, the potential for firms to become inefficient if they rely on
the subsidy and government failure, if they subsidise less efficient industries.

Maximum and Minimum Prices:

Maximum price

The government might set a maximum price where the consumption or production
of a good is to be encouraged. This is so the good does not become too expensive to
produce or consume.

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Maximum prices have to be set below the free market price, otherwise they would
be ineffective.

The free market equilibrium is at P1, Q1.

If suppliers only produced at Q3, some consumers would be willing to pay P2. The
shaded area shows the consumer surplus producers can take with the higher price.
A quantity of Q3 would require rationing or auctioning, since quantity demanded is
Q2.
They prevent monopolies exploiting consumers. For example, in the EU, price caps
on roaming charges are in place to make sure it is not too expensive for consumers
to use their mobile phones abroad.
Maximum prices control the market price, but this could lead to government failure
if they misjudge where the optimum market price should be.

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Maximum prices could lead to welfare gains for consumers by keeping prices low,
and they could increase efficiency in firms, since they have an incentive to keep their
costs low to maintain their profit level.
However, it could reduce a firm’s profits, which could lead to less investment in the
long run. Moreover, firms might raise the prices of other goods, so consumers might
have no net gain.

Minimum price

The government might set a minimum price where the consumption or production
of a good is to be discouraged. This ensures the good never falls below a certain
price.
For example, the government might impose a minimum price on alcohol, so it is less
affordable to buy it. The National Minimum Wage is an example of a minimum
price.
Minimum prices would reduce the negative externalities from consuming a demerit
good, such as alcohol.
Minimum prices have to be set above the free market price, otherwise they would
be ineffective.
The minimum wage could be used as an example.

The diagram suggests that a minimum wage leads to a fall in the employment rate
(Q1 – Q3). It depends on what level the wage is set, though. An inelastic labour
demand will mean there is only a small contraction in demand for labour (Q1 – Q3).

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This minimum price will yield the positive externalities of a decent wage, which will
increase the standard of living of the poorest, and provide an incentive for people to
work.

Tradeable pollution permits:

These could limit the amount of negative externalities, in the form of pollution,
created in industries. Firms will be allowed to pollute up to a certain amount, and
any surplus on their permit can be traded.
This means firms can buy and sell allowances between themselves.
For example, there could be a limit on the quantity of carbon dioxide emissions
released from the steel industry.
Advantages
This should benefit the environment in the long run, by encouraging firms to use
green production methods.
The government could raise revenue from the permits, because they can sell them to
firms. This revenue could then be reinvested in green technology.
If firms exceed their permit, they will have to purchase more permits from firms
which did not use their whole permit. This raises revenue for greener firms, who
might then invest in green production methods.
Disadvantages
However, it could lead to some firms relocating to where they can pollute without
limits, which will reduce their production costs.
Firms might pass the higher costs of production onto the consumer.
Competition could be restricted in the market, if the permits create a barrier to entry
for potential firms.
It could be expensive for governments to monitor emissions.

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State provision of public goods:

The government could provide public goods which are underprovided in the free
market, such as education and healthcare. These have external benefits.
This makes merit goods more accessible, which might increase their consumption
and yield positive externalities.
It could be expensive for governments to provide education, and the government
will incur an opportunity cost of spending their revenue.

Provision of information:

By providing information, governments can ensure there is no information failure, so

consumers and firms can make informed economic decisions.
For example, governments might make it illegal for second-hand car dealers not to
reveal the entire history of a car, so consumers know exactly what they are buying.
This could be expensive to police.

Regulation:

The government could use laws to ban consumers from consuming a good. They
could also make it illegal not to do something. For example, the minimum school
leaving age means young people have to be in school until the age of 16, and
education or training until they turn 18.
This has positive externalities in the form of a higher skilled workforce.
If there was a compulsory recycling scheme, it would be difficult to police and there
could be high administrative costs. Bans could be enforced for harmful goods,
although they can still be consumed on the black market.
Firms which fail to follow regulations could face heavy fines, which acts as a
disincentive to break the rule.
It could raise costs of firms, who might pass on the higher costs to consumers.

Buffer stock systems:

This is mainly in agricultural markets, where prices are volatile.

Governments might use buffer stocks to smooth out these fluctuations.
However, historically, these have been unsuccessful.
Governments buy up harvests during surpluses, then sell the goods onto the market
when supplies are low.
Advantages:

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Farmer incomes remain stable, because fluctuations in the market are reduced.
This will be particularly beneficial in rural areas, where farming is a main source of
income.
It also increases consumer welfare by ensuring prices are not in excess.
Disadvantages:
Governments might not have the financial resources to buy up the stock.
By guaranteeing farmers a minimum price, they might overproduce. This could be
expensive and damaging to the environment.
Storage is difficult and expensive, since agricultural goods do not last long, and there
are administrative costs.

Reduce income inequality

In the absence of government intervention, the market mechanism is likely to result

in a very unequal and inequitable distribution of income and wealth.
An unequal distribution can lead to negative externalities, such as social unrest. In a
market economy, an individual’s ability to consume goods and services depends
upon their income and wealth and an inequitable distribution of income and wealth
is likely to lead to a misallocation of resources and hence market failure. Some
consumers might not be able to buy goods and services at all.
Those with the lowest incomes are the unemployed, the underemployed, the elderly
and low skilled workers. Governments can use progressive taxes and government
spending to reduce inequality. Progressive taxes take more income from the rich less
from the poor. In the UK, income tax is progressive. With government spending on
welfare payments, the inequality between the richest and poorest can be reduced.
An example of a welfare payment is when the unemployed receive Job Seeker’s
Allowance, to help support them whilst looking for a job.
In Wales, there are income inequalities between parts of rural Wales and South
Wales Valleys and the larger cities, such as Swansea and Cardiff. The government
could use income redistribution methods to reduce these inequalities, for example.

The Welsh Government

The Welsh government has intervened to help correct market failure. For example,
free NHS prescriptions are given to ensure everyone who needs healthcare is able to
get it, and those on low incomes are also able to receive medicines.
This increases social welfare and yields positive externalities in the form of longer life
expectancies and a higher standard of living.
It also leads to a more efficient allocation of resources.

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Moreover, the Welsh government charges consumers for plastic bags. This reduces
the negative externalities associated with littering and pollution, and means
seawater is cleaner, because fewer plastic bags are dumped in the water. This
reduces market failure.

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