R EVI EW & SU M MARY 285

Review & Summary

Angular Position To describe the rotation of a rigid body about moves in a circle with radius r. If the body rotates through an angle u,
a fixed axis, called the rotation axis, we assume a reference line is the point moves along an arc with length s given by
fixed in the body, perpendicular to that axis and rotating with the s  ur (radian measure), (10-17)
body.We measure the angular position u of this line relative to a fixed where u is in radians.
direction.When u is measured in radians, The linear velocity : v of the point is tangent to the circle; the
s point’s linear speed v is given by
u (radian measure), (10-1)
r
v  vr (radian measure), (10-18)
where s is the arc length of a circular path of radius r and angle u.
Radian measure is related to angle measure in revolutions and de- where v is the angular speed (in radians per second) of the body.
grees by The linear acceleration : a of the point has both tangential and
1 rev  360  2p rad. (10-2) radial components. The tangential component is
at  ar (radian measure), (10-22)
Angular Displacement A body that rotates about a rotation
axis, changing its angular position from u1 to u2, undergoes an angu- where a is the magnitude of the angular acceleration (in radians
lar displacement per second-squared) of the body. The radial component of :
a is
u  u2  u1, (10-4) v2
ar   v2r (radian measure). (10-23)
where u is positive for counterclockwise rotation and negative for r
clockwise rotation.
If the point moves in uniform circular motion, the period T of
Angular Velocity and Speed If a body rotates through an the motion for the point and the body is
angular displacement u in a time interval t, its average angular 2pr 2p
velocity vavg is T  (radian measure). (10-19, 10-20)
u v v
vavg  . (10-5)
t
Rotational Kinetic Energy and Rotational Inertia The ki-
The (instantaneous) angular velocity v of the body is netic energy K of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis is given by
du K  12Iv2 (radian measure), (10-34)
v . (10-6)
dt
in which I is the rotational inertia of the body, defined as
Both vavg and v are vectors, with directions given by the right-hand
rule of Fig. 10-6. They are positive for counterclockwise rotation I   mir 2i (10-33)
and negative for clockwise rotation. The magnitude of the body’s for a system of discrete particles and defined as


angular velocity is the angular speed.
I r 2 dm (10-35)
Angular Acceleration If the angular velocity of a body
changes from v1 to v2 in a time interval t  t2  t1, the average
for a body with continuously distributed mass. The r and ri in these
angular acceleration aavg of the body is
expressions represent the perpendicular distance from the axis of
v 2  v1 v rotation to each mass element in the body, and the integration is car-
aavg   . (10-7)
t2  t1 t ried out over the entire body so as to include every mass element.
The (instantaneous) angular acceleration a of the body is
The Parallel-Axis Theorem The parallel-axis theorem relates
dv the rotational inertia I of a body about any axis to that of the same
a . (10-8)
dt body about a parallel axis through the center of mass:
Both aavg and a are vectors. I  Icom  Mh2. (10-36)
The Kinematic Equations for Constant Angular Accel- Here h is the perpendicular distance between the two axes, and
eration Constant angular acceleration (a  constant) is an im- Icom is the rotational inertia of the body about the axis through the
portant special case of rotational motion. The appropriate kine- com. We can describe h as being the distance the actual rotation
matic equations, given in Table 10-1, are axis has been shifted from the rotation axis through the com.
v  v0  at, (10-12)
Torque Torque is a turning or twisting action on a body about a ro-
: :
u  u0  v0t  tation axis due to a force F . If F is exerted at a point given by the po-
2 at ,
1 2
(10-13)
sition vector :
r relative to the axis, then the magnitude of the torque is
v2  v20  2a(u  u0), (10-14)
t  rFt  rF  rF sin f, (10-40, 10-41, 10-39)
u  u0  12 (v0  v)t, (10-15) :
where Ft is the component of F perpendicular to : r and f is the an-
:
u  u0  vt  12 at 2. (10-16) gle between : r and F . The quantity r is the perpendicular distance
between the rotation axis and an extended line running through
: :
Linear and Angular Variables Related A point in a rigid the F vector. This line is called the line of action of F , and r is
:
rotating body, at a perpendicular distance r from the rotation axis, called the moment arm of F . Similarly, r is the moment arm of Ft.
286 CHAPTE R 10 ROTATION

The SI unit of torque is the newton-meter (N m). A torque t equations used for translational motion and are
is positive if it tends to rotate a body at rest counterclockwise and
negative if it tends to rotate the body clockwise. W uf

ui
t du (10-53)

Newton’s Second Law in Angular Form The rotational dW

analog of Newton’s second law is and P  tv. (10-55)
dt
tnet  Ia, (10-45)
When t is constant, Eq. 10-53 reduces to
where tnet is the net torque acting on a particle or rigid body, I is the ro-
tational inertia of the particle or body about the rotation axis, and a is W  t(uf  ui). (10-54)
the resulting angular acceleration about that axis. The form of the work – kinetic energy theorem used for rotating
bodies is
Work and Rotational Kinetic Energy The equations used
K  Kf  Ki  12 Iv2f  12 v2i  W. (10-52)
for calculating work and power in rotational motion correspond to

Questions
ω F1
1 Figure 10-20 is a graph of the an- angles during the rotation, which is
gular velocity versus time for a disk counterclockwise and at a constant θ
rotating like a merry-go-round. For a rate. However, we are to decrease the
t :
point on the disk rim, rank the in- a b c d angle u of F1 without changing the
:
stants a, b, c, and d according to the magnitude of F1 . (a) To keep the an- F2
magnitude of the (a) tangential and Figure 10-20 Question 1. gular speed constant, should we in-
(b) radial acceleration, greatest first. crease, decrease, or maintain the mag- Figure 10-23 Question 5.
: :
2 Figure 10-21 shows plots of angu- θ
nitude of F 2? Do forces (b) F1 and (c)
:
lar position u versus time t for three 90° F 2 tend to rotate the disk clockwise or
F4
cases in which a disk is rotated like a 1 counterclockwise?
F5
merry-go-round. In each case, the ro- 3 6 In the overhead view of Fig. 10-24,
tation direction changes at a certain t five forces of the same magnitude act
0
angular position uchange. (a) For each 2 on a strange merry-go-round; it is a
case, determine whether uchange is square that can rotate about point P, at F3
clockwise or counterclockwise from midlength along one of the edges. F1
–90° P
u  0, or whether it is at u  0. For Rank the forces according to the mag-
each case, determine (b) whether Figure 10-21 Question 2.
nitude of the torque they create about F2
v is zero before, after, or at t  0 point P, greatest first.
and (c) whether a is positive, negative, or zero. Figure 10-24 Question 6.
7 Figure 10-25a is an overhead view
3 A force is applied to the rim of a disk that can rotate like of a horizontal bar that can pivot; two horizontal forces act on the
:
a merry-go-round, so as to change its angular velocity. Its initial bar, but it is stationary. If the angle between the bar and F 2 is now
and final angular velocities, respectively, for four situations are: decreased from 90 and the bar is still not to turn, should F2 be
(a) 2 rad/s, 5 rad/s; (b) 2 rad/s, 5 rad/s; (c) 2 rad/s, 5 rad/s; and made larger, made smaller, or left the same?
(d) 2 rad/s, 5 rad/s. Rank the situations according to the work
done by the torque due to the force, greatest first. F1 F2 F2
4 Figure 10-22b is a graph of the angular position of the rotating Pivot point Pivot point φ
disk of Fig. 10-22a. Is the angular velocity of the disk positive, nega-
tive, or zero at (a) t  1 s, (b) t  2 s, and (c) t  3 s? (d) Is the an-
gular acceleration positive or negative? F1
(a) (b)
θ (rad)
Rotation axis Figure 10-25 Questions 7 and 8.

8 Figure 10-25b shows an overhead view of a horizontal bar that

: :
is rotated about the pivot point by two horizontal forces, F1 and F 2,
:
t (s) with F 2 at angle f to the bar. Rank the following values of f accord-
1 2 3 ing to the magnitude of the angular acceleration of the bar, greatest
first: 90, 70, and 110. a

9 Figure 10-26 shows a uniform metal plate

(a) (b) that had been square before 25% of it was b

Figure 10-22 Question 4. snipped off. Three lettered points are indicated.
Rank them according to the rotational inertia of c
: :
5 In Fig. 10-23, two forces F1 and F2 act on a disk that turns about the plate around a perpendicular axis through Figure 10-26
its center like a merry-go-round. The forces maintain the indicated them, greatest first. Question 9.
318 CHAPTE R 11 ROLLI NG, TORQU E, AN D ANG U L AR M OM E NTU M

:
According to Eq. 11-41, torque t: causes an incremental change dL in the
angular momentum of the gyroscope in an incremental time interval dt; that is,
:
dL  t: dt. (11-44)
:
However, for a rapidly spinning gyroscope, the magnitude of L is fixed by
:
Eq. 11-43. Thus the torque can change only the direction of L, not its magnitude.
:
From Eq. 11-44 we see that the direction of dL is in the direction of t:, per-
: :
pendicular to L . The only way that L can be changed in the direction of t:
:
without the magnitude L being changed is for L to rotate around the z axis as
: :
shown in Fig. 11-22c. L maintains its magnitude, the head of the L vector follows
:
a circular path, and t is always tangent to that path. Since L must always
:

point along the shaft, the shaft must rotate about the z axis in the direction of t:.
Thus we have precession. Because the spinning gyroscope must obey Newton’s
law in angular form in response to any change in its initial angular momentum, it
must precess instead of merely toppling over.
Precession. We can find the precession rate by first using Eqs. 11-44 and
:
11-42 to get the magnitude of dL :
dL  t dt  Mgr dt. (11-45)
:
As L changes by an incremental amount in an incremental time interval dt, the shaft
:
and L precess around the z axis through incremental angle df. (In Fig. 11-22c, angle
df is exaggerated for clarity.) With the aid of Eqs. 11-43 and 11-45, we find that df is
given by
dL Mgr dt
df   .
L Iv
Dividing this expression by dt and setting the rate  df/dt, we obtain

Mgr
 (precession rate). (11-46)
Iv

This result is valid under the assumption that the spin rate v is rapid. Note that
decreases as v is increased. Note also that there would be no precession if the
gravitational force Mg: did not act on the gyroscope, but because I is a function of
M, mass cancels from Eq. 11-46; thus is independent of the mass.
Equation 11-46 also applies if the shaft of a spinning gyroscope is at an angle
to the horizontal. It holds as well for a spinning top, which is essentially a spinning
gyroscope at an angle to the horizontal.

Review & Summary

Rolling Bodies For a wheel of radius R rolling smoothly, If the wheel rolls smoothly down a ramp of angle u, its acceleration
vcom  vR, (11-2) along an x axis extending up the ramp is

where vcom is the linear speed of the wheel’s center of mass and v is g sin u
acom, x   . (11-10)
the angular speed of the wheel about its center. The wheel may 1  Icom /MR2
also be viewed as rotating instantaneously about the point P of the
“road” that is in contact with the wheel. The angular speed of the Torque as a Vector In three dimensions, torque t: is a vector
wheel about this point is the same as the angular speed of quantity defined relative to a fixed point (usually an origin); it is
:
the wheel about its center. The rolling wheel has kinetic energy t:  :r  F , (11-14)
:
K 2 Icomv
1 2
 1
2 v 2com, (11-5) :
where F is a force applied to a particle and r is a position vector lo-
cating the particle relative to the fixed point.The magnitude of t: is
where Icom is the rotational inertia of the wheel about its center of
mass and M is the mass of the wheel. If the wheel is being accelerated t  rF sin f  rF  rF, (11-15, 11-16, 11-17)
but is still rolling smoothly, the acceleration of the center of mass :
acom : :
where f is the angle between F and r , F is the component of F
:
is related to the angular acceleration a about the center with :
perpendicular to :r , and r is the moment arm of F . The direction
acom  aR. (11-6) of t is given by the right-hand rule.
:
 QU ESTIONS 319

:
Angular Momentum of a Particle The angular momentum  The time rate of change of this angular momentum is equal to the
: :
of a particle with linear momentum p, mass m, and linear velocity v is net external torque on the system (the vector sum of the torques
a vector quantity defined relative to a fixed point (usually an origin) as due to interactions with particles external to the system):
: :
  :r  p
:
 m(r:  v:). (11-18) dL
t:net  (system of particles). (11-29)
: dt
The magnitude of  is given by
  rmv sin f (11-19) Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body For a rigid body
 rp  rmv (11-20) rotating about a fixed axis, the component of its angular
momentum parallel to the rotation axis is
 r p  r mv, (11-21)
L  Iv (rigid body, fixed axis). (11-31)
where f is the angle between :r and p:, p and v are the compo-
nents of p: and v: perpendicular to :r , and r is the perpendicular Conservation of Angular Momentum The angular mo-
:
distance between the fixed point and the extension of p: . The direc- mentum L of a system remains constant if the net external torque
:
tion of  is given by the right-hand rule for cross products. acting on the system is zero:
:
Newton’s Second Law in Angular Form Newton’s second L  a constant (isolated system) (11-32)
law for a particle can be written in angular form as : :
: or Li  Lf (isolated system). (11-33)
d
t:net  , (11-23)
dt This is the law of conservation of angular momentum.
:
where t net is the net torque acting on the particle and  is the angu-
:

lar momentum of the particle. Precession of a Gyroscope A spinning gyroscope can pre-
cess about a vertical axis through its support at the rate
Angular Momentum of a System of Particles The angu-
: Mgr
lar momentum L of a system of particles is the vector sum of the  , (11-46)
angular momenta of the individual particles: Iv
n where M is the gyroscope’s mass, r is the moment arm, I is the rota-
: : : : :
L  1  2      n    i.
i1
(11-26) tional inertia, and v is the spin rate.

Questions
a b :
1 Figure 11-23 shows three particles above the point of contact), and (c) force F3 (the line of action
of the same mass and the same constant passes to the right of the point of contact)?
speed moving as indicated by the veloc- e
4 The position vector :r of a particle relative to a certain point
ity vectors. Points a, b, c, and d form a :
has a magnitude of 3 m, and the force F on the particle has a mag-
square, with point e at the center. Rank d c :
nitude of 4 N. What is the angle between the directions of :r and F
the points according to the magnitude
if the magnitude of the associated torque equals (a) zero and (b) 12
of the net angular momentum of the Figure 11-23 Question 1. N m? y
three-particle system when measured
about the points, greatest first. y 5 In Fig. 11-26, three forces of the
A 3 same magnitude are applied to a par- P3
2 Figure 11-24 shows two parti- : F2
ticle at the origin ( F1 acts directly into
cles A and B at xyz coordinates P2
1 the plane of the figure). Rank the
(1 m, 1 m, 0) and (1 m, 0, 1 m). F3
2 forces according to the magnitudes of x
Acting on each particle are three P1
4 the torques they create about (a) F1
numbered forces, all of the same x
point P1, (b) point P2, and (c) point P3,
magnitude and each directed paral- 5
greatest first.
lel to an axis. (a) Which of the
z B 6
forces produce a torque about the 6 The angular momenta (t) of a Figure 11-26 Question 5.
origin that is directed parallel to y? Figure 11-24 Question 2. particle in four situations are (1)
(b) Rank the forces according to   3t  4; (2)   6t 2; (3)   2; (4)   4/t. In which situation
F3 is the net torque on the particle (a) zero, (b) positive and con-
the magnitudes of the torques they
produce on the particles about the ori- F2 stant, (c) negative and increasing in magnitude (t 0), and (d)
gin, greatest first. negative and decreasing in magnitude (t 0)?
3 What happens to the initially sta- 7 A rhinoceros beetle rides the rim of a horizontal disk rotating
tionary yo-yo in Fig. 11-25 if you pull it F1 counterclockwise like a merry-go-round. If the beetle then walks
:
via its string with (a) force F2 (the line along the rim in the direction of the rotation, will the magnitudes
of action passes through the point of of the following quantities (each measured about the rotation axis)
contact on the table, as indicated), increase, decrease, or remain the same (the disk is still rotating in
:
(b) force F1 (the line of action passes Figure 11-25 Question 3. the counterclockwise direction): (a) the angular momentum of the
 QU ESTIONS 343

Review & Summary

Static Equilibrium A rigid body at rest is said to be in static Tension and Compression When an object is under tension
equilibrium. For such a body, the vector sum of the external forces or compression, Eq. 12-22 is written as
acting on it is zero: F L
: E , (12-23)
F net  0 (balance of forces). (12-3) A L
If all the forces lie in the xy plane, this vector equation is equiva- where L/L is the tensile or compressive strain of the object, F is
:
lent to two component equations: the magnitude of the applied force F causing the strain, A is the
:
Fnet,x  0 and Fnet,y  0 (balance of forces). (12-7, 12-8) cross-sectional area over which F is applied (perpendicular to A,
as in Fig. 12-11a), and E is the Young’s modulus for the object. The
Static equilibrium also implies that the vector sum of the external stress is F/A.
torques acting on the body about any point is zero, or
t:net  0 (balance of torques). (12-5) Shearing When an object is under a shearing stress, Eq. 12-22 is
written as
If the forces lie in the xy plane, all torque vectors are parallel to the
z axis, and Eq. 12-5 is equivalent to the single component equation F x
G , (12-24)
A L
tnet,z  0 (balance of torques). (12-9)
where x/L is the shearing strain of the object, x is the
Center of Gravity The gravitational force acts individually on displacement of one end of the object in the direction of the ap-
each element of a body. The net effect of all individual actions may :
: plied force F (as in Fig. 12-11b), and G is the shear modulus of the
be found by imagining an equivalent total gravitational force Fg object. The stress is F/A.
:
acting at the center of gravity. If the gravitational acceleration g is
the same for all the elements of the body, the center of gravity is at
Hydraulic Stress When an object undergoes hydraulic com-
the center of mass.
pression due to a stress exerted by a surrounding fluid, Eq. 12-22 is
Elastic Moduli Three elastic moduli are used to describe the written as
V
elastic behavior (deformations) of objects as they respond to pB , (12-25)
forces that act on them. The strain (fractional change in length) is V
linearly related to the applied stress (force per unit area) by the where p is the pressure (hydraulic stress) on the object due to the
proper modulus, according to the general relation fluid, V/V (the strain) is the absolute value of the fractional
change in the object’s volume due to that pressure, and B is the
stress  modulus  strain. (12-22) bulk modulus of the object.

Questions
1 Figure 12-15 shows three situations in which the same compared to that of the safe.(a) Rank the positions according to
horizontal rod is supported by a hinge on a wall at one end and a the force on post A due to the safe, greatest compression first,
cord at its other end. Without written calculation, rank the situa- greatest tension last, and indicate where, if anywhere, the force is
tions according to the magnitudes of (a) the force on the rod zero. (b) Rank them according to the force on post B.
from the cord, (b) the vertical force on the rod from the hinge,
3 Figure 12-17 shows four overhead views of rotating uniform
and (c) the horizontal force on the rod from the hinge, greatest
disks that are sliding across a frictionless floor. Three forces, of
first.
magnitude F, 2F, or 3F, act on each disk, either at the rim, at the
center, or halfway between rim and center. The force vectors rotate
along with the disks, and, in the “snapshots” of Fig. 12-17, point left
or right. Which disks are in equilibrium?
50° 50°
F F F F

F
3F 2F 2F
(1) (2) (3) 2F
F F 2F
Figure 12-15 Question 1.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 In Fig. 12-16, a rigid beam is at- Figure 12-17 Question 3.
1 2 3 4 5 6
tached to two posts that are fas-
tened to a floor. A small but heavy 4 A ladder leans against a frictionless wall but is prevented from
safe is placed at the six positions A B falling because of friction between it and the ground. Suppose
indicated, in turn. Assume that the you shift the base of the ladder toward the wall. Determine
mass of the beam is negligible Figure 12-16 Question 2. whether the following become larger, smaller, or stay the same (in
376 CHAPTE R 13 G RAVITATION

Paths of light

Courtesy National Radio Astronomy Observatory

Figure 13-20 (a) Light from a distant quasar from quasar
follows curved paths around a galaxy or
a large black hole because the mass of the
Apparent
galaxy or black hole has curved the adja- quasar directions
cent space. If the light is detected, it ap-
pears to have originated along the back-
ward extensions of the final paths (dashed Galaxy or
lines). (b) The Einstein ring known as large black hole
MG11310456 on the computer screen of a
telescope. The source of the light (actually,
radio waves, which are a form of invisible
light) is far behind the large, unseen galaxy Final paths
that produces the ring; a portion of the
source appears as the two bright spots seen
along the ring. Earth detector
(a) (b)

can bend around the massive structure and toward us (Fig. 13-20a). Then, because
the light seems to be coming to us from a number of slightly different directions
in the sky, we see the same quasar in all those different directions. In some situa-
tions, the quasars we see blend together to form a giant luminous arc, which is
called an Einstein ring (Fig. 13-20b).
Should we attribute gravitation to the curvature of spacetime due to the
presence of masses or to a force between masses? Or should we attribute it to
the actions of a type of fundamental particle called a graviton, as conjectured in
some modern physics theories? Although our theories about gravitation have
been enormously successful in describing everything from falling apples to plane-
tary and stellar motions, we still do not fully understand it on either the cosmo-
logical scale or the quantum physics scale.

Review & Summary

The Law of Gravitation Any particle in the universe attracts particle from an extended body is found by dividing the body into
any other particle with a gravitational force whose magnitude is units of differential mass dm, each of which produces a differential
:
force dF on the particle, and then integrating to find the sum of
m1m2
FG (Newton’s law of gravitation), (13-1) those forces:


r2
: :
where m1 and m2 are the masses of the particles, r is their separation, F1  dF. (13-6)
and G ( 6.67  1011 N m2/kg2) is the gravitational constant.
Gravitational Acceleration The gravitational acceleration ag
Gravitational Behavior of Uniform Spherical Shells
of a particle (of mass m) is due solely to the gravitational force acting
The gravitational force between extended bodies is found by
on it. When the particle is at distance r from the center of a uniform,
adding (integrating) the individual forces on individual particles
spherical body of mass M, the magnitude F of the gravitational force
within the bodies. However, if either of the bodies is a uniform
on the particle is given by Eq. 13-1.Thus, by Newton’s second law,
spherical shell or a spherically symmetric solid, the net gravita-
tional force it exerts on an external object may be computed as if F  mag, (13-10)
all the mass of the shell or body were located at its center. which gives
GM
Superposition Gravitational forces obey the principle of su- ag  . (13-11)
:
r2
perposition; that is, if n particles interact, the net force F 1,net on a
particle labeled particle 1 is the sum of the forces on it from all the Free-Fall Acceleration and Weight Because Earth’s mass
other particles taken one at a time: is not distributed uniformly, because the planet is not perfectly
:
n
: spherical, and because it rotates, the actual free-fall acceleration g:
F 1,net   F 1i,
i2
(13-5) of a particle near Earth differs slightly from the gravitational accel-
:
eration a:g, and the particle’s weight (equal to mg) differs from the
in which the sum is a vector sum of the forces F 1i on particle magnitude of the gravitational force on it as calculated by
:
1 from particles 2, 3, . . . , n. The gravitational force F 1 on a Newton’s law of gravitation (Eq. 13-1).
 QU ESTIONS 377

Gravitation Within a Spherical Shell A uniform shell of Kepler’s Laws The motion of satellites, both natural and artifi-
matter exerts no net gravitational force on a particle located inside cial, is governed by these laws:
it. This means that if a particle is located inside a uniform solid
1. The law of orbits. All planets move in elliptical orbits with the
sphere at distance r from its center, the gravitational force exerted
Sun at one focus.
on the particle is due only to the mass that lies inside a sphere of
radius r (the inside sphere). The force magnitude is given by 2. The law of areas. A line joining any planet to the Sun sweeps
out equal areas in equal time intervals. (This statement is equiv-
GmM alent to conservation of angular momentum.)
F r, (13-19)
R3
3. The law of periods. The square of the period T of any planet is
where M is the sphere’s mass and R is its radius. proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis a of its orbit. For
circular orbits with radius r,
Gravitational Potential Energy The gravitational potential
 GM r
2
4p
energy U(r) of a system of two particles, with masses M and m and T2  3
(law of periods), (13-34)
separated by a distance r, is the negative of the work that would be
done by the gravitational force of either particle acting on the other where M is the mass of the attracting body — the Sun in the case
if the separation between the particles were changed from infinite of the solar system. For elliptical planetary orbits, the semi-
(very large) to r.This energy is major axis a is substituted for r.
GMm Energy in Planetary Motion When a planet or satellite with
U (gravitational potential energy). (13-21)
r mass m moves in a circular orbit with radius r, its potential energy
U and kinetic energy K are given by
Potential Energy of a System If a system contains more
GMm GMm
than two particles, its total gravitational potential energy U is the U and K  . (13-21, 13-38)
sum of the terms representing the potential energies of all the pairs. r 2r
As an example, for three particles, of masses m1, m2, and m3, The mechanical energy E  K  U is then

 Gmr m 
Gm1m3 Gm2m3 GMm
U
1 2
  . (13-22) E . (13-40)
12 r13 r23 2r
For an elliptical orbit of semimajor axis a,
Escape Speed An object will escape the gravitational pull of GMm
an astronomical body of mass M and radius R (that is, it will reach E . (13-42)
2a
an infinite distance) if the object’s speed near the body’s surface is
at least equal to the escape speed, given by Einstein’s View of Gravitation Einstein pointed out that gravi-
tation and acceleration are equivalent. This principle of equivalence
2GM led him to a theory of gravitation (the general theory of relativity) that
v . (13-28)
A R explains gravitational effects in terms of a curvature of space.

Questions
1 In Fig. 13-21, a central particle of 2M 4M rings of particles, at radii r and R,
M
mass M is surrounded by a square ar- with R r. All the particles have
ray of other particles, separated by ei- 7M 5M
mass m. What are the magnitude
ther distance d or distance d/2 along 3M and direction of the net gravita-
the perimeter of the square. What are M tional force on the central particle
the magnitude and direction of the 5M 7M due to the particles in the rings?
net gravitational force on the central M
4M 2M 4 In Fig. 13-24, two particles, of
particle due to the other particles?
masses m and 2m, are fixed in place
2 Figure 13-22 shows three Figure 13-21 Question 1.
on an axis. (a) Where on the axis can
arrangements of the same identical a third particle of mass 3m be placed
particles, with three of them placed Figure 13-23 Question 3.
(other than at infinity) so that the
on a circle of radius 0.20 m and the net gravitational force on it from the
fourth one placed at the center of first two particles is zero: to the left
the circle. (a) Rank the arrange- of the first two particles, to their m 2m
ments according to the magnitude of (a) (b) (c) right, between them but closer to
the net gravitational force on the the more massive particle, or be-
central particle due to the other Figure 13-22 Question 2. Figure 13-24 Question 4.
tween them but closer to the less
three particles, greatest first. (b) massive particle? (b) Does the an-
Rank them according to the gravitational potential energy of the swer change if the third particle has, instead, a mass of 16m? (c) Is
four-particle system, least negative first. there a point off the axis (other than infinity) at which the net force
3 In Fig. 13-23, a central particle is surrounded by two circular on the third particle would be zero?
 QU ESTIONS 405

Review & Summary

Pascal’s Principle A change in the pressure applied to an en-
Density The density r of any material is defined as the material’s closed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the
mass per unit volume: fluid and to the walls of the containing vessel.
m
r . (14-1)
V Archimedes’ Principle When a body is fully or partially sub-
:
merged in a fluid, a buoyant force Fb from the surrounding fluid
Usually, where a material sample is much larger than atomic
acts on the body. The force is directed upward and has a magni-
dimensions, we can write Eq. 14-1 as
tude given by
m Fb  mf g, (14-16)
r . (14-2)
V
where mf is the mass of the fluid that has been displaced by the body
Fluid Pressure A fluid is a substance that can flow; it conforms (that is, the fluid that has been pushed out of the way by the body).
to the boundaries of its container because it cannot withstand shear- When a body floats in a fluid, the magnitude Fb of the (upward)
ing stress. It can, however, exert a force perpendicular to its surface. buoyant force on the body is equal to the magnitude Fg of the (down-
That force is described in terms of pressure p: ward) gravitational force on the body. The apparent weight of a body
F on which a buoyant force acts is related to its actual weight by
p , (14-3)
A weightapp  weight  Fb. (14-19)
in which F is the force acting on a surface element of area A. If the
force is uniform over a flat area, Eq. 14-3 can be written as Flow of Ideal Fluids An ideal fluid is incompressible and
F lacks viscosity, and its flow is steady and irrotational. A streamline
p . (14-4) is the path followed by an individual fluid particle. A tube of flow is
A
a bundle of streamlines. The flow within any tube of flow obeys the
The force resulting from fluid pressure at a particular point in a equation of continuity:
fluid has the same magnitude in all directions. Gauge pressure is the
RV  Av  a constant, (14-24)
difference between the actual pressure (or absolute pressure) at a
point and the atmospheric pressure. in which RV is the volume flow rate, A is the cross-sectional area of
the tube of flow at any point, and v is the speed of the fluid at that
Pressure Variation with Height and Depth Pressure in a fluid point. The mass flow rate Rm is
at rest varies with vertical position y. For y measured positive upward,
Rm  rRV  rAv  a constant. (14-25)
p2  p1  rg(y1  y2). (14-7)
The pressure in a fluid is the same for all points at the same level. If Bernoulli’s Equation Applying the principle of conservation
h is the depth of a fluid sample below some reference level at which of mechanical energy to the flow of an ideal fluid leads to
the pressure is p0, then the pressure in the sample is Bernoulli’s equation along any tube of flow:

p  p0  rgh. (14-8) p  12 rv2  rgy  a constant. (14-29)

Questions
1 We fully submerge an irregular 3 kg lump of material in a cer- uations, assume static equilibrium. For each of them, is the density
tain fluid. The fluid that would have been in the space now occu- of the red liquid greater than, less than, or equal to the density of
pied by the lump has a mass of 2 kg. (a) When we release the lump, the gray liquid?
does it move upward, move downward, or remain in place? (b) If
3 A boat with an anchor on board floats in a swimming
we next fully submerge the lump in a less dense fluid and again re-
pool that is somewhat wider than the boat. Does the pool water
lease it, what does it do?
level move up, move down, or remain the same if the anchor is
2 Figure 14-21 shows four situations in which a red liquid and a gray (a) dropped into the water or (b) thrown onto the surrounding
liquid are in a U-tube. In one situation the liquids cannot be in static ground? (c) Does the water level in the pool move upward,
equilibrium. (a) Which situation is that? (b) For the other three sit- move downward, or remain the
same if, instead, a cork is dropped
from the boat into the water,
where it floats? a
c
4 Figure 14-22 shows a tank filled
d
with water. Five horizontal floors
and ceilings are indicated; all have
the same area and are located at b
distances L, 2L, or 3L below the
top of the tank. Rank them accord- e
(1) (2) (3) (4) ing to the force on them due to the
Figure 14-21 Question 2. water, greatest first. Figure 14-22 Question 4.
434 CHAPTE R 15 OSCI LL ATIONS

Review & Summary

Frequency The frequency f of periodic, or oscillatory, motion is Pendulums Examples of devices that undergo simple
the number of oscillations per second. In the SI system, it is mea- harmonic motion are the torsion pendulum of Fig. 15-9, the simple
sured in hertz: pendulum of Fig. 15-11, and the physical pendulum of Fig. 15-12.
Their periods of oscillation for small oscillations are, respectively,
1 hertz  1 Hz  1 oscillation per second  1 s1. (15-1)
T  2p 2I/k (torsion pendulum), (15-23)
Period The period T is the time required for one complete oscil-
lation, or cycle. It is related to the frequency by T  2p 2L/g (simple pendulum), (15-28)
1
T . (15-2) T  2p 2I/mgh (physical pendulum). (15-29)
f
Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular Motion
Simple Harmonic Motion In simple harmonic motion (SHM),
Simple harmonic motion is the projection of uniform circular
the displacement x(t) of a particle from its equilibrium position is
motion onto the diameter of the circle in which the circular motion
described by the equation
occurs. Figure 15-15 shows that all parameters of circular motion
x  xm cos(vt  f) (displacement), (15-3) (position, velocity, and acceleration) project to the corresponding
in which xm is the amplitude of the displacement, vt  f is the values for simple harmonic motion.
phase of the motion, and f is the phase constant. The angular fre-
Damped Harmonic Motion The mechanical energy E in a real
quency v is related to the period and frequency of the motion by
oscillating system decreases during the oscillations because external
2p forces, such as a drag force, inhibit the oscillations and transfer me-
v  2p f (angular frequency). (15-5)
T chanical energy to thermal energy. The real oscillator and its motion
:
Differentiating Eq. 15-3 leads to equations for the particle’s SHM are then said to be damped. If the damping force is given by F d 
velocity and acceleration as functions of time: b v , where v is the velocity of the oscillator and b is a damping con-
: :

stant, then the displacement of the oscillator is given by

v  vxm sin(vt  f) (velocity) (15-6)
x(t)  xm ebt/2m cos(vt  f), (15-42)
and a  v xm cos(vt  f)
2
(acceleration). (15-7)
where v, the angular frequency of the damped oscillator, is
In Eq. 15-6, the positive quantity vxm is the velocity amplitude vm given by
of the motion. In Eq. 15-7, the positive quantity v 2xm is the acceler- k b2
ation amplitude am of the motion. v   . (15-43)
Am 4m2
The Linear Oscillator A particle with mass m that moves un- If the damping constant is small (b  1km), then v  v, where v
der the influence of a Hooke’s law restoring force given by F  is the angular frequency of the undamped oscillator. For small b,
kx exhibits simple harmonic motion with the mechanical energy E of the oscillator is given by
k E(t)  12kx2m ebt/m. (15-44)
v (angular frequency) (15-12)
Am
Forced Oscillations and Resonance If an external
m driving force with angular frequency vd acts on an oscillating sys-
and T  2p (period). (15-13)
A k tem with natural angular frequency v, the system oscillates with
angular frequency vd. The velocity amplitude vm of the system is
Such a system is called a linear simple harmonic oscillator.
greatest when
Energy A particle in simple harmonic motion has, at any time, vd  v, (15-46)
kinetic energy K  12mv2 and potential energy U  12kx2. If no fric-
a condition called resonance. The amplitude xm of the system is
tion is present, the mechanical energy E  K  U remains con-
(approximately) greatest under the same condition.
stant even though K and U change.

Questions
1 Which of the following describe f for the SHM of Fig. 15-20a: and (d) point B? Is the speed of the particle increasing or decreas-
(a) p  f  p/2, ing at (e) point A and (f) point B?
x v
(b) p  f  3p/2,
B
(c) 3p/2  f  p?
t t
2 The velocity v(t) of a particle undergoing SHM is graphed in A
Fig. 15-20b. Is the particle momentarily stationary, headed toward
xm, or headed toward xm at (a) point A on the graph and (b)
point B? Is the particle at xm, at xm, at 0, between xm and 0, or (a) (b)
between 0 and xm when its velocity is represented by (c) point A Figure 15-20 Questions 1 and 2.
470 CHAPTE R 16 WAVES—I


um  2(2.00  103 m)(2p)(806.2 Hz)
To determine when the string element has this maxi-
mum speed, we could investigate Eq. 16-69. However, a little
thought can save a lot of work. The element is undergoing

 0.400 (0.180 m) 

2p SHM and must come to a momentary stop at its extreme
 sin upward position and extreme downward position. It has the
m
greatest speed as it zips through the midpoint of its oscilla-
 6.26 m/s. (Answer) tion, just as a block does in a block – spring oscillator.

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

Review & Summary

Transverse and Longitudinal Waves Mechanical waves Superposition of Waves When two or more waves traverse
can exist only in material media and are governed by Newton’s the same medium, the displacement of any particle of the medium is
laws. Transverse mechanical waves, like those on a stretched string, the sum of the displacements that the individual waves would give it.
are waves in which the particles of the medium oscillate perpendi-
cular to the wave’s direction of travel. Waves in which the particles Interference of Waves Two sinusoidal waves on the same
of the medium oscillate parallel to the wave’s direction of travel string exhibit interference, adding or canceling according to the prin-
are longitudinal waves. ciple of superposition. If the two are traveling in the same direction
and have the same amplitude ym and frequency (hence the same
Sinusoidal Waves A sinusoidal wave moving in the positive wavelength) but differ in phase by a phase constant f, the result is a
direction of an x axis has the mathematical form single wave with this same frequency:
y(x, t)  ym sin(kx  vt), (16-2) y (x, t)  [2ym cos 12f] sin(kx  vt  12f). (16-51)
where ym is the amplitude of the wave, k is the angular wave number, If f  0, the waves are exactly in phase and their interference is
v is the angular frequency, and kx  vt is the phase. The wavelength fully constructive; if f  p rad, they are exactly out of phase and
l is related to k by their interference is fully destructive.
2
k . (16-5) Phasors A wave y(x, t) can be represented with a phasor. This

is a vector that has a magnitude equal to the amplitude ym of the
The period T and frequency f of the wave are related to v by wave and that rotates about an origin with an angular speed equal
1 to the angular frequency v of the wave. The projection of the rotat-
f . (16-9) ing phasor on a vertical axis gives the displacement y of a point
2 T
along the wave’s travel.
Finally, the wave speed v is related to these other parameters by
Standing Waves The interference of two identical sinusoidal
 waves moving in opposite directions produces standing waves. For
v   f. (16-13)
k T a string with fixed ends, the standing wave is given by

Equation of a Traveling Wave Any function of the form y (x, t)  [2ym sin kx] cos vt. (16-60)

y(x, t)  h(kx  vt) (16-17) Standing waves are characterized by fixed locations of zero dis-
placement called nodes and fixed locations of maximum displace-
can represent a traveling wave with a wave speed given by Eq. 16-13 ment called antinodes.
and a wave shape given by the mathematical form of h. The plus sign
denotes a wave traveling in the negative direction of the x axis, and Resonance Standing waves on a string can be set up by
the minus sign a wave traveling in the positive direction. reflection of traveling waves from the ends of the string. If an end
is fixed, it must be the position of a node. This limits the frequen-
Wave Speed on Stretched String The speed of a wave on cies at which standing waves will occur on a given string. Each pos-
a stretched string is set by properties of the string. The speed on a sible frequency is a resonant frequency, and the corresponding
string with tension t and linear density m is standing wave pattern is an oscillation mode. For a stretched string
of length L with fixed ends, the resonant frequencies are
t
v . (16-26) v v
Am f n , for n  1, 2, 3, . . . . (16-66)
 2L
Power The average power of, or average rate at which energy is
The oscillation mode corresponding to n  1 is called the funda-
transmitted by, a sinusoidal wave on a stretched string is given by
mental mode or the first harmonic; the mode corresponding to
Pavg  12mvv2y2m. (16-33) n  2 is the second harmonic; and so on.
504 CHAPTE R 17 WAVES—I I

or projectile produces a burst of sound, called a sonic boom, in which the air pres-
sure first suddenly increases and then suddenly decreases below normal before re-
turning to normal. Part of the sound that is heard when a rifle is fired is the sonic
boom produced by the bullet. When a long bull whip is snapped, its tip is moving
faster than sound and produces a small sonic boom — the crack of the whip.

Review & Summary

Sound Waves Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves and A is the area of the surface intercepting the sound. The intensity I
that can travel through solids, liquids, or gases. The speed v of a is related to the displacement amplitude sm of the sound wave by
sound wave in a medium having bulk modulus B and density r is
I  12vv 2s 2m . (17-27)
B
v (speed of sound). (17-3) The intensity at a distance r from a point source that emits sound
A  waves of power Ps is
Ps
In air at 20C, the speed of sound is 343 m/s. I . (17-28)
A sound wave causes a longitudinal displacement s of a mass 4pr 2
element in a medium as given by
Sound Level in Decibels The sound level b in decibels (dB)
s  sm cos(kx  vt), (17-12) is defined as
I
b  (10 dB) log , (17-29)
where sm is the displacement amplitude (maximum displacement) I0
from equilibrium, k  2p/l, and v  2pf, l and f being the wave-
where I0 ( 1012 W/m2) is a reference intensity level to which all
length and frequency of the sound wave. The wave also causes a
intensities are compared. For every factor-of-10 increase in inten-
pressure change p from the equilibrium pressure:
sity, 10 dB is added to the sound level.
p  pm sin(kx  vt), (17-13)
Standing Wave Patterns in Pipes Standing sound wave
where the pressure amplitude is patterns can be set up in pipes. A pipe open at both ends will
resonate at frequencies
pm  (vrv)sm. (17-14)
v nv
f  , n  1, 2, 3, . . . , (17-39)
Interference The interference of two sound waves with identi-  2L
cal wavelengths passing through a common point depends on their
where v is the speed of sound in the air in the pipe. For a pipe
phase difference f there. If the sound waves were emitted in phase
closed at one end and open at the other, the resonant fre-
and are traveling in approximately the same direction, f is given by
quencies are
L f
v

nv
, n  1, 3, 5, . . . .
f 2p, (17-21) 
(17-41)
l 4L

where L is their path length difference (the difference in the Beats Beats arise when two waves having slightly different fre-
distances traveled by the waves to reach the common point). Fully quencies, f1 and f2, are detected together. The beat frequency is
constructive interference occurs when f is an integer multiple of 2p,
fbeat  f 1  f 2. (17-46)
f  m(2p), for m  0, 1, 2, . . . , (17-22)
and, equivalently, when L is related to wavelength l by The Doppler Effect The Doppler effect is a change in the
L observed frequency of a wave when the source or the detec-
 0, 1, 2, . . . . (17-23) tor moves relative to the transmitting medium (such as air).
l
For sound the observed frequency f is given in terms of the source
Fully destructive interference occurs when f is an odd multiple of p, frequency f by
v  vD
f  (2m  1)p, for m  0, 1, 2, . . . , (17-24) f f (general Doppler effect), (17-47)
v  vS
and, equivalently, when L is related to l by where vD is the speed of the detector relative to the medium, vS is
L that of the source, and v is the speed of sound in the medium. The
 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, . . . . (17-25) signs are chosen such that f tends to be greater for motion toward
l
and less for motion away.
Sound Intensity The intensity I of a sound wave at a surface is
the average rate per unit area at which energy is transferred by the Shock Wave If the speed of a source relative to the medium
wave through or onto the surface: exceeds the speed of sound in the medium, the Doppler equation
P no longer applies. In such a case, shock waves result. The half-angle
I , (17-26) u of the Mach cone is given by
A
v
where P is the time rate of energy transfer (power) of the sound wave sin u  (Mach cone angle). (17-57)
vS
538 CHAPTE R 18 TE M PE RATU R E, H EAT, AN D TH E FI RST L AW OF TH E R M ODYNAM ICS

Sample Problem 18.07 Thermal radiation by a skunk cabbage can melt surrounding snow

Unlike most other plants, a skunk cabbage can regulate its KEY IDEAS
internal temperature (set at T  22C) by altering the rate
at which it produces energy. If it becomes covered with (1) In a steady-state situation, a surface with area A, emissivity
snow, it can increase that production so that its thermal ra- ´, and temperature T loses energy to thermal radiation at the
diation melts the snow in order to re-expose the plant to rate given by Eq. 18-38 (Prad  s´AT 4). (2) Simultaneously,
sunlight. Let’s model a skunk cabbage with a cylinder of it gains energy by thermal radiation from its environment
height h  5.0 cm and radius R  1.5 cm and assume it is at temperature Tenv at the rate given by Eq. 18-39 (Penv 
surrounded by a snow wall at temperature Tenv  3.0C s´AT 4env).
(Fig. 18-23). If the emissivity ´ is 0.80, what is the net rate Calculations: To find the net rate of energy exchange, we
of energy exchange via thermal radiation between the subtract Eq. 18-38 from Eq. 18-39 to write
plant’s curved side and the snow?
Pnet  Pabs  Prad
 s´A(T 4env  T 4). (18-41)
We need the area of the curved surface of the cylinder,
which is A  h(2pR). We also need the temperatures in
kelvins: Tenv  273 K  3 K  270 K and T  273 K 
R
22 K  295 K. Substituting in Eq. 18-41 for A and then
substituting known values in SI units (which are not dis-
played here), we find
h
Pnet  (5.67  108)(0.80)(0.050)(2p)(0.015)(2704  2954)
 0.48 W. (Answer)
Thus, the plant has a net loss of energy via thermal radiation
Figure 18-23 Model of skunk cabbage that has melted snow to uncover of 0.48 W. The plant’s energy production rate is comparable
itself. to that of a hummingbird in flight.

Additional examples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

Review & Summary

Temperature; Thermometers Temperature is an SI base use of a constant-volume gas thermometer, in which a sample of gas
quantity related to our sense of hot and cold. It is measured with a is maintained at constant volume so its pressure is proportional to
thermometer, which contains a working substance with a measur- its temperature. We define the temperature T as measured with a
able property, such as length or pressure, that changes in a regular gas thermometer to be
way as the substance becomes hotter or colder.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics When a thermometer and T  (273.16 K)  lim pp .

gas:0 3
(18-6)
some other object are placed in contact with each other, they even-
tually reach thermal equilibrium.The reading of the thermometer is Here T is in kelvins, and p3 and p are the pressures of the gas at
then taken to be the temperature of the other object. The process 273.16 K and the measured temperature, respectively.
provides consistent and useful temperature measurements because
Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales The Celsius temperature
of the zeroth law of thermodynamics: If bodies A and B are each in
scale is defined by
thermal equilibrium with a third body C (the thermometer), then A
and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
TC  T  273.15, (18-7)
The Kelvin Temperature Scale In the SI system, tempera- with T in kelvins.The Fahrenheit temperature scale is defined by
ture is measured on the Kelvin scale, which is based on the triple
point of water (273.16 K). Other temperatures are then defined by TF  95TC  32. (18-8)
 R EVI EW & SU M MARY 539

Thermal Expansion All objects change size with changes in tem- The integration is necessary because the pressure p may vary dur-
perature. For a temperature change T, a change L in any linear ing the volume change.
dimension L is given by
First Law of Thermodynamics The principle of conser-
L  La T, (18-9) vation of energy for a thermodynamic process is expressed in the
first law of thermodynamics, which may assume either of the
in which a is the coefficient of linear expansion. The change V in forms
the volume V of a solid or liquid is
Eint  Eint, f  Eint,i  Q  W (first law) (18-26)
V  Vb T. (18-10)
or dEint  dQ  dW (first law). (18-27)

Here b  3a is the material’s coefficient of volume expansion. Eint represents the internal energy of the material, which depends
only on the material’s state (temperature, pressure, and volume).
Heat Heat Q is energy that is transferred between a system and Q represents the energy exchanged as heat between the system
its environment because of a temperature difference between and its surroundings; Q is positive if the system absorbs heat and
them. It can be measured in joules (J), calories (cal), kilocalories negative if the system loses heat. W is the work done by the sys-
(Cal or kcal), or British thermal units (Btu), with tem; W is positive if the system expands against an external force
from the surroundings and negative if the system contracts be-
1 cal  3.968  10 3 Btu  4.1868 J. (18-12) cause of an external force. Q and W are path dependent; Eint is
path independent.
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat If heat Q is absorbed by
an object, the object’s temperature change Tf  Ti is related to Q by Applications of the First Law The first law of thermody-
namics finds application in several special cases:
Q  C(Tf  Ti), (18-13)
adiabatic processes: Q  0, Eint  W
in which C is the heat capacity of the object. If the object has mass
m, then constant-volume processes: W  0, Eint  Q

cyclical processes: Eint  0, QW

Q  cm(Tf  Ti), (18-14)
free expansions: Q  W  Eint  0
where c is the specific heat of the material making up the object.
The molar specific heat of a material is the heat capacity Conduction, Convection, and Radiation The rate Pcond at
per mole, which means per 6.02  10 23 elementary units of the which energy is conducted through a slab for which one face is
material. maintained at the higher temperature TH and the other face is
maintained at the lower temperature TC is
Heat of Transformation Matter can exist in three common
states: solid, liquid, and vapor. Heat absorbed by a material may
Q TH  TC
change the material’s physical state — for example, from solid to liq- Pcond   kA (18-32)
uid or from liquid to gas.The amount of energy required per unit mass t L
to change the state (but not the temperature) of a particular material
is its heat of transformation L.Thus, Here each face of the slab has area A, the length of the slab (the
distance between the faces) is L, and k is the thermal conductivity
of the material.
Q  Lm. (18-16)
Convection occurs when temperature differences cause an en-
ergy transfer by motion within a fluid.
The heat of vaporization LV is the amount of energy per unit mass Radiation is an energy transfer via the emission of electromag-
that must be added to vaporize a liquid or that must be removed to netic energy. The rate Prad at which an object emits energy via ther-
condense a gas. The heat of fusion LF is the amount of energy per mal radiation is
unit mass that must be added to melt a solid or that must be re-
moved to freeze a liquid. Prad  s´AT 4, (18-38)

Work Associated with Volume Change A gas may where s ( 5.6704  10 8 W/m2 K4) is the Stefan – Boltzmann
exchange energy with its surroundings through work. The amount constant, ´ is the emissivity of the object’s surface, A is its surface
of work W done by a gas as it expands or contracts from an initial area, and T is its surface temperature (in kelvins). The rate Pabs at
volume Vi to a final volume Vf is given by which an object absorbs energy via thermal radiation from its envi-
ronment, which is at the uniform temperature Tenv (in kelvins), is

W  dW  Vf

Vi
p dV. (18-25) Pabs  s´AT 4env. (18-39)
 R EVI EW & SU M MARY 575

Table 19-3. Thus, KEY IDEA

7
Cp 2R
g  5  1.40. The temperature does not change in a free expansion be-
CV 2R cause there is nothing to change the kinetic energy of the
Solving Eq. 19-68 for Tf and inserting known data then yield molecules.
g1
TiV i (310 K)(12 L)1.401 Calculation: Thus, the temperature is
Tf  g1 
Vf (19 L)1.401 Tf  Ti  310 K. (Answer)
 (310 K)(12
19 )
0.40
 258 K. (Answer) We find the new pressure using Eq. 19-63, which gives us
(b) What would be the final temperature and pressure if, Vi 12 L
pf  pi  (2.0 Pa)  1.3 Pa. (Answer)
instead, the gas expands freely to the new volume, from an Vf 19 L
initial pressure of 2.0 Pa?

Problem-Solving Tactics A Graphical Summary of Four Gas Processes

In this chapter we have discussed four special processes that

an ideal gas can undergo. An example of each (for a mon-
atomic ideal gas) is shown in Fig. 19-16, and some associated
characteristics are given in Table 19-4, including two process

Pressure
names (isobaric and isochoric) that we have not used but i
1
f
that you might see in other courses. 4 2
f 3 f 700 K
f 500 K
400 K
Checkpoint 5
Volume
Rank paths 1, 2, and 3 in Fig. 19-16 according to the energy
transfer to the gas as heat, greatest first. Figure 19-16 A p-V diagram representing four special processes for
an ideal monatomic gas.

Table 19-4 Four Special Processes

Some Special Results

Path in Fig. 19-16 Constant Quantity Process Type (Eint  Q  W and Eint  nCV T for all paths)

1 p Isobaric Q  nCp T; W  p V

2 T Isothermal Q  W  nRT ln(Vf /Vi ); Eint  0
g g
3 pV , TV 1 Adiabatic Q  0; W  Eint
4 V Isochoric Q  Eint  nCV T; W  0

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Review & Summary

Kinetic Theory of Gases The kinetic theory of gases relates One molar mass M of any substance is the mass of one mole of the
the macroscopic properties of gases (for example, pressure and substance. It is related to the mass m of the individual molecules of
temperature) to the microscopic properties of gas molecules (for the substance by
example, speed and kinetic energy). M  mNA. (19-4)

Avogadro’s Number One mole of a substance contains The number of moles n contained in a sample of mass Msam,
NA (Avogadro’s number) elementary units (usually atoms or mole- consisting of N molecules, is given by
cules), where NA is found experimentally to be N Msam Msam
n   . (19-2, 19-3)
NA  6.02  10 mol 23 1
(Avogadro’s number). (19-1) NA M mNA
576 CHAPTE R 19 TH E KI N ETIC TH EORY OF GASES

Ideal Gas An ideal gas is one for which the pressure p, volume a gas are
V, and temperature T are related by 8RT
vavg  (average speed), (19-31)
A pM
pV  nRT (ideal gas law). (19-5)
2RT
Here n is the number of moles of the gas present and R is a constant vP  (most probable speed), (19-35)
A M
(8.31 J/mol K) called the gas constant. The ideal gas law can also be
written as and the rms speed defined above in Eq. 19-22.
pV  NkT, (19-9)
Molar Specific Heats The molar specific heat CV of a gas at
where the Boltzmann constant k is constant volume is defined as

k
R
 1.38  1023 J/K. Q Eint
(19-7) CV   , (19-39, 19-41)
NA n T n T
Work in an Isothermal Volume Change The work done in which Q is the energy transferred as heat to or from a sample of
by an ideal gas during an isothermal (constant-temperature) n moles of the gas, T is the resulting temperature change of the
change from volume Vi to volume Vf is gas, and Eint is the resulting change in the internal energy of the
gas. For an ideal monatomic gas,
Vf
W  nRT ln (ideal gas, isothermal process). (19-14) CV  32R  12.5 J/molK. (19-43)
Vi
The molar specific heat Cp of a gas at constant pressure is defined to be
Pressure, Temperature, and Molecular Speed The pres-
sure exerted by n moles of an ideal gas, in terms of the speed of its Q
Cp  , (19-46)
molecules, is n T
nMv2rms
p , (19-21) in which Q, n, and T are defined as above. Cp is also given by
3V
Cp  CV  R. (19-49)
where vrms  2(v2)avg is the root-mean-square speed of the mole-
cules of the gas. With Eq. 19-5 this gives For n moles of an ideal gas,

3RT Eint  nCVT (ideal gas). (19-44)

vrms  . (19-22)
A M If n moles of a confined ideal gas undergo a temperature change T
due to any process, the change in the internal energy of the gas is
Temperature and Kinetic Energy The average transla-
Eint  nCV T (ideal gas, any process). (19-45)
tional kinetic energy Kavg per molecule of an ideal gas is

Kavg  32kT. (19-24) Degrees of Freedom and CV The equipartition of energy

theorem states that every degree of freedom of a molecule has an
Mean Free Path The mean free path l of a gas molecule is its energy 12kT per molecule ( 12RT per mole). If f is the number of
average path length between collisions and is given by degrees of freedom, then Eint  ( f/2)nRT and
1
l
 2f R  4.16f J/molK.
, (19-25)
12pd 2 N/V CV  (19-51)
where N/V is the number of molecules per unit volume and d is the
molecular diameter. For monatomic gases f  3 (three translational degrees); for di-
atomic gases f  5 (three translational and two rotational degrees).
Maxwell Speed Distribution The Maxwell speed distri-
bution P(v) is a function such that P(v) dv gives the fraction Adiabatic Process When an ideal gas undergoes an adiabatic
of molecules with speeds in the interval dv at speed v: volume change (a change for which Q  0),

 2pRT 
3/2 g
M 2/2RT pV  a constant (adiabatic process), (19-53)
P(v)  4p v2 e Mv . (19-27)
in which g ( Cp /CV) is the ratio of molar specific heats for the gas.
Three measures of the distribution of speeds among the molecules of For a free expansion, however, pV  a constant.

Questions
p
1 For four situations for an a b c d 2 In the p-V diagram of Fig.
ideal gas, the table gives the 19-17, the gas does 5 J of work
Q 50 35 15 20 a
energy transferred to or from when taken along isotherm ab
the gas as heat Q and either the W 50 35
and 4 J when taken along b
work W done by the gas or the Won 40 40 adiabat bc. What is the change
work Won done on the gas, all in
joules. Rank the four situations in terms of the temperature change c
of the gas, most positive first. Figure 19-17 Question 2.
V
602 CHAPTE R 20 E NTROPY AN D TH E SECON D L AW OF TH E R M ODYNAM ICS

Now, applying Eq. 20-22 to evaluate Eq. 20-23, we find that thus
Sf  Si  nR ln 2  0
Sf  k ln(N!)  2k ln[(N/2)!]
 nR ln 2, (Answer)
 k[N(ln N)  N]  2k[(N/2) ln(N/2)  (N/2)]
which is what we set out to show. In the first sample prob-
 k[N(ln N)  N  N ln(N/2)  N] lem of this chapter we calculated this entropy increase for
 k[N(ln N)  N(ln N  ln 2)]  Nk ln 2. (20-24) a free expansion with thermodynamics by finding an
equivalent reversible process and calculating the entropy
From Eq. 19-8 we can substitute nR for Nk, where R is the
change for that process in terms of temperature and heat
universal gas constant. Equation 20-24 then becomes
transfer. In this sample problem, we calculate the same in-
Sf  nR ln 2. crease in entropy with statistical mechanics using the fact
that the system consists of molecules. In short, the two,
The change in entropy from the initial state to the final is very different approaches give the same answer.

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Review & Summary

One-Way Processes An irreversible process is one that can- The Second Law of Thermodynamics This law, which is
not be reversed by means of small changes in the environment. The an extension of the entropy postulate, states: If a process occurs in
direction in which an irreversible process proceeds is set by the a closed system, the entropy of the system increases for irreversible
change in entropy S of the system undergoing the process. processes and remains constant for reversible processes. It never de-
Entropy S is a state property (or state function) of the system; that creases. In equation form,
is, it depends only on the state of the system and not on the way in
S  0. (20-5)
which the system reached that state. The entropy postulate states (in
part): If an irreversible process occurs in a closed system, the entropy Engines An engine is a device that, operating in a cycle, extracts
of the system always increases. energy as heat QH from a high-temperature reservoir and does a cer-
tain amount of work W . The efficiency ´ of any engine is defined as
Calculating Entropy Change The entropy change S for an
irreversible process that takes a system from an initial state i to a energy we get W 
´  . (20-11)
final state f is exactly equal to the entropy change S for any re- energy we pay for QH 
versible process that takes the system between those same two In an ideal engine, all processes are reversible and no wasteful energy
states. We can compute the latter (but not the former) with transfers occur due to, say, friction and turbulence. A Carnot engine is

S  Sf  Si  i
f
dQ
T
. (20-1)
an ideal engine that follows the cycle of Fig. 20-9. Its efficiency is

´C  1 
QL 
1
TL
, (20-12, 20-13)
Here Q is the energy transferred as heat to or from the system dur- QH  TH
ing the process, and T is the temperature of the system in kelvins in which TH and TL are the temperatures of the high- and low-
during the process. temperature reservoirs, respectively. Real engines always have an
For a reversible isothermal process, Eq. 20-1 reduces to efficiency lower than that given by Eq. 20-13. Ideal engines that are
not Carnot engines also have lower efficiencies.
Q
S  Sf  Si  . (20-2) A perfect engine is an imaginary engine in which energy ex-
T tracted as heat from the high-temperature reservoir is converted com-
When the temperature change T of a system is small relative to pletely to work. Such an engine would violate the second law of ther-
the temperature (in kelvins) before and after the process, the en- modynamics, which can be restated as follows: No series of processes
tropy change can be approximated as is possible whose sole result is the absorption of energy as heat from a
thermal reservoir and the complete conversion of this energy to work.
Q
S  Sf  Si  , (20-3)
Tavg Refrigerators A refrigerator is a device that, operating in a cy-
where Tavg is the system’s average temperature during the process. cle, has work W done on it as it extracts energy QL as heat from a
When an ideal gas changes reversibly from an initial state with low-temperature reservoir. The coefficient of performance K of a
temperature Ti and volume Vi to a final state with temperature Tf refrigerator is defined as
and volume Vf , the change S in the entropy of the gas is what we want QL
K  . (20-14)
Vf Tf what we pay for W 
S  Sf  Si  nR ln  nCV ln . (20-4)
Vi Ti A Carnot refrigerator is a Carnot engine operating in reverse.
 QU ESTIONS 603

For a Carnot refrigerator, Eq. 20-14 becomes a configuration of the system. The number of microstates in a config-
uration is the multiplicity W of the configuration.
QL TL
KC   . (20-15, 20-16) For a system of N molecules that may be distributed between
QH  QL TH  TL the two halves of a box, the multiplicity is given by
A perfect refrigerator is an imaginary refrigerator in which N!
energy extracted as heat from the low-temperature reservoir is con- W , (20-20)
n1! n2!
verted completely to heat discharged to the high-temperature reser-
voir, without any need for work. Such a refrigerator would violate in which n1 is the number of molecules in one half of the box and n2 is
the second law of thermodynamics, which can be restated as follows: the number in the other half. A basic assumption of statistical
No series of processes is possible whose sole result is the transfer of mechanics is that all the microstates are equally probable. Thus, con-
energy as heat from a reservoir at a given temperature to a reservoir figurations with a large multiplicity occur most often.
at a higher temperature. The multiplicity W of a configuration of a system and the en-
tropy S of the system in that configuration are related by
Entropy from a Statistical View The entropy of a system can Boltzmann’s entropy equation:
be defined in terms of the possible distributions of its molecules. For
S  k ln W, (20-21)
identical molecules, each possible distribution of molecules is called a
23
microstate of the system.All equivalent microstates are grouped into where k  1.38  10 J/K is the Boltzmann constant.

Questions
1 Point i in Fig. 20-19 represents sion (a) isothermal, (b) isobaric (constant pressure), and (c) adiabatic?
a
the initial state of an ideal gas at Explain your answers. (d) In which processes does the entropy of the
temperature T. Taking algebraic b gas decrease?
Pressure

d i
signs into account, rank the entropy T
5 In four experiments, 2.5 p
changes that the gas undergoes as it T + ΔT
c mol of hydrogen gas under-
moves, successively and reversibly, goes reversible isothermal
from point i to points a, b, c, and d, T – ΔT a
expansions, starting from
greatest first. Volume the same volume but at dif- b
2 In four experiments, blocks A Figure 20-19 Question 1. ferent temperatures. The c
and B, starting at different initial corresponding p-V plots are
d
temperatures, were brought together in an insulating box and al- shown in Fig. 20-21. Rank
lowed to reach a common final temperature. The entropy changes the situations according V
for the blocks in the four experiments had the following values (in to the change in the entropy Figure 20-21 Question 5.
joules per kelvin), but not necessarily in the order given. of the gas, greatest first.
Determine which values for A go with which values for B. 6 A box contains 100 atoms in a configuration that has
50 atoms in each half of the box. Suppose that you could count
Block Values the different microstates associated with this configuration at the
rate of 100 billion states per second, using a supercomputer.
A 8 5 3 9 Without written calculation, guess how much computing time
B 3 8 5 2 you would need: a day, a year, or much more than a year.
7 Does the entropy per cycle increase, decrease, or remain the
3 A gas, confined to an insulated cylinder, is compressed same for (a) a Carnot engine, (b) a real engine, and (c) a perfect
adiabatically to half its volume. Does the entropy of the gas engine (which is, of course, impossible to build)?
increase, decrease, or remain unchanged during this process? 8 Three Carnot engines operate between temperature limits of
4 An ideal monatomic gas at initial temperature T0 (in kelvins) ex- (a) 400 and 500 K, (b) 500 and 600 K, and (c) 400 and 600 K. Each
pands from initial vol- engine extracts the same amount of energy per cycle from the
ume V0 to volume 2V0 high-temperature reservoir. Rank the magnitudes of the work
by each of the five 2.5T0 B done by the engines per cycle, greatest first.
processes indicated in 9 An inventor claims to have invented four engines, each of which
the T-V diagram of 2.0T0 C
operates between constant-temperature reservoirs at 400 and 300 K.
Temperature

Fig. 20-20. In which

1.5T0 D
Data on each engine, per cycle of operation, are: engine A, QH  200
process is the expan- J, QL  175 J, and W  40 J; engine B, QH  500 J, QL  200 J, and
A W  400 J; engine C, QH  600 J, QL  200 J, and W  400 J; engine
T0 E
D, QH  100 J, QL  90 J, and W  10 J. Of the first and second laws
0.63T0 F of thermodynamics, which (if either) does each engine violate?
10 Does the entropy per cycle increase, decrease, or remain the
Figure 20-20 V0 2V0 same for (a) a Carnot refrigerator, (b) a real refrigerator, and (c) a
Question 4. Volume perfect refrigerator (which is, of course, impossible to build)?