- Design considerations in computation of components L and C.

a) Buck chopper
Cct arrangement

Analysis
Switch ON 0<t<TON
di IL
Vs = Vo + L
dt I2

Vs = Vo + L
I (I − I )
= Vo + L 2 1 ,
t TON I1
LI V −V TON
TON = ; I = s o TON t
Vs − Vo L
Switch Off 0<t<TOff
di
Vo + L = 0 IL
dt
I2
I1 − I 2
L = −Vo
TOff I1
I TOff
−L = −Vo t
TOff T

LI V
Since I = I 2 − I1 therefore TOff = ; I = o TOff
Vo L
Thus
- Switching period T
LI LI LIVs
T = TON + TOff = + =
Vs − Vo Vo Vo (Vs − Vo )
- Peak to peak inductor/output current
V (V − Vo )
I = o s
fLVs
- Peak to peak capacitor ripple voltage
Assumption.
At time TON, I C = I L and when the capacitor is fully charged it will discharge for a time
T
t= of the period into the load.
2
T T

I L 1 2
1 I
2
I T V (V − Vo )
Hence I C =
4
,  VC =
C0 I C dt =  L dt = L = o 2s
C0 2 8C 8 f LVs C
- Conditions for continuous current conduction mode
i) I L  2I L
 Vo (Vs − Vo ) V V
I =  2I L = 2Io = 2 o = 2 s
fLVs RL RL
At boundary I L = 2I L
Vo (Vs − Vo ) V
 = 2 s . Solve for L
fLVs RL

Critical value of inductor Lc =

(1 −  ) R
L
2f
In order to ensure continuous current conduction mode, calculated Lc should be
increased by a factor say of 10.
i.e L selected equals 10Lc
ii) VC  2Vo
Vo (Vs − Vo )
VC =  2Vo = 2Vs . Solve for critical capacitance Cc
8 f 2 LVs C
1−
Cc =
16 Lf 2

NB: Since inductors are considered as sources of constant current, the value of inductance
from above(i) calculation is adequate to ensure a certain mode of current conduction (either
CCCM or DCCM). Where output voltage ripple factor is a requirement, capacitance should
be calculated so as to limit the ripple as specified since capacitors are considered as sources
of constant voltage.
Considering output voltage ripple factor rf
 rf =
Vo VC
=
(V − V )
= s2 o
Vo Vo 8 f LVs C

Cc =
(Vs − Vo )
8 f 2 LVs rf
b) Boost chopper
Cct arrangement

Analysis
Switch ON 0<t<TON IL
di
Vs = L
dt I2
Vs = L
I (I − I )
=L 2 1 ,
t TON
I1
LI V
TON = ; I = s TON
Vs L TON TOff
t
Switch Off 0<t<TOff T
 di
Vo + L = Vs
dt
I −I
L 1 2 = Vs − Vo
TOff
I
−L = Vs − Vo
TOff
LI V − Vs
Since I = I 2 − I1 therefore TOff = ; I = o TOff
Vo − Vs L
Thus
- Switching period T
1 LI LI LIVo
T = TOff + TON = = + =
f Vo − Vs Vs Vs (Vo − Vs )
- Peak to peak inductor/output current
V (V − Vs ) Vs V −V
I = s o = , since for boost  = o s
fLVo fL Vo
- Peak to peak capacitor ripple voltage
Capacitor voltage discharges to the load when the switch is on during time TON, I C = I o
I oTON I o (Vo − Vs ) I o
TON TON
1 1
 VC =
C  IC dt =
0
C  I dt =
0
o
Cf
=
fVoC
=
Cf
- Conditions for continuous current conduction mode
i) I L  2I L
Vs (Vo − Vs )
I =  2I L  2I o
fLVo
Vo2 V
Considering ideal situation, Pin=Pout  Pin = Vs I s = Pout = , I s = I L & Vo = s
RL 1−
Vo2 Vs2 Vs
Vs I L = = thus I L =
RL (1 −  ) RL
2
(1 −  )2 RL
At boundary I L = 2I L
Vs (Vo − Vs ) Vs
 I L = = 2I L = 2 . Solve for L
fLVo (1 −  )2 RL
 (1 −  )2
Critical value of inductor Lc = RL
2f
In order to ensure continuous current conduction mode, calculated Lc should be
increased by a factor say of 10.
i.e L selected equals 10Lc
ii) VC  2Vo
I o
VC =  2Vo = 2 I o RL . Solve for critical capacitance Cc
fC

Cc =
2 fRL
 Considering output voltage ripple factor rf
Vo VC (Vo − Vs )I o
 rf = = =
Vo Vo fVo2C

Cc =
(Vo − Vs )I o
fVo2 rf
c) Buck boost chopper
Cct arrangement

Analysis
Switch ON 0<t<TON
di
Vs = L
dt
Vs = L
I (I − I )
=L 2 1 ,
t TON
LI V
TON = ; I = s TON
Vs L
Switch Off 0<t<TOff
di
Vo = L
dt
I −I
L 1 2 = Vo
TOff
I
−L = Vo
TOff
− LI − Vo
Since I = I 2 − I1 therefore TOff = ; I = TOff
Vo L
Thus
- Switching period T
1 − LI LI LI (Vo − Vs )
T = TOff + TON = = + =
f Vo Vs (VoVs )
- Peak to peak inductor/output current
I =
(VoVs ) = Vs , since for boost  = Vo
fL(Vo − Vs ) fL (Vo − Vs )
- Peak to peak capacitor ripple voltage
Capacitor voltage discharges to the load when the switch is on during time TON, I C = I o
I oTON I o
TON TON
1 1
 VC =
C  IC dt =
0
C  I dt =
0
o
C
=
Cf
- Conditions for continuous current conduction mode
i) I L  2I L
 VsVo
I =  2I L  2Io
fL(Vo − Vs )
Considering ideal situation, Pin=Pout
Vo2 − Vs  2Vs2
 Pin = Vs I s = Pout = , I s = I L & Vo =  I LVs =
RL 1− (1 −  )2 RL
Vs
thus I L =
(1 −  )2 RL
At boundary I L = 2I L
VsVo Vs
 I L = = 2I L = 2 . Solve for L
fL(Vo − Vs ) (1 −  )2 RL
Critical value of inductor Lc =
(1 −  )2 R
L
2f
In order to ensure continuous current conduction mode, calculated Lc should be
increased by a factor say of 10.
i.e L selected equals 10Lc
ii) VC  2Vo
I o
VC =  2Vo = 2 I o RL . Solve for critical capacitance Cc
fC

Cc =
2 fRL

Considering output voltage ripple factor rf

Vo VC I o
 rf = = =
Vo Vo fVoC
I o
Cc =
fVo rf
NB: summary on chopper design.

1. Calculate the duty cycle α so as to obtain the desired output voltage.

2. Select a particular operating frequency f. in most cases f=20KHz is usually preferred
for negligible acoustic noise. Also with high frequency, losses are high which leads to
reduced efficiency and increase in cost
3. Choose suitable semiconductor switching device. For low power application either a
power BJT or IGBT and for high power application, a power mosfet is preferred cos it
can operate in the range of MHz.
4. Determine the critical inductance Lc, increase or decrease this value by say ten times as
per requirement.
 5. Calculate the value of capacitor Cc for the ripple factor requirement. The capacitor
rating must withstand the peak output voltage, peak output currents and be able to carry
the rms current.
6. The conductor wire consideration should be such that it can carry the rms output
current.

Questions.

1. Design a buck converter such that output voltage is 28 VDC when the input is 48 VDC.
The load resistance is equal to 8Ω. Design the converter such that it operates in CCCM and
output ripple must be less than 0.5%. specify the switching frequency and values of each
component and suggest the power semiconductor switching devices to use.
2. Design a boost converter to provide an output of 36 VDC from a 24 VDC supply. The
output load power is 50W. Voltage ripple must be less than 0.5%.
3. Design a CCCM buck to output 5 VDC at 4 to 6 A with 1% ripple from a source that varies
between 10 and 14 VDC with a switching frequency of 20 KHz.
4. Repeat (3) above for a DCCM buck.
5. A boost converter has output voltage 48 V and supply changes between 10 V and 15 V.
Output power Po  15 W and switching frequency f=330 KHz, C=47 µF.
a) Calculate the required inductance for CCCM operation always.
b) Calculate the output voltage ripple when inductance value in a) is used.
6. A step down chopper operates at a switching frequency of 10 KHz. Output voltage is fixed
at 48 VDC across a 1 Ω resistive load. If the input voltage is 192 V and the choke L is 200
µH:
a) calculate the average load current and hence average input current.
b) Calculate the mean and rms current ratings of switch, diode and choke.
c) Draw accurate waveforms for voltage across and current through the choke, capacitor
current, switch and diode current and voltage. Hence calculate the switch utilization
P
ratio per equation SUR = out
Vs I max
d) If maximum load resistance is 1 Ω, calculate the value of the inductance can be reduced
to be for the circuit to operate on the verge of discontinuous inductor current.
e) For the inductance calculated in d) above determine the peak to peak ripple and rms
inductor and capacitor currents.
7. The specifications for a desired buck regulator are as follows; At the input, Ein=28(+3, -4)
V, efficiency 85%, frequency 15 KHz. For output, Eout=20 V, Io=1 A, peak to peak ripple
60 mV.
a) Calculate the required parameters. i.e L & C for the regulator. Take Imax=1.125 A
b) Choose from an electronic catalogue the appropriate semiconductor devices i.e the
switch and diode and also L & C.
c) Calculate the losses in the regulator i.e the choke losses, transistor & diode conduction,
switching and drive losses.
d) Compute the actual efficiencies of your design regulator.
 Analysis of DC regulators based on inductor volt second and capacitor charge balance
rules.

1) Volt-second balance rule for inductors

States that under steady state/equilibrium condition the average inductor voltage VL.av

VL (t )dt = 0
1
T
should be equal to zero. i.e VL.av =

Derivation
Volt sec balance rule of an inductor is derived from its differential equation:
diL
VL = L
dt
solving
T
V
T over one complete switching cycle.
0 LL dt = 0 diL
T
VL
 IL =  dt
0
L
Initial value of current is at zero while final value is at T
T
1 IL
L 0
 I L (T ) − I L (0) = VL dt

from the waveform

T
1 IL(0) IL(T)
L 0
 I L (T ) − I L (0) = VL dt = 0 TON TOff

0 T t
In periodic steady state the net change in inductor current equal to zero.
T
0 =  VL dt
0

Hence at steady state, the total area(volt-sec) under the inductor voltage waveform is
zero.
In other words, the average inductor voltage is
VL zero in steady state
On T
t 1
T 0
0
Off
T VL.av = VL dt = 0

2) Charge balance rule for capacitors

States that under steady state/equilibrium condition the average capacitor current IC.av
T
I C (t )dt = 0
1
T 0
should be equal to zero. i.e I C .av =

Derivation
Charge balance rule of a capacitor is derived from its differential equation:
 dv C
iC = C
dt
solving
T
iC T over one complete switching cycle.
0 C dt = 0 C
dv

T
iC
 vC =  C dt
0

Initial value of current is at zero while final value is at T

1
T
vIvLCC
 vC (T ) − vC (0) =
C i
0
C dt

from the waveform

1
T
vC(0) vC(T)
 vC (T ) − vC (0) =
C0 iC dt = 0
TON TOff
0 T t
In periodic steady state the net change in capacitor voltage equal to zero.
T
0 =  iC dt
0

Hence at steady state, the total area (or charge) under the capacitor current waveform is
zero.
ViCL In other words, the average capacitor current is
zero in steady state
On T
t 1
0
Off
T I C .av =  iC dt = 0
T0

a) Buck chopper

Switch on

v g = vL (t ) + v(t )
v(t )
ic (t ) = iL (t ) − i (t ) = iL −
R
Taking small ripple approximations (by assuming value of C is large hence the ac
signal can be ignored)
 VL = Vg − V
DC component V
IC = I L −
R
 Switch off

vL (t ) = −v(t )  VL = −V
v(t ) V
ic (t ) = −i (t ) = −  Ic = −
R R
Waveforms
VL IC

Vg-V IL-V/R
0 T t T t
-V -V/R

Volt-sec. rule
1  ON 
T

( )
T T
1
VL.av = 
T 0
VL dt =  g
T  0
V − V + 
TON
− V  dt = 0



TON
(Vg − V ) − TOff V = 0 or  (Vg − V ) − (1 −  )V = 0
T T
Vg − V − V − V = 0
Solving for transfer function
 V = Vg
Charge rule
1  ON   V 
T
V
T T
1
I C .av =
T0 iC dt =  L
T  0 
I −    −  dt = 0
+
R  TON  R 
 V
   I L −  − (1 −  ) = 0
V
 R R
Solving for IL
V
IL =
R
b) Boost chopper

Switch On

VL = V g
V
IC = −
R
 Switch off

VL = V g − V
V
IC = I L −
R
Waveforms
VL/IL VC/IC

iL(t) vC(t)
IL.av VC.av
.
.

Vg IL-V/R
T t T t
Vg-V -V/R

Volt-sec. rule
1  ON 
T

VL.av =  VL dt =   (Vg ) +  (Vg − V ) dt = 0

T T
1
T0 T  0 TON 
  (V g ) − (1 −  )(V g − V ) = 0
 V g = (1 −  )(V g − V )
Solving for transfer function V 1
=
Vg 1 − 
Charge rule
1  ON  V  V 
T

T T
1
I C .av =  iC dt =    −  +   I L −  dt = 0
T0 T  0  R  TON  R 
 V  V
   −  + (1 −  ) I L −  = 0
 R  R
Solving for IL
 1 V
IL =  
1−   R

c) Buck boost chopper

Switch On

V L = Vs
V
IC = −
R

Switch Off

VL = −V
V
IC = I L −
R
Volt-sec. rule
1  ON 
T T T
VL.av =  VL dt =   (Vs ) +  (− V ) dt = 0
1
T0 T  0 TON 
  (Vs ) − (1 −  )(V ) = 0
 Vs = (1 −  )(V )
Solving for transfer function V 
=−
Vs 1−
Charge rule
1  ON  V  V 
T

T T
1
I C .av =
T0 i C dt =  −    I L −  dt = 0
+
T  0  R  TON  R 
 V  V
   −  + (1 −  ) I L −  = 0
 R  R
Solving for IL
 1 V
IL =  
1−   R
Questions.
1. For a boost chopper, find expressions of inductor current IL and conversation ratio
M(α). All components are ideal apart from inductor L which has a core resistance of
RL
2. Derive expressions for output voltage Vo and inductor current IL for a boost
converter operating in CCCM and considering the non-ideality of the transistor
switch, which has a finite resistance ron in its ON state, and a finite resistance
roff(>>>>ron) in its off state. All other components are ideal.
3. A CCCM converter has inductor online voltage of 24 V and offline voltage of -12
V. find duty cycle α.