ACCE.

LEROMETER SET Type 4324

ACCELEROMETER PACKAGE Type 4364

The Miniature Accelerometer is designed especially

with a view to vibration measurement on lightweight
structures, where a heavy transducer would change
the mode of vibration and thereby invalidate the
results obtained. It will be fot.tnd valuable in research
projects involving thin plates and shells , such as
aircraft skins, car bodies , component testing etc.

BRUEL& K~J.E.R
NAORUM, DENMARK. Teleph.: 80 05 00. Cable : BRUKJA. Telex: 5316. COPENHAGEN

88 4334/ 4364 . 03000 ~ 8

 Accelerometer Set
Type 4324

Accelerometer Package
Type 4364

March 1968
 Contents
0. Introduction 3
1. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Physical Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Environmental Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Shock Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Effect of Mounting Torque ........................................ 10
Long Term Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Piezoelectric Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Natural Resonance Frequencies ......................... .......... 12
2. Factory Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Cable Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Voltage Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Charge Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Capacity ...................................................... .. 17
Transverse Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Undamped Natural Frequency .................................... 19
Frequency Response Curve ................... .. ................. . 20
Temperature Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Calibration Accuracy ............................................. 23
Limit of Frequency Calibration ............................... . .... 23
3. Mounting Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Mounting Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Mounting of Accelerometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Mounting of Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4. Preamplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Voltage Preamplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Charge Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Bruel & Kjrer Preamplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5. Measuring Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Bruel & Kjrer Measuring Systems .................................. 42
Preamplifier ... ... ............................................... 43
Integrating Networks .............................................. 43
Amplifiers and Indicating Instruments ......... . ............. .. ..... 43
Ground Loops ................................................... 45
6. Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Portable Instrumentation .. ......... .. ............................. 49
Frequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Shocks and Transients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Vibration Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
8. Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9. Conversion Charts, Tables etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
10. Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
 0. Introduction
The accelerometer is an electromechanical transducer which produces at
its output terminals an e.m.f. proportional to the acceleration to which the
transducer is subjected. The output signal can be electronically processed and
read on a meter or some other suitable indicating device.
The 8ruel & Kjrer accelerometers are small, light and of rugged construction,
suitable for most vibration measurements, both in the laboratory and in field
environments. Versatility in use has been a prime goal and special care has
been taken to ensure a wide frequency range, high sensitivity and good
temperature characteristics. Furthermore, these accelerometers have negligible
mounting error and low sensitivity to severe environmental conditions, such as
humidity, high temperature, corrosive atmospheres and magnetic fields.
The Miniature Accelerometer Type 4344 is designed especially with a view to
vibration measurement on lightweight structures, where a heavy transducer
would change the mode of vibration and thereby invalidate the results ob-
tained. It will be found valuable in research projects involving thin plates and
shells, such as aircraft skins, car bodies, component testing etc.
Measurements can be carried out as measurements of acceleration using one
of the 8 & K preamplifiers or cathode followers, and as measurements of
velocity or displacement employing integration networks.
For absolute measurements it is necessary to know the sensitivity of the vibra-
tion transducer employed. Each 8 & K accelerometer is supplied with individual
calibration data and a frequency response curve, all taken as part of the
production test procedure. The aim has been to supply the maximum amount
of information on the calibration sheet to ensure a completely predictable
performance of the accelerometers.
The Miniature Accelerometer has type number 4344 when on its own in the
production and calibration stages. When it is sold it is accompanied by
certain accessories such as connecting cable, mounting studs etc., and is
available only as Accelerometer Set Type 4324, or as Accelerometer Package
Type 4364. See chapter 10, Specifications.

3
 1. Description
Construction
The Miniature Accelerometer Type 4344 is of the piezoelectric compression
type with a construction indicated schematically in Fig. 1.1. The single-ended
compression build-up makes it insensitive to acoustic noise, and by means
of a specially constructed cable connection the influence of cable whip is
reduced to a minimum.

~::ss::;;:s:s:s:s:s:S.'S.."S~k---Housing
[;;:;;::3~~~--Spring
/H----Moss
Piezoelectric discs
...~!ftl,.....:;..-....Output terminals

Bose

Fig. 1.1. Schematic drawing of a piezoelectric accelerometer.

The transducing element consists of two piezoelectric*) discs on which is

resting a heavy mass. The mass is preloaded by a stiff spring and the whole
assembly is mounted in a metal housing with a thick base. When the accelero-
meter is subjected to vibration, the mass will exert a variable force on the
piezoelectric discs. This force is exactly proportional to the acceleration of the
mass. Due to the piezoelectric effect a variable potential will be developed
across the discs, which is proportional to the force and therefore to the
acceleration of the mass. For frequencies much lower than the resonance
frequency of the mass and the stiffness of the whole accelerometer system
the acceleration of the mass will be virtually the same as the acceleration of
the whole transducer, and the potential produced will therefore be pro-
portional to the acceleration to which the transducer is subjected. This
potential can be picked up from the output terminals of the accelerometer and
used for determination of the vibration amplitude, waveform and frequency.
It has been the aim with the miniature accelerometer to make available a
transducer of extremely low mass, which at the same time has the versatility
of a general purpose accelerometer. High precision and stability coupled with
a rugged construction make the accelerometer suitable for the most demand-
ing applications both in the laboratory and in the field.

*) Lead Zirconium Titanate .

4
 Fig. 1.2. Physical dimensions of the Miniature Accelerometer.

Physical Dimensions
It is generally true that an accelerometer should be as light as possible in
order not to influence the vibration of the specimen on which it is mounted.
For measurements on heavy machinery etc. this causes no problem but for
lighter structures, such as for example a thin metal plate, the transducer
weight is important.
The resonance frequency of a vibrating single degree of freedom system is

fo = _2n1_V
k
mo

where mo is the effective lumped mass and k is the lumped stiffness restrain-
ing the mass.
It is easily seen that adding another mass, e.g. an accelerometer, will result
in a change in resonance frequency according to the formula

where f1 is the new resonance frequency and m1 is the added mass.

Thus any mass added to a vibrating structure will influence the vibration to
some extent, but provided the added mass is small the influence is often
negligible. A 10% increase in mass will reduce the resonance frequency by
about 5%.
The sensitivity of a piezoelectric accelerometer is directly proportional to the
mass acting on the piezoelectric disc. This limits the extent to which the
accelerometer weight may be reduced without losing too much of the
sensitivity. For many applications it is also important that any strain developed
in the material on which the accelerometer is fixed is not transmitted to the
piezoelectric element as this would show up in the output signal, indicating
an acceleration which actually is not present. It is therefore necessary to make
the accelerometer base thick, in order to isolate the piezoelectric disc from
such strain. The requirements to high sensitivity, low strain sensitivity and good

5
high frequency response are conflicting with requirements to small physical
dimensions and weight, so that a miniature accelerometer is bound to have
a relatively low sensitivity. The housing of the miniature accelerometer has
been made of titanium, and a high ratio of sensitivity to weight has been
obtained without sacrificing any of the more important qualities of the
accelerometer.
The total weight of the Miniature Accelerometer Type 4344 is 2 grams (0.07 oz.).
Its main dimensions are given in Fig. 1.2. The weight is given without cable as
it is difficult to predict how much the cable will add to the weight of the
accelerometer. However the plug has been designed to give a very small
extra mass and very reliable contact, and is situated very close to the mount-
ing surface in order to allow the cable to be fixed to the mounting surface as
close to the accelerometer as possible. This will ensure the most reliable
operation. Furthermore two types of cable are included. The soft type should
be used at temperatures up to 100 ° C (212 ° F) and the stiffer teflon cable at
higher temperatures. For very critical work where the cable cannot be
mounted directly onto the vibrating surface close to the accelerometer we
recommend removing the outer coating of the cable from about 10 mm from
the plug and over as long a part as necessary. See Fig. 1.3. The sleeve is
easily removed by a sharp razor-blade. Avoid however cutting down into the
underlying braided shield.

[;"L rrew•..,
-J1om~100mm _J 2.66120
0.4" 4"
Fig. 1.3. Removal of outer cable insulation to reduce weight and stiffness.

Environmental Sensitivity
Accelerometers are often used to measure vibration in the field or on speci-
mens subjected to severe environmental tests. It is therefore important that
their sensitivity to environmental changes is as small as possible. The factors
that may influence the accelerometers performance are primarily temperature,
humidity and rapidly varying ambient pressure (Sound). The temperature
effect is to reduce the voltage sensitivity of the accelerometer at higher
temperatures, but if the accelerometer h~s undergone a suitable temperature
cycling process in the production stages, the sensitivity will revert to its
normal value when the temperature is brought back to normal again. Beyond
a certain temperature (the Curie point) the piezoelectric element is permanent-
ly damaged.

6
The Bruel & Kjrer accelerometer Type 4344 is designed to be used for
temperatures up to 260 ° C (500 ° F) without cooling. The sensitivity will be
slightly reduced at the higher temperatures, but the necessary heat cycling
process has been carried out, so that no permanent change will take place.
It should be noted that great care has been taken to use materials which will
withstand high temperatures. The thermal coefficient of expansion of insulating
material and metal parts are carefully matched in order to maintain humidity
sealing.
It is, however, very difficult to guarantee a perfect seal for immersion in
water when the accelerometer has been exposed to the high temperature
limit. Therefore accelerometers which are to be used in liquids should not
be exposed to more than 150° C for long periods of time.
The accelerometers are brought up to 250 ° C and left to cool down to about
50 ° C several times during production and calibration until performance is
stable.

dB
6
5
4

Charge

Joo •c

-3
-I.
-5
-6
z661ZI

Fig. 1.4. Typical performance characteristics for the accelerometers in the

temperature range - 100 to + 260 ° C.

Tests have also been conducted in order to find the influence of low
temperatures on accelerometer performance. The voltage sensitivity increases
steadily down to some -100 ° C and then levels out, while the capacity undergoes
a gradual decrease with decreasing temperature. The charge sensitivity is
practically constant.
Typical performance characteristics are given in Fig. 1.4 for the temperature
range - 100 to +260 ° C (- 150 to + 500 ° F).

7
Cooling
When the accelerometers are fixed on surfaces with temperatures exceeding
250°C it is possible to reduce the temperature of the accelerometer base by
inserting a cooling plate between the base and the measuring surface.
When a mica washer is used between the mounting surface and the cooling
plate, experience has shown that temperatures up to 350-400 ° C may be meas-
ured on the mounting surface with less than 250 ° C in the accelerometer base.
A stream of air passing over the cooling plate considerably aids the cooling
process. The set-up shown in Fig. 1.5 has been tested in the laboratory.

Aluminium
Screen

Air~·- ~
Jmm;;~T//?7477 266122-

Fig. 1.5. Forced air cooling of an accelerometer.

In this set-up the mounting surface was heated to 450 ° C while less than 200 ° C
were measured in the accelerometer base.
For high temperature measurements one should always employ Teflon cable,
B & K part No. AO 0052. Cable No. AO 0051 is based on Polyethylene and
PVC which will not withstand more than 100 ° C. Also for low temperature
measurements, from -40°C downwards, the Teflon cable should be employed.

Vacuum Test
The B & K accelerometer Type 4344 is sealed and tested under water in an
evacuated jar for leaks. This eliminates the risk of inferior performance in
moist atmospheres or environmental test chambers where heavy condensation
may take place.
A photograph of the test set-up is shown in Fig. 1.6. The smallest leaks show
up immediately as bubbles rising to the surface.
When the accelerometers are used for measurements in liquids or in very
moist environments it is necessary to seal the cable entry, as shown in Fig. 1.7.
A good sealant for the cable entry is for example Dow Corning Silastic RTV 731
(room temperature vulcanizing silicon rubber) or General Electric equivalent.
These sealants show excellent performance for a wide temperature range
(-100 to +500 ° F).

8
 Fig. 1.6. Vacuum test set-up.

Fig. 1.7. Sealing of cable entry.

Acoustical Sensitivity
Effects due to acoustical excitation are unavoidable with piezoelectric accelero-
meters, but may be reduced by careful design. The B & K accelerometers are
of a rigid, mechanically isolated construction and pressure variations in the air
will have little effect on the force exerted on the piezoelectric element. One
may generally assume that the vibrations induced in the vibrating specimen
will give rise to a much higher acceleration signal than the direct acoustical
excitation of the accelerometer itself. In cases where very low accelerations
are to be measured in an intense acoustic field, however, care must be exer-
cised in order to obtain correct results. Typical acoustic sensitivity for the
accelerometers has been measured and found to be less than 0.5 ftV/ft bar,
i.e. less than 0.5 ftV for 74 dB sound pressure level. At 140 dB sound pressure
level the output is less than 1 mV.

9
Magnetic Sensitivity
The magnetic sensitivity has been found to be less than 1 ,uV/ Gauss for the
least favorable orientation of the accelerometer in the magnetic field.

Polarity
The polarity of the accelerometers is such that an acceleration directed from
the mounting surface into the body of the accelerometer results in a positive
e.m.f. on the centre conductor of the output terminals.

l/1
~~~
Volts
30 ~
n 2615
.....---.
~(os1t1ve

1=:1 -~
I .. 1 1.
Pulse
I I I
/- ~Negative Pulse
25 r-

I I
Shock
/
Ma10:hine
v ~

20 r- Memo-
scope

v
v
15

I/
v
10

v v
vv
5

0 1000 2 3 4 5000 6 7 S 9 10000 11 12 13 14 15 OOOg

266f2'1

Fig. 1.8. Part of shock test machine and typical output versus shock
amplitude plot.

Shock Performance
In general the accelerometers will withstand shocks higher than 16,000 g in
the positive direction. However, the mass is pressed against the ceramic with
a certain force. This force determines the upper limit to which the accelero-
meter output will increase linearly with increased shock amplitude in the
negative direction. When this limit is reached the output will be clipped as
seen from the typical curve shown in Fig. 1.8.

Effect of Mounting Torque

The effect of mounting torque is less than 1 % change in sensitivity up to
5,000 Hz for 2-20 kgcm (2 to 16 lb-in) mounting torque.

10
Long Term Stability
A prime goal during design and manufacture has been to achieve maximum
stability under severe environmental conditions. However, when an accelero-
meter is used for measurement under severe conditions of shock and heat,
one should not rely on this as a primary standard. It would be advisable to
recalibrate such an accelerometer at relatively short intervals of time.
A calibration vs. time history is c~osely followed for a number of representative
units taken from production lots and they show less than 2 % change per year.

Piezoelectric Materials
The quality of piezoelectric accelerometers depends largely upon the per-
formance of the material used for the sensing elements. Monocrystalline
materials such as quartz and Rochelle salt, have been used in the past, but
are now superseded by polycrystalline, artificially polarized ceramics like
barium titanate, lead zirconium titanate, lead metaniobate or similar materials.
Large variations in electrical and mechanical properties are obtained by small
changes in composition, and most manufacturers are continuously investigating
and improving their compositions in order to make them more suitable for their
particular purposes.
The most important factors for general purpose accelerometers are Curie
point, sensitivity, temperature stability, capacity, resistance and time stability.
Unfortunately some of these are conflicting, high sensitivity for example, has
often to be sacrified for good time or temperature stability.
In the table below are given some properties of commonly used ceramics as
given by their manufacturers. The Curie point is the temperature at which the

Piezoelectric Dielectric
Manufacturer and Curie point
Trade Name oc Constant Constant
1o-12 Coui./Newt. (Rei. Perm.)

Clevite
115 149 1300
Ceramic " B"

Clevite
325 285 1475
PZT 4

Quartz & Silice

351 400 1500
p 1-60

Plessev
Casonic Grade 3
120 83 1000 I

~
Quartz 300 2

B & K (1966) 350 300

11
ceramic changes its crystal structure and loses its polarization, the piezo-
electric constant indicates the sensitivity, and the dielectric constant indicates
the capacity for a given shape £~nd size. Trade names are used as the true
composition of the ceramic is usually not disclosed by the manufacturer.

Natural Resonance Frequencies

The natural resonance frequency of an accelerometer is not fixed. It depends
not only upon the mass and stiffness of the accelerometer but also upon the
mass (and stiffness) of the object on which it is mounted.
Some confusion persists as to what is the natural frequency and different
definitions are seen.
~~->'_

Seismic mass

Contact stiffness

Piezoelectric d.isc

Contact stiffness
M
Piezoelectric disc

Contact stiffness K= Equivalent

stiffness

Mass of base

a) b)
Z 66o20

Fig. 1.9 a. Schematic drawing of accelerometer as a dynamic system.

b. Simplified system.

The situation is best illustrated with a drawing. Fig. 1.9a shows a schematic
drawing of an accelerometer which consists of several masses and springs
connected in series. These springs are representations of the contact stiffness
between the various parts of the accelerometer.
This mechanical system can be further simplified into that of Fig. 1.9b. Here
M is the seismic mass resting on the piezoelectric element, B is the mass of

12
the accelerometer base and housing. K is the equivalent stiffness of the
system between M and B. The natural frequency of such a system is equal to

fo = fM Y1 + ~
where fM is the natural resonance frequency of the mass M upon the spring of
stiffness K.
Now two resonance frequencies are easily thought of:
1. The free hanging resonance frequency, i.e. the resonance frequency obtain-
ed with the system freely suspended in air.
This resonance frequency is entirely dependent upon the ratio of M and B ,
and it is seen that by making the base B very light the resonance frequency
may be very high. This resonance frequency is therefore of no practical
value, in fact the higher it is, compared with the mounted resonance fre-
quency defined below, the poorer is the mechanical construction of the
transducer. (A thin base may cause bending of the piezoelectric due to
strain from the mechanical part on which the vibration is measured).
2. The mounted resonance frequency with the accelerometer firmly fixed to
a structure of infinite stiffness and mass.
This results in a value for B of infinity and the resonance frequency is
equal to fM which is the natural resonance frequency of the mass M on the
spring of stiffness K.
This resonance frequency is of great practical value as it is approximately
the one obtained when the accelerometer is mounted on a structure which
is heavy compared with the accelerometer mass.
Unfortunately it is difficult to measure the mounted resonance frequency as
defined above, since an infinitely heavy mass is hard to bring into motion.

/j

~//~//M/~~
8=base+180 grams

266o l9
Fig. 1.10. Possible configurations tor definition of natural resonance frequency .

13
A compromise has therefore to be made and there are standards which define
the mounted resonance as that obtained with the accelerometer mounted on
a one inch cube of steel (BrOel & Kjrer use a steel block of weight 180 gram).
Such a block is easily set into controlled motion at frequencies up to some
50 kHz.
This mounted resonance may be used directly as a basis for vibration measure-
ments as long as the accelerometer seismic mass is much smaller than the
mass of the calibration mounting block. The natural frequency obtained is
practically identical with the mounted resonance frequency on an infinite mass.
However when the accelerometer mass is large the natural frequency obtained
will be too high. Thus if B = 5 M we obtain

fo = fMy1 + 0.2 = 1.1 fM

i.e. a value which is 10% high.

For the miniature accelerometer the ratio of weights of the seismic mass to the
weight of the base is about 1 : 1 and therefore the free hanging resonance will
be about 1.5 times the mounted resonance and the resonance obtained on
the 180 grams block of steel is 0.5% higher than that which would be obtained
on an infinite mass.
A small difference in resonance frequency is obtained by considering the
damping present in the accelerometer. Thus undamped natural frequency is
defined as the frequency at which the difference between the motion of the
mass and base lags the motion of the base by a phase angle of 90°, whereas
damped natural frequency is the frequency of decaying oscillations after an
initial excitation. The difference is negligible for high Q piezoelectric accelero-
meters such as the ones manufactured by BrOel & Kjrer.
The undamped natural frequency given on the accelerometer calibration
charts is obtained with the accelerometer fixed firmly to a steel block of
weight 180 grams,

14
 2. Factory Calibration
Each individual accelerometer has before leaving the factory undergone a
very thorough ageing, testing and calibration procedure to ensure the user of
a high quality product. A typical calibration chart as supplied with the accelero-
meters is shown in Fig. 2.1.

~:!::-.:~n.~~·,~;:',3u
S.ri•l no. .2 /4.?Q 6
-+
Br~:,1.!.~~m r
OOO O O DOO O DOL.J:: O O ODOOOO O
o- z-to.o~, _

I..._.Socultlvltyat .~O . eta at .

andlncludlnl
,3 . oc

C.bla Ca,.ctty of .......... /.<?.~ . pF :

Vott-,oSefttltl"lfy ....... R·.:l.,.... mV/1°

.
CllargoS..-slth•lty ...... tZ.·!-'I:..... pC/c
3
c...-.ty {lncludlnc cablal ...... S.(_J! ____ pF

AU~ al "' u "'Trantvo,... Sarultlvtty at30cla ... 3 ·0.. •/,

Un~7~~=c~;:~;;::i:~~~~~fr1~::-~-~~k:~•rva
~-~~~:~(:.~ by tha calibratio n u c lter at hllh fra-
JF,fto~
Po~~==:~~!~:~:~:~:~i~:~E~i~~E,.l~,:~~:~~
1-;!~:=• ·"' l n l m u m 20ooo Ma1oh m1 at roo m ti m-

Oata .lf.::..?;:6.7 Sl1 natun .. .... K...M.......

"l l = lii BO.fJ c m ..c"'. ~= ::::·='?,;

... ,.,_
200

Fig. 2.1. A typical calibration chart.

Cable Capacity
The capacitance of the accelerometers are given including the capacitance
of the ordinary B & K connecting cable , so that when other cables are used,
the change in cable capacitance must be taken into account, as this deter-
mines the effective sensitivity of the accelerometer. To find the capacitance
of the accelerometer alone, deduct the cable capacitance given on the calibra-
tion chart. The standard length of cable included is 1.2 m (4 ft).
The capacity of the 1.2 m cable is around 105 pF (micromicrofarad) but the
individual value is given on the calibration chart.

Voltage Sensitivity
The voltage sensitivity of the accelerometers with connecting cable is deter-
mined at a frequency of 50 Hz and at room temperature (appr. 20 ° C).
Fig. 2.2 shows the instrumentation employed.
The accelerometers are calibrated at 50 Hz, the frequency being monitored by
a crystal controlled electronic counter, and the periodic time of the vibration is
kept within 200,000 ± 100 p,sec. Thus the frequency accuracy is ± 0.05 %.
The shaker providing the mechanical excitation is mounted on a large concrete

15
block which is supported by steel springs, giving the whole assembly a natural
resonance frequency of about 1 Hz. This ensures isolation from background
vibration.

Frequency
Analyzer
Type 2107

Unknown
Accelerometer

2 6 5726

Fig . 2.2. Set-up used for calibration of absolute sensitivity of the accelero-
meters .

The calibration of all units is achieved by comparison between a standard

accelerometer and the unknown in a back to back mounting as shown in
Fig. 2.2. The standard is frequently checked with a microscope observing the
displacement directly, with an accuracy of ± 1 %.
The distortion in actual vibration units is kept below 2% and max. influence
on peak to peak amplitude below 0.5 %.
The output from the accelerometer is measured with a B & K Frequency
Analyzer set to 50 Hz and calibrated with a reference voltage of exactly the
same frequency as the signal to the shaker, giving a total voltage measuring
accuracy of ± 0.15 %.
The total accuracy on the sensitivity calibration of the accelerometers is thus
better than ± 2 %.
The calibration vs. time history is closely followed for a number of representa-
tive units taken from production and they show less than 2% change per year.
Note that the calibration is valid for the accelerometer with its individual
connecting cable, and remember to take any change of cable capacitance into
account when different cables are employed.

16
Also the input capacity of the preamplifier must be taken into account. The
influence of this capacity in the calibration set-up is eliminated with a substitu-
tion measurement. In practice the capacity will be less than 10 pF using a
normal 8 & K amplifier and plug such as 8 & K Cathode Follower Type 2615,
Source Follower 2616 or 4 pF in the case of Preamplifier 2623.
Note also the units employed in the calibration. The sensitivity is given in
mV/g = mVRMs/gRMs = mVP••k/gP••k· If, for example, the sensitivity is required in
mVRMs/gP••k the sensitivity given should be multiplied by 0.707.

Charge Sensitivity
This sensitivity is calculated from the voltage sensitivity and the equivalent
capacitance of the accelerometer with normal connecting cable.
Charge sensitivity is expressed in pico-coulomb/g and is independent upon the
capacitive loading on the accelerometer. It is determined by multiplying the
voltage sensitivity with the total capacity used in the calibration, i.e. capacity
of transducer and cable.
S charge = S voltage {C. + C,)
where c. = accelerometer capacity and C, = Cable capacity in nF.
Since the voltage sensitivity is given as mV/g the charge sensitivity will be in
pico-coulomb/g.

Capacity
The capacity of the accelerometer is given including the cable capacity as
specified on the calibration sheet. Accelerometer capacity comes into the
question when the low frequency cut-off of the measuring system is computed,
as it determines the effect of loading on the accelerometer.
The capacity is measured at 1,000 Hz in a capacitance bridge, comparing with
a standard capacity equal to the nominal capacity of the accelerometers.
Accuracy ± 0.5 %.

Transverse Sensitivity
Transverse sensitivity is the maximum sensitivity to a transverse acceleration
expressed in percent of the reference sensitivity in the intended measuring
direction. It is primarily due to irregularities in the ceramics, and limitations in
the mechanical coupling between ceramic and metal parts. Careful mechanical
machining helps to minimize transverse sensitivity.
Transverse sensitivity can be regarded as a result of the axis of the accelero-
meter making a small angle with the direction of the maximum sensitivity as
shown in Fig. 2.3.
Imaging the accelerometer placed in a rectangular coordinate system, as
shown, the vector representing the maximum sensitivity can be resolved into
two components: the main axis sensitivity which is the one called voltage or
charge sensitivity on the calibration chart, and the transverse sensitivity given
on the calibration chart as a percentage of the main axis sensitivity.

17
 Main axis
sensitiVity

100%

\
\
\
\ Minimum
, sensitivity
in this
direction

Fig. 2.3. Graphical illustration of transverse sensitivity.

The voltage obtained from an accelerometer is a product of the acceleration

vector and the component of the sensitivity in the same direction, so that in
a certain transverse direction, at right angles to both the main axis and the
max. transverse sensitivity axis the accelerometer output will be minimum.
In order to maintain a low transverse sensitivity the user should always mount
the accelerometer on a flat, clean surface and keep the accelerometer mount-
ing surface free from burrs and scratches. Also he should avoid very large
shocks in the transverse direction, such as might be caused by dropping the
accelerometer on the floor, and large temperature shocks.
If the accelerometer is properly handled and mounted, the transverse sensitivity
will normally be below 10% up to 5,000 Hz. Above 5,000 Hz it is very difficult
to establish useful test facilities for transverse measurements. The type of
mounting of the accelerometer will, however, undoubtedly set a limit to the
good performance of the accelerometer in the transverse direction at a fre-
quency somewhat lower than that for operation in the main direction.
The transverse sensitivity of the accelerometers is specified as being less than
8 % of the main axis sensitivity. However, the individual maximum transverse
sensitivity is given on the calibration chart.
In the factory calibration the transverse sensitivity is measured at approximately
30 Hz on a rotating table whose motion sideways is more than 100 times larger
than the motion in the vertical direction. See Fig. 2.4.
The accelerometer is first mounted with its main axis parallel to the direction
of motion of the table and the deflection on the meter is adjusted to a

18
 Fig. 2.4. Part of the arrangement for obtaining transverse sensitivity.

reference mark (100 %). Then the accelerometer is mounted with its main axis
at right angles to the motion and the table is rotated slowly. The meter is set
to indicate full scale deflection for 10% transverse sensitivity and the maximum
value is noted.
The factory calibration of transverse sensitivity is carried out after 24 hours
of storage at room temperature.

Undamped Natural Frequency

The undamped natural frequency is the frequency at which the motion of the
seismic mass element lags 90 ° behind the motion of the accelerometer
housing.
The damping ratio, which is the ratio between the actual damping of the
accelerometer and the damping for which the system would be critically
damped, is very low: in the order of 0.02. Therefore the damped natural fre-
quency, fd, is nearly identical to the undamped natural frequency, fu, since

fd = fu V1 - 0.022
The undamped natural frequency is measured electrically by finding the lowest
frequency at which the 90° phase shift occurs when an electrical signal is
applied to the terminals in series with a 300 pF capacitor, and with the
accelerometer mounted on a block of steel of weight 180 grammes.
The mounted resonance frequency is the frequency at which the sensitivity of
the pick-up is a maximum when mounted on a stainless steel block of approx-

19
imately 180 grammes. As the mounted resonance given is obtained under
actual operating conditions with the best possible contact between the ac-
celerometer and the vibrating steel block this resonance can be taken as a
practical upper limit. In practice the mounting will generally be less effective
and a lower resonance frequency is obtained .

Frequency Response Curve

An individual frequency response curve is supplied with each accelerometer.
This is taken with the transducer mounted on a steel block of weight 180
grammes and with a plane mounting surface.
The instrumentation employed is similar to the set-up described in chapter
"Calibration" and is based upon the B & K Calibration Exciter Type 4290.
In actual practice such a frequency response is to be expected from the
accelerometer, provided the method of fixing to the vibrating specimen is
satisfactory. It is generally accepted that the piezoelectric transducer may be
used for frequencies up to about 1/3 of the resonance frequency shown by this
curve for less than 1 dB error, or to 1/5 of the resonance frequency for less
than 5% error, but poor mounting methods will lower the resonance frequency
and therefore also lower the upper frequency limit of the operating range.
The error at any frequency can be easily calculated from the formula for the
relationship between the relative displacement of the mass spring system to
the displacement of the base, viz.

Relative Displacement of Mass-spring = I 1 I

Displacement of base 1 - (w / w 0 ) 2
where
w = 2n X forcing frequency and
wo = 2n undamped natural frequency.
From this ·e quation it may be seen that at 1/3 the resonance frequency the error
will be 1 dB and at 1/5 the resonance frequency the error will be about 0.5 dB.

Temperature Sensitivity
Changes in accelerometer capacitance, charge sensitivity and voltage sensitiv-
ity with temperature are given for the range 20- 250 ° C (70'--480 ° F) with
reference to the values given at room temperature.
These are individual values obtained while heating the accelerometers to the
appropriate temperatures, reaching a steady temperature before measurement
is taken.
The information is given in curve form so that interpolation can be readily
performed.
When an accelerometer is used as a voltage generator, the transducer output
in mV/ g will depend upon the temperature of the piezoelectric and on the
external loading. The calibration curve given is valid for the accelerometer
with 1.2 m cable and thus for a capacitive loading of about 105 pF. Any change
in loading capacity will change the voltage sensitivity variation with tempera-

20
ture. It may therefore be possible to optimize the voltage sensitivity versus
temperature characteristic.
The leakage resistance may also vary and alter the low frequency response.
This effect is, however, negligible for the B & K accelerometers, since the
leakage resistance is larger than 20,000 MQ for all temperatures in the operat-
ing range.
Charge amplifiers eliminate any influence of parallel capacity on the charge
sensitivity versus temperature curve. Only series capacity should be con-
sidered, if present.

Current
jWQ.t
jwOt
Cp Ct

Accelerometer Cable Preamplifier

a) b)

Fig. 2.5.
a) Equivalent circuit tor accelerometer and preamplifier input.
b) The same circuit simplified tor normal operating frequency range.

Considering the accelerometer as a charge generator it is easily seen from

Fig. 2.5 that the voltage sensitivity at any temperature with any amount of
cable capacity is

where
Et = voltage sensitivity at temperature t
Ot = charge sensitivity at temperature t
Ct = total capacity in the circuit at temperature t
Now, the increase in charge sensitivity is given on the calibration chart in dB,
so that knowing the charge sensitivity at room temperature the charge sen-
sitivity at temperature t is easily found by using the conversion table for dB
to ratio given in the appendix.
Ct is also easily found when the capacity external to the accelerometer is
known. The increase in accelerometer capacity with temperature is given on
the calibration chart, as well as the capacity at room temperature.

21
Therefore
Q, = Oa X Ko
C, = C. X Kc + C•• , - Cc
where
Oa = charge sensitivity at room temperature
Ko = charge sensitivity factor
c. = capacity of accelerometer plus associated cable
(1.2 m) at room temperature
Kc = capacity factor
c.. , = total capacity external to the accelerometer
(long cable plus preamplifier)
Cc = capacity of accelerometer cable used during factory
calibration (1.2 m)
Then we have
Q,
E,
C, C. X Kc + Cext - Cc

f - - - - - - - -- ~ Capacitance
4.2d8 _...-• ~j0.9dB
-:::::--•--- ____ . ---- Charge Sensitivity
--o-o
-.........._ o Voltage Sensitivity

50 100 150 200 250 oc .2~7/#-f4

Fig . 2.6. Temperature sensitivity curves from the calibration chart on Fig. 2.1 .

Example:
What is the voltage sensitivity of the accelerometer Type 4344, Serial No . 214206
(Fig. 2.1) at a temperature of 250 ° C and with a total external capacity (long
cable plus preamplifier) of 1,000 pF.

Solution:
From the calibration chart we find
Oo = 2.14 pCoulomb/ g
K0 = 0.9dB = 1.11
C. = 912 pF
Kc = 4.2dB = 1.6
Cc = 104 pF

22
Then the voltage sensitivity at 250° C
E250 2 ·14 X 1 ·11 0 00101 V/
912 X 1.6 + 1000-104 = . g

E2so = 1.01 mV/g

Calibration Accuracy
The accuracy of the above factory calibrations is better than ± 2% for charge
sensitivity, voltage sensitivity and capacity. The transverse sensitivity may
change temporarily when the accelerometer is exposed to large shocks,
especially sideways. Normally, however, it will return to the original value
within the next 24 hours.

Limit of Frequency Calibration

Fig. 2.7 shows the frequency response curve of the 4344 as it is obtained
during factory calibration. The peak well above 30 kHz is caused by resonance
phenomena in the calibration equipment and has nothing to do with the fre-
quency response of the accelerometer itself. To avoid misinterpretation of the
calibration chart the curve is cut off at 30 kHz (upper limit of the accelerometer
shown dotted in Fig. 2.7). A complete calibration chart as supplied with each
accelerometer is shown in Fig. 2.1.

+10

dB

-10 I
20Cio
200 500
Hz
1000
\1/rtdng Speed:
_,__10000
5000
_
20000
Paper Speed:
I
I
50000
-'"·
100000
"""-

Fig. 2.7. Frequency response curve of the accelerometer as it appears during

factory calibration.

23
 3. Mounting Methods
A proper mounting of the accelerometer to the specimen is of utmost im-
portance when measurements are taken, especially at higher frequencies. The
frequency response curve given on the calibration chart is for the best possible
mounting of the accelerometer. (Screwed tightly with a steel stud onto a
polished metal surface). When other methods are used the resonance fre-
quency will generally be lower. How much lower will be determined by the
mass of the accelerometer and the stiffness of the mounting.

Mounting Thread
The mounting thread used for the Miniature Accelerometer Type 4344 is M3,
both for fixing the accelerometer to the specimen and for the cable con-
nection.
There are several methods available for fixing the B & K accelerometer to the
specimen on which the vibration is to be measured. The following accessories
for fixing purposes are included in the Accelerometer Set Type 4324:
Six M3 threaded studs
One nut (M3)
One cementing stud
Wax
One M3 screw tap
Allen key for steel studs.

Mounting of Accelerometer
The possible ways for applying the accelerometer to the vibrating specimen
are depicted in Fig. 3.1.
Type 1 mounting is the best solution frequency response wise, approaching a
condition corresponding to the actual calibration curve supplied with the
accelerometer. If the mounting surface is not quite smooth it is a good idea to
apply a thin layer of silicon grease to the surface before screwing down the
accelerometer. This increases the mounting stiffness.
Type 2 mounting is convenient when a cementing technique is desirable, while
the possibility of removing the accelerometer from the vibrating surface from
time to time is retained. This mounting can also be used to electrically
isolate the accelerometer from the vibrating body. The stud is cemented onto
the vibrating surface, possibly with a fine glass mesh in the cement to make
sure that the stud is not touching the surface, and the accelerometer is
screwed onto the threaded end of the stud.

24
 Steel
' ,:lud Cementing

-i'=
CD
Cement
0
93r
Wax
@
2 6612 7

Fig. 3.1. Different ways of mounting the accelerometers.

1. With steel stud.
2. With cementing stud.
3. Accelerometer stuck on with wax.

Type 3 mounting employs a thin layer of wax for sticking the accelerometer
onto the vibrating surface. The wax is delivered with the Accelerometer Set
Type 4324. Due to the low mass of the accelerometer this mounting method
may be used to quite high vibration levels, at ordinary room temperatures.
For minimum weight and optimum performance of the mounting one may also
recommended the Eastman 910 cement, marketed by the Armstrong Industry, or
Tixo K-1 manufactured by Tiox-Tinten und Klebstoffwerk G.m.b.H., Vienna.
Dental cement and epoxy resins are also very useful, especially in connection
with the cementing stud which is intended for use in applications where mount-
ing by cementing techniques is preferred, while retaining the possibility of
removing the accelerometer itself.
Soft setting glues or gum should be avoided because of decoupling and bad
frequency response.

With steel stud

11 11 11 11 " "" Cementing stud +wax
- - - - -Cementing stud+ dental cement
• ...• · · ... •.. Cementing stud + Eastman 910

100 200 1000 2000 5000 10000 20000 50000

266123

Fit. 3.2. Frequency response of an accelerometer tor various types of

mounting.

25
Fig. 3.2. shows some frequency response curves obtained for various types of
mounting. The importance of the mounting method used should be obvious.

Wax, tape, epoxy or other

type of clamping 2657fll

Fig . 3.3. Clamping of the cable to the vibrating specimen.

Mounting of Cable
The connecting cable should always be given particular attention. Especially
at lower frequencies it may give rise to noise voltages, due to bending or
cable whip. The B & K accelerometer cable is designed and treated for noise-
less operation, however, it is always good policy to clamp the cables as firmly
as possible in order to ?void relative movement. See Fig. 3.3.

26
 4. Preamplifiers
Preamplifiers are used for conversion of the rather weak transducer signal into
a stronger signal which can be handled by the succeeding storage or read-out
equipment. The signal from the piezo-electric accelerometer appears as a
voltage across a capacitive impedance. The charge generated is proportional
to the acceleration.
We have the choice of making the total capacity in the circuit as small as
possible and thus obtain the highest possible voltage into the preamplifier, or
to load the accelerometer so heavily with a shunt capacity that we have a
system independent of small changes in cable capacity due to different lengths
of cable. The first solution is called a voltage amplifier and the second a
charge amplifier.

Voltage Preamplifiers
When used as a voltage source the accelerometer must be loaded by an
extremely high impedance in order to retain its sensitivity over the whole fre-
quency range, while conductive loading reduces the sensitivity at low fre-
quencies. This can be seen from the following:
The equivalent circuit of an accelerometer with external loading is drawn
in Fig. 4.1.

c R=t

Fig. 4.1. Equivalent circuit of accelerometer and preamplifier.

Q =
charge induced across the accelerometer capacitive element
Sq =
charge sensitivity of the accelerometer (Coulomb/g)
A =
acceleration to which the accelerometer is subjected (g)
C = total capacity in the circuit, including accelerometer, cable and
preamplifier
R = 1/ G where G is the total conductance in the circuit, including
accelerometer, cable and preamplifier.

27
Assuming a sinusoidal acceleration of angular frequency w we have the
current flowing in the circuit
I = jw Q
and the voltage output

jw Q
E = ---- (1)
G + jw C G + jw C
This shows that when G ~ jw C i.e. when the shunt resistance in the circuit is
very high or at high frequencies the output voltage depends only upon the
capacitive loading:

E = jw Q = _g_
jw C C
It is also seen that the output is directly proportional to 1/C. This must be
taken into account when long accelerometer cables are employed.
From equation (1) it can also be seen that when G ~ jw C, i.e. for low fre-
quencies or low shunt resistance the output is frequency dependent:

E = jw Q = jw RQ
G
This means that the output falls off at the same rate as the frequency at the
low frequency end. The corner frequency where the output is 3 dB down is
where / G/ = /jw CI
1
i.e. fc = 2:nRC

where fc is called the " cut-off frequency".

The internal resistance of the accelerometers is extremely high, always ex-
ceeding 20,000 MQ at room temperature ("' 20 ° C). The resistance of the
piezoelectric material is lower at high temperatures but usually still higher
than 20,000 MQ at 250 ° C. This large resistance gives a low frequency cut-off
value at 0.01 Hz for the accelerometer alone and thus makes measurement
possible down to practically DC with specially designed amplifiers. Fig. 4.2
gives a chart for finding the required input resistance for a given lower limit-
ing frequency and a given accelerometer capac ity.

Example:
Find the required input impedance for a 1 dB cut-off at 1 Hz using an
accelerometer with capacity 900 pF.

Solution:
A 1 dB cut-off is seen to give a value of about 0.3 for fRC , i.e.
fRC = 0.3

28
 0.3 0.3
R
fC 1 X 900 X 10- 12

R = 333 MQ
The minimum acceptable input resistance of the preamplifier is 333 MQ .

1.0

/
,., ..... --
~
0
dB
0.9 ~ ·- • - ,.... -1
Relative input voltage
0.8
to preamplifier as
a function of /
/ -2

0.7
frequency and /_ - -3

0.6
loading
1-
1---- ---
-- r--
-
-- ·--

- -- --
-----
- - - - - -5
-4

0.5 II -6
I
0.4
I
v R= preamplifier resistance
I C= total capacity in
0.3

0.2 /
v circuit {preamplifier+
cable +accelerometer)

Ol /
v
~

0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 fRC 2

266002

Fig. 4.2. Chart for finding required input impedance when accelerometer
capacity and low frequency cut-off is given.

Cable Capacitance Sensitivity Correction

The capacity of the cable connecting the accelerome!er to the preamplifier
will reduce the voltage sensitivity of the accelerometer. When the charge
sensitivity of the accelerometer is given, as is the case with all B & K accelero-
meters, the easiest way to obtain the voltage sensitivity for any particular
system is to divide the charge sensitivity by the total shunt capacity in the
input circuit, i.e. accelerometer capacity, cable capacity and preamplifier
input capacity. The capacity of the B & K accelerometer cable is about 90 pF/m
(27 pF/ft).

29
Example:
An accelerometer has a charge sensitivity of 2.5 pCoulomb/g and a
capacity without cable of 800 pF. What is its voltage sensitivity with a
connection cable of 4 m length? Preamplifier input capacity negligible.

Solution:
Cable capacity 4 X 90 = 360 pF
Total capacity 360+800 = 1160 pF

Voltage sensitivity
1~·~0 = 0.00216 V/g = 2.16 mV/g
Charge Amplifiers
The charge amplifier is gammg widespread acceptance mainly because of
its simplicity of operation. It eliminates the effect of shunt capacity in the
input circuit, so that the operator can work without attention to variable ac-
celerometer cable lengths. The only information required is the charge
sensitivity of the accelerometer.

jwQ
Cj

.265716

Fig. 4.3. Equivalent circuit diagram for accelerometer, cable and charge
amplifier.

An equivalent circuit diagram for accelerometer, cable· and charge pre-

amplifier is given in Fig. 4.3. By some calculation it is found that the output
voltage is
Q
Eo= ~--~--~~~--~~~~
(C.+ Cc + CI)/ A- cf (1 - 1/ A)

QA

which means that as long as Cf (A -1) ~ C.+ Cc+ CI the output voltage is
- QA! Cf (A -1) independent upon cable capacity.

30
The charge sensitivity is given on the calibration chart for the B & K accelero-
meters, but when this is not given it can easily be calculated by multiplying
the voltage sensitivity with the total capacity (accelerometer plus cable) used
in the calibration.
Note that the charge sensitivity of piezoelectric accelerometers does in general
change with temperature. An individual charge sensitivity versus temperature
curve is therefore supplied with each B & K accelerometer, covering the range
20-250 o C (70- 480 o F).
Although the charge amplifier has advantages for certain applications, the
following points should be considered:
The large amplification necessary for proper operation of the charge
amplifier requires more components than what is necessary for a voltage
amplifier. In practice this means higher costs and less reliable operation
in severe environments.
More serious is the inferior rise time and recovery time obtained for most
charge amplifiers. This is especially important for shock-measurements.
One of the arguments in favour of the charge amplifier is the possibility
of using long cables between transducer and amplifier. This is, however,
just as possible with voltage amplifier, if the gain is high enough to offset
the loss in sensitivity, and in addition to this the voltage amplifier may
have a superior signal to noise ratio. Charge· amplifiers are therefore not
recommended when low signals are to be measured.
One may conclude that voltage preamplifiers are to be preferred for the
majority of applications. For special installations where long cables are used
in different lengths, for example on vibration test sites or for measurements on
large structures, the charge amplifier would be a natural choice.

B & K Preamplifiers
Bruel & Kjrer produce several types of preamplifier for use with the accelero-
meter in vibration measuring set-ups. These include:
1. F.E.T. Preamplifier Type 2623.
2. F.E.T. Preamplifier Type 2616.
3. Preamplifier Type 1606.
4. Cathode Followers (several types).
A brief description of these follows.

1. Preamplifier Type 2623

The Preamplifier Type 2623 is an impedance conversion device of an extremely
small and rugged construction. See Fig. 4.4. It is designed to withstand
severe environmental conditions and its sensitivity to vibration is negligible.
Attempts have been made to measure its output signal due to direct vibration
but no progress was made, as the output from the connecting low-noise cables
was greater than the preamplifier signal.

31
The Preamplifier is a two-stage transistorized amplifier with a field effect
transistor in the input stage, coupled to the input via a 1,000 pF capacitor.

Fig. 4.4. Preamplifier Type 2623.

The equivalent circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 4.5. The input impedance
together with the accelerometer capacitance, determine the lower cut-off
frequency of the system , e.g. with a 1,000 pF accelerometer the limit is about
0.12 Hz. {The 1,000 pF capacitor in the input must be added in series with the
accelerometer capacity).

1000pF 40.n..
o---ft----------.
>2000M.n.. 3.5pF Output

Note: DC potential at output terminals

267067

Fig. 4.5. Equivalent circuit for the preamplifier.

The input resistance is about 2700 MQ at room temperature and lower, but
decreases at higher temperatures. A curve of this effect is shown in Fig. 4.6.
At 100°C the resistance is about 300 MQ and the lower limiting frequency
increases to about 1.2 Hz.

32
 5000

2000
r~

~~
1000

~ f'.
500

~
200

20 30 40 so 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature "c
Z67061

Fig. 4.6. The effect of temperature on the input resistance of the preamplifier.

1000000
5 "' ~
"\
~

100000
'
''
'
''
~
f'.
" ~
~
....
'' '~ f'. 0·1V
'
2

10000
' '7V
'
'
"~ f'.,,"~'~,,
''
5 '

1000
''
'
'
" ,, " ~

' ' ['\..

' r'

100 2 5
1000
2 5
10000
2 5
' 2
100000 Hz 1000000"
5

267066
Fig. 4.7. High frequency limit of the preamplifier as determined by capacitive
loading and signal level.

33
The input transistor is DC coupled to the following stage. This stage produces
a negative feedback, which is adjusted so that the total voltage gain is 0 dB.
There is a DC potential at the output of about 11 V and therefore the resistive
load on the output should not be less than 50 kQ. The capacitive load
depends upon the upper limiting frequency desired and on the signal level.
(Max output current 1 mA for about 1 % distortion). A load of 10,000 pF
(100 m of cable) at 1 V RMS will give an upper limiting frequency of 15 kHz.
See Fig. 4.7.

'I I
lnpt
tl1 lnp~t
2V. 2V.
I
tI --lo.s 1-- tI -lo·s t--
~sec., )'Secj_
~ I

I
r

" Output r oulput

2V. v I 2V.
1
lb--.
~ I --lo-s .-- tj 1\
I Jsecl l - 0·5 t--
,..sec.
a. b.
2&'7060

Fig. 4.8.
a) Response of the preamplifier to a positive step input.
b) Response to negative step input.

The rise time of this preamplifier is extremely short, making it eminently

suited for shock work. Fig. 4.8 shows rise times for positive and negative
step voltages as obtained on an oscilloscope.
The preamplifier may be mounted close to the accelerometer. The mounting
method is shown in Fig. 4.9.

Clamp

~
10-32 NF
Stud
2623 266128

Fig. 4.9. The Preamplifier Type 2623 clamped near to the accelerometer.

34
The power for the Preamplifier is taken from an external 28 V DC supply,
a battery or the Power Supply ZR 0024 which is plugged into the condenser
microphone socket of the B & K amplifiers. The current consumption is about
2 mA.

SPECIFICATIONS 2623
Input Resistance: Min. 2,000 MQ at 25°C
Min. 200 MQ at 100°C
Input Capacitance: 3.5 pF parallel
1,000 pF series
Output Resistance: 40 Q (typical)
Max. Output Current: 1 mA
Voltage Gain: 0 dB ± 0.05 dB
Frequency Range: 0.12 Hz- 500 kHz with 1,000 pF across input
Noise: 15 p,V, 2-40,000 Hz
3.5 p,V, curve C
300 pF across input
Dynamic Range: 30 p,V - 7 V RMS with 28 V DC supply
Power Supply: External, 28 V DC
Diameter: 14 mm (0.55 in)
Length: 45 mm (1.77 in)
52 mm (2.05 in) with accelerometer adaptor
Weight: 20.6 g (0.73 oz)
Accessories Included: 1 Adaptor for accelerometer
1 Clamp
2 Cables AO 0037
Screws (NF 10-32)

2. Preamplifier Type 2616

The Preamplifier Type 2616 is a battery driven transistorized unit with a
field effect transistor in the input stage. Due to the small dimensions of the
Preamplifier it can usually be placed very close to the accelerometer and its
low output impedance ensures that noise and loss in the cable do not
interfere with the measurements even when a very long cable connection is
used between the preamplifier and the indicating instrument.
From the input terminals the signal is fed via a 2,000 pF capacitor and a
capacitive attenuator to the input stage which is DC coupled to the second
stage. This stage acts as a feedback amplifier. An equivalent diagram is
shown in Fig. 4.11. Note that the 2,000 pF series capacitor does not show
up in the input impedance. Thus the lower limiting frequency is calculated
on the basis of the accelerometer capacity (in parallel with any cable capacity)
and the input resistance of the preamplifier. A 1 ,000 pF accelerometer then
gives a lower limiting frequency of about 0.13 Hz.

35
 Fig. 4.10. Preamplifier Type 2616.

A peak indicating overload indicator reacts on signals with crest factor up

to 10 and for frequencies higher than 20 Hz.
The signal is fed to the output stage via a potentiometer. This makes it
possible to adjust the voltage gain from + 1.5 to - 20 dB.

10pF
>1200MA

266oo.V.

Fig. 4.11. Equivalent circuit tor the preamplifier.

The output current should not exceed 1 rnA giving the same high frequency
limits as for Type 2623 (see Fig. 4.7). However, Type 2616 has a built-in
40 dB attenuator which may be used to attenuate the input signal and thereby
increase the useful dynamic range of the preamplifier.

36
Power is taken from six mercury cells (1.35 V each) contained in a battery
compartment attached to the preamplifier. See Fig. 4.12. This compartment
is removeable and the preamplifier may be connected to an external power
supply of any voltage from 6- 35 V DC. A built-in network stabilizes the
voltage and reduces ripple from an external power supply by about 40 dB.

Fig . 4.12. Exploded view of the preamplifier with battery compartment.

SPECIFICATIONS 2616
Input Resistance: > 1,200 MQ
Input Capacitance: 10 pF (typical)
Output Resistance: < 100 Q
Max. Output Current: 1 rnA
Frequency Range: 0.13 Hz - 500kHz with 1,000 pF across input
Noise: Max. 20 f.A-V, 2 Hz - 40 kHz with 1,000 pF across input
Dynamic Range: 30 f.A-V - 1 V RMS with attenuator on 0 dB. 40 mV
- 100 V RMS with attenuator on - 40 dB.
Rise Time: 1 fA-SeC
Signal Adjustment: + 1.5 to - 20 dB with attenuator on 0 dB
Power: Internal battery. Six mercury cells of 1.35 V. External
supply 6-35 V DC
Current Consumption: 4-10 rnA
Dimensions: Diameter 52 mm (2 in). Total height including battery
compartment 66 mm (2.6 in)
Weight: 290 g (1 0.3 oz)
162 g (5.7 oz) excl. battery compartment

37
3. Preamplifier Type 1606

Fig. 4.13. Preamplifier Type 1606.

The Preamplifier Type 1606 is designed for measurements of acceleration,

velocity and displacement, when used with an accelerometer type of pick-up.
In addition it provides facilities for absolute calibration of the vibration
measuring set-up.
Sensitivity
Adjustment

Capacitive
-
+ -
Integ rating
Attenuator Amplifier Networks
nput To Type

~ ~
-
@--
> r---
-. ~~~~ ~~ :801
1

Shaker Amplitude
Table Adjustment

AC mains
100-240V
261186
Fig. 4.14. Block diagram of the preamplifier.

38
A block diagram of the Preamplifier is shown in Fig. 4.14. It consists of a
capacitive attenuator, an amplifier with variable feedback and integrating
networks for signal processing. A mains operated shaker table with adjust-
able amplitude is included for accelerometer calibration. The output is taken
to any B & K amplifier with a condenser microphone input socket.
The amplifier is a two-stage RC coupled amplifier with a large amount of
negative feedback. The input attenuator is variable in two 40 dB steps. A
sensitivity adjustment potentiometer varies the feedback of the amplifie r
whereby the preamplifier gain is varied from 0 to 38 dB. The high input
impedance makes measurement possible down to lower than 2 Hz. See
Fig. 4.15.

I ! I

-- ~
db O~b l ccelerometer (1000pF) 1
o db t j +20t
0
J,~
,//.,
// K
r,'f} ~Accelerometer (400 pF) +38 db '\_
I I
i ~38d~ '
~'

20
1 10 5 10 3 2 5 10 4 2 C/5 5 1QS
.261f9:J
------. Frequency

Fig. 4.15. Frequency response of the preamplifier adjusted to 0, 20 and 38 dB

gain.

The integrating networks succeeding the amplifier are designed as simple RC

networks. One integrating network is used for velocity measurements and
two cascaded networks for displacement. To provide sufficient dynamic range
two different velocity networks with cut-off frequencies 3 and 30 Hz respective-
ly, and three displacement networks with cut-off frequencies 3, 30 and 300 Hz
are included.

SPECIFICATIONS 1606
Input Impedance: 200 MQ in parallel with approx. 50 pF
Amplification: 0-38 dB
Input Attenuator: Two steps of 40 dB
Max. Output Voltage: 20 V peak in acceleration
Noise: Approx. 12 ftV referred to input at max. amplification
Vibrating Table: Mains driven at 50 or 60 Hz. Can be adjusted to 1 g
by the rattling ball method. Power supply 100- 240 V

39
Dimensions: Height 10.5 em (4 in)
Width 25 em (10 in)
Depth 18 em (7 in)
Weight: 3.9 kg (9 lbs)
Accessories Included: 1 power lead, 3 screws W 1/s"
1 screened plug JP 0018, 1 Allen key
adaptor W 1/s" to NF 10-32

Fig. 4.16. B & K Cathode followers.

4. Cathode Followers
The B & K cathode followers are excellent preamplifiers for piezoelectric
accelerometers due to their high input impedance and very wide frequency
and dynamic ranges. Small size and a rugged construction make them suitable
for operation in most laboratory and field measuring set-ups. Type 2615 is
recommended for shock work.

40
The cathode followers are plugged into any B & K instrument with a micro-
phone input socket

SPECIFICATIONS 2612-15

Cathode Follower Type 2612 2613 2614 2615

I I
Input Impedance 270 MQ paralleled by 3 fl-fi- F I 700 MQ paralleled by 3 p,f!- F

Output Impedance Approximately 750 Q Approximately 750 Q

Gain - 0.8 dB ± 0.2 dB - 0.9 dB ± 0.2 dB

Self-Generated Noise Level Less than 30 p,V (input Less than 40 p,V (input
in wide band (20 Hz-200 kHz) loaded by 60 p,p, F) loaded by 20 p,p, F)

20 V (4 Ofo distortion limit when loaded by a resistance

Max. input voltage
greater than 50 kQ)

Only limited by the capacity connected at the output

Frequency range (up to above 100kHz with B & K equipment and without
extension cables)

Connection type goose neck 12m long cable goose neck 12 m long cable

Diameter of the housing 0.936 inch (23.77 mm) '12 inch (12.7 mm)
Length of the housing 2 inches (50 mm) 2% inches (70 mm)

41
 5. Measuring Systems
Bri.iel & Kjmr Measuring Systems

External
Filter

,,
1613
,r
2203

-
.....

-
Measuring
Amplifier
-,I
I
I
2612,2613

'
2614,2615 '~
2630 2801,2803 2409,2417 I 2305

lntegroior
ZR 0020
..... Cathode
Follower
~ Power
Supply
i-
~
Measuring
Amplifier
I
L
r-:a;:
level
Recorder
r-- ~ ~
I

J~
, I
u
+
'~

Accelero-
meter
~

~
1606
Preampli-
fier
'~

....
-;;;;:
-
2107,2112
2603,2604
Measuring
Amplifier
I
I
1-J
I
'I
l

Statist.
Dist. Anal.

,,
p

, h
4420

2616,2623
Preampli- External
fier Filter
1612,1620
266 16¥

Fig. 5.1. Possible instrument combinations for vibration measurement and

analysis. Any path from accelerometer to measuring amplifier gives a feasible
measuring system.

A vibration measuring system usually consists of the following parts:

Accelerometer
Preamplifier
Integrating networks

42
 Amplifier
Filter network
Indicating device.
In the Bruel & Kjrer systems the amplifier, filter network and indicating device
are often contained in one instrument. A block diagram of possible instrument
combinations from the B & K program is given in Fig . 5.1.

Preamplifier
Bruel & Kjrer produce several types of preamplifier for use with the accelero-
meter in vibration measuring set-ups. These are described in Chapter 4.

Integrating Networks
Apart from the integrating networks contained in the Preamplifier Type 1606,
Bruel & Kjrer produce a separate unit called the Integrator ZR 0020.
The Integrator, containing two stages of integration, is designed for screwing
directly onto a B & K Precision Sound Level Meter Type 2203, effectively
converting this into a handy, portable vibration meter, capable of indicating
levels of acceleration, velocity and displacement when an acceleration pick-up
is employed as a vibration transducer. A slide rule is delivered with the
Integrator which may be set to the acceleration pick-up sensitivity and used
for direct conversion of dB-readings to units of vibration (metric and British).
Accelerometer sensitivities from 10 to 1,000 mV/g are covered.
The sensitivity of 4344 is 2-3 mV/g and for this the use of the slide rule is
as follows:
1. Set line on inner scale to ten times the accelerometer sensitivity.
2. Ad 20 dB to meter reading and use this value for calculation of the
vibration level.
The components of the RC integrating networks have been chosen to give a
low-frequency cut-off (- 3 dB point) at about 5 Hz. This is sufficiently low,
since the Precision Sound Level Meter itself has a low-frequency cut-off of
about 5 Hz. The high-frequency limits are determined by the capacitive
coupling between input and output and are about 15 kHz for velocity and 4 kHz
for displacement measurements. These ranges are sufficiently large for the
majority of applications.
It is also quite possible to use the Integrator with the B & K 1" Cathode
Followers, whereby measurement and analysis of acceleration, velocity and
displacement may be carried out with any of the B & K analysing/ indicating
instruments, i.e. 2107, 2112, 2603 or 2211.

Amplifiers and Indicating Instruments

Bruel & Kjrer produce a number of indicating amplifiers for use in vibration
measuring set-ups. They include:
1. Microphone Amplifier Type 2603, 2604
2. Frequency Analyzer Type 2107

43
 3. Audio-Frequency Spectrometer Type 2112
4. Sound Level Meter Type 2203
5. Vacuum Tube Voltmeter Type 2409
6. Vacuum Tube Voltmeter Type 2417
7. Level Recorder Type 2305.

1. Microphone Amplifiers. These are convenient to use both with cathode

followers and with the preamplifiers. They measure overall vibration level,
but are equipped with filter input and output sockets for operation with
external filters in frequency analyzing set-ups. Frequency range 2603:
Flat to within ± 0.5 dB from 2 to 40,000 Hz. 2604: Flat to within ± 0.5 dB
from 10 to 200,000 Hz.
2. Frequency Analyzer Type 2107. This is a microphone amplifier similar to
Type 2603 but with a frequency selective filter network built-in. In vibra-
tion measurements it is an excellent means for analyzing the frequency
contents of the vibration signal. The analyzer is of the constant percentage
bandwidth type and the bandwidth is selectable from about 6 % to 29 %
of the tuned-in frequency. Using the 6% bandwidth gives a clear indica-
tion of each frequency component of the vibration. An important advantage
is the possibility for driving the frequency tuning mechanism from the
Level Recorder Type 2305, to give automatic frequency spectrum analysis
curves on precalibrated paper, when the two instruments are synchronized.
Frequency range 2-40,000 Hz for overall measurements (frequency selective
part switched out), 20-20,000 Hz for frequency analysis.
3. Audio Frequency Spectrometer Type 2112. This is again a microphone
amplifier but with V3 and full octave, contiguous fixed filters built-in. The
frequency range covered is 22 to 45,000 Hz when used selectively, 2 to
40,000 Hz when used for overall measurements. When used with the Leve!
Recorder Type 2305 the filters may be switched automatically from the
recorder and frequency spectra are recorded on preprinted, calibrated
paper as either third octave or octave analysis.
4. The Precision Sound Level Meter has its own source follower built-in
and may therefore be used with the accelerometer connected directly to
its input terminals. Using the Integrator ZR 0020 described above the
Precision Sound Level Meter is effectively converted into a light, port-
able vibration meter, for measurement of acceleration, velocity and dis-
placement. The Octave Filter Set Type 1613 may be attached to the
Sound Level Meter for a rough frequency analysis of the vibration. Fre-
quency range for overall measurements: 20 to 20,000 Hz, and for octave
analysis: 22.5 to 20,000 Hz.
5. Vacuum Tube Voltmeter Type 2409. This voltmeter is an excellent instru-
ment for overall vibration measurements, used with for example the Micro-
phone Power Supply Type 2801 and a Cathode Follower Type 2615. The
frequency characteristic of the voltmeter is flat to within ± 0.2 dB from

44
 2 to 200,000 Hz with true RMS, peak or arithmetic average indication of
the vibration signal. Using the Preamplifier Type 1606 one can measure
velocity and displacement as well as acceleration level.
The Vacuum Tube Voltmeter may also be used with an input directly from
the accelerometer, since the input impedance is as high as 10 MQ in
parallel with 20 pF. This means that vibration measurements may be
carried out down to as low as 50 Hz employing the Voltmeter alone.

6. Random Noise Voltmeter Type 2417. This meter may be used as the above
Type 2409, but the meter circuit employs selectable time-constants from
0.3 to 100 seconds, which is used to obtain a stable reading when the
vibration is irregular or "random" at low frequencies. An output socket is
provided for use with the Level Recorder Type 2305. The output signal is
DC, proportional to the RMS level of the vibration, and the Level Recorder
must be switched to DC operation. The frequency characteristic of the
voltmeter is flat to within ± 0.2 dB from 2 to 20,000 Hz.

7. Level Recorder Type 2305. All the amplifying-indicating instruments de-

scribed above have an output terminal for feeding for example the B & K
Level Recorder Type 2305. This provides a permanent written record of
whatever is measured, as a function of time, or when the Recorder is
coupled to a frequency analyzer, as a function of frequency. The Level
Recorder is in itself a very versatile measuring instrument, capable of
measuring RMS, peak and average values of signals from 2 to 200,000 Hz
or DC signals. Its dynamic range is variable from 10 dB to 75 dB, and
the writing width is 50 or 100 mm.
The Statistical Distribution Analyzer Type 4420 may be coupled to the Level
Recorder to give a level/time distribution of the measured signal.
The sampling frequency is variable from 0.1 to 10 seconds and the width
of the amplitude window is one tenth of the writing width of the Level
Recorder.
As the counters employed go up to 999,999, an analysis time of more than
24 hours is possible even with the highest sampling frequency.

Ground Loops
In set-ups where ground loops are disturbing or where ground currents may
be carried in the shield of the transducer cable, thus superimposing a noise
voltage on the signal, one should first of all consider the use of isolated
mounting. This may be obtained with a cementing technique, either using
the cementing stud or cementing the accelerometer directly onto the vibrating
surface. If one of these methods cannot be employed, a battery driven system
may be the solution, or a battery driven preamplifier connected to AC driven
equipment via a balancing transformer such as the B & K Type Tl 0001. See
Fig. 5.2.

45
 Measuring Analysing Ampl.

Battery . Driven Balancing

Accelerometer Preamplifier Transformer

2616 Tl 0001 2107

2112
etc.
.265715

Fig . 5.2. Use of Balancing Transformer to eliminate ground loops .

46
 6. Calibration
When absolute vibration level is measured it is necessary to know the absolute
sensitivity versus frequency characteristic of the measuring instrumentation.
As a rule piezoelectric accelerometers of careful design and manufacture are
extremely stable, but after exposure to high temperature or shock environ-
ments it may be wise to recalibrate.
Equipment for relatively quick and simple calibration of vibration pick-ups is
available from Bruel & Kjrer. This consists of a small electrodynamic shaker
Type 4290 with an accurately calibrated control accelerometer built in. Using
the control accelerometer in a feedback loop with a B & K feedback controlled
sweep oscillator the vibration of the shaker table is held constant in the
frequency range 200 to 30,000 Hz, and when an accelerometer is fixed onto
the shaker table its frequency response is easily measured, e.g. with a Level
Recorder Type 2305, or point by point. A suitable set-up is shown in Fig. 6.1.
The Level Recorder is used for obtaining a permanent record of the frequency
characteristic of the accelerometer. The absolute sensitivity of the accelero-
meter is found by comparing the output with the output from the built-in

B.F.O.

'/1657(0

Fig. 6.1. Set-up suitable for the calibration of accelerometers. There are many
possible alternatives to the various instruments shown.

47
calibrated control accelerometer. Since the shaker table itself is part of the
control accelerometer, the vibration is exactly the same for the two accelero-
meters.
The comparison method gives an accuracy on the absolute calibration of better
than ± 1 dB.
When higher accuracy is needed, or when it appears necessary to check the
sensitivity of the control accelerometer, the same shaker may be used for
reciprocity calibration. The procedure is described fully in the instruction
manual for the Calibration Exciter Type 4290. The accuracy of this method
is better than ± 0.5 dB with careful procedure.
An alternative method is to keep a "secondary standard" for reference calibra-
tion only. For this purpose any one of the larger B & K accelerometers
may be used. If this is kept for reference only and is not exposed to extreme
mechanical shocks or temperatures, it will serve as a stable reference over
a long period of time. Comparison between the reference and an unknown
may easily be carried out on for example the 4290 shaker table. 2% absolute
accuracy is obtainable this way.

48
 7. Applications
The following are a few suggestions for instrument combinations which may
be used in some common accelerometer applications. It is in no way suggested
that this list covers more than just a fraction of the possibilities one might
meet in practice. Nor does it necessarily give the one and only solution to
the given problem. The selection of instrument combinations should always
be given careful attention with due regard to frequency response, dynamic
range, operating environment, accuracy, read-out device etc. It is hoped that
the foregoing chapters will be of some assistance to the person responsible
for such a selection.
Further information about the various B & K instruments is found in their
respective Instruction and Application books.

Portable Instrumentation
The Precision Sound Level Meter Type 2203 is an excellent amplifier for vibra-
tion measurements when portable instrumentation is required. Used with the
Integrator ZR 0020 it can measure velocity and displacement in addition to
acceleration. An octave filter set Type 1613 can be joined to the Precision
Sound Level Meter for frequency analysis of the measured vibration quantity.
See Fig. 7.1.
The frequency range of this system is from about 10 Hz to 20 kHz.

ZR0020 2203 1613

Accelero- Integrator lndica1:ing Octave
meter Amplifier Filters
265709

Fig. 7.1. Portable, battery driven instrumentation tor measurement and analysis
of vibration.

When long cables are required between the accelerometer and the indicating
instrument a good solution may be to use the Preamplifier Type 2623 or
2616. These are small, compact, battery driven, transistorized units which
may be used with very long cables. See Fig. 7.2.
Such instrumentation is also well suited for collecting vibration data in the
field with the aid of a portable tape recorder. Any desired vibration signal may

49
then be recorded on the tape and brought back to the laboratory for subse-
quent analysis with more powerful instrumentation systems.

28 V Battery

2623 ZR 0020 2203 1613

Accelero- Preamplifier In-tegrator Indicating Octave
meter Amplifier Filters
2.65708

Fig. 7.2. Portable instrumentation suitable tor use with long connection cable .

ZR 0020 2203 Portable Tape Recorder

Accelero- Integrator Calibrated
meter Amplifier 265707

Fig . 7.3. Instrumentation for collecting vibration data in the field for later
analysis .

Frequency Analysis
Frequency analysis of vibration may be carried out with the system depicted
in Fig. 7.4. The frequency Analyzer Type 2107 has a selectable bandwidth

Battery

Accelerometer Preamplifier

Fig. 7.4. Instrumentation suitable for frequency analysis of vibrations in the

range 20-20,000 Hz.

50
from about 6% to 29% and the centre frequency of the pass-band is con-
tinuously variable from 20 Hz to 20 kHz in six subranges. If a Level Recorder
Type 2305 is used for driving the tuning mechanism of the Frequency Analyzer,
the frequency spectrum can be recorded on preprinted, frequency and ampli-
tude calibrated paper.
Overall acceleration can be measured in the range 2 Hz to 40 kHz.
The Frequency Analyzer may be substituted by a Spectrometer Type 2112
which has contiguous a third octave and octave filters in the range 22 Hz
to 45 kHz.

Shocks and Transients

Theoretical analysis of shock waveforms suggests that in order to measure
a shock, a very wide frequency range is desirable. For a general pulse of
duration T the system time constant, RC, should be at least 20 T for less than
5% error. The system time constant is made up of the preamplifier input
resistance, R, and the total capacity, C, in the input circuit, i.e. accelerometer,
cable, and preamplifier input capacity all added in parallel.
The high frequency limit of the measuring system, including the accelerometer,
should be at least 10/T Hz and the low frequency characteristics of the ampli-
fiers should be flat down to 8/1000 T Hz. See B & K Technical Review No. 3-
1966.

Phase Distortion
In order to obtain an undistorted display it is also necessary that the various
frequency components are phase delayed by an amount proportional to the
frequency, i.e.
q; = k f
where q; is the phase distortion of the system at frequency f.
The system may be used for shock measurements when k = 0, i.e. no phase
distortion, or when k is some positive or negative constant.
In shock measurements extremely high signal peaks may be encountered, and
it is necessary to make absolutely certain that the dynamic capacity of the
measuring system is sufficiently large.
High shock pulses, resulting in saturation of the amplifiers, may cause block-
ing of the amplifiers, and a certain "recovery time" will elapse before the next
pulse can be measured correctly. This recovery time is to a certain extent
dependent upon the low frequency cut-off of the amplifiers, so that the lower
one's low frequency cut-off is, the more careful one must be not to overdrive
the amplifiers. For pulse train measurements this is especially important.
With its very wide frequency range and large dynamic range, the Miniature
Accelerometer is particularly well suited for shock measurements. Used to-
gether with one of the preamplifiers Type 2623 or 2616 the frequency range
is from 0.5 Hz to 40 kHz, and the rise time and recovery time are 10 f.-tSec and
50 f.-tSec respectively. Rated conservatively such a system can be used for

51
measuring shock pulses varying in length from 25 ,usee to 16 msec. This
covers most practical cases.

DC Supply

1623
Accelerometer Preamplifier Oscilloscope
,26613 1

Fig. 7.5. Instrumentation suitable for shock measurements.

Another preamplifier well suited for shock measurements is the Cathode

Follower Type 2615 connected as shown in Fig. 7.6.
This instrument combination gives a very large dynamic range and an excellent
signal to noise ratio. The low-frequency cut-off is around 2 Hz (accelerometer
capacity 900 pF, cathode follower input resistance 200 MQ). As no phase-
shift is introduced by the cathode follower the shock waveform is reproduced
faithfully on the oscilloscope screen.

0
2615 2801
Accelerometer Cathode Power Oscilloscope
Follower Supply 1!64/S:Z.

Fig . 7.6. Cathode Follower Type 2615 used for shock measurements.

Vibration Tests. Fig. 7.7 shows a typical arrangement for vibration testing of
mechanical components. The component under test is mounted on an electro-
dynamic vibration exciter (shaker) which is fed from the Sine-Random Genera-
tor Type 1042 via a power amplifier. To maintain constant vibration level on
the shaker table, independent of frequency, the output from the Sine Random
Generator is regulated by the signal from an accelerometer (e.g. Type 4333)
mounted on the table. The Preamplifier Type 2622 is used in the feedback loop
to match the impedance of the accelerometer to that of the Vibration Meter
Type 2502, and to standardize the output signal from the accelerometer to
10 mV/g.

52
Miniature accelerometers may be placed at various points of the tested
structure for measurement of the response .

• :i :-:it: i ::. :j ;
~-i--i: -:·~~~. j ;
1111 212 2

Vibration Meter Preamplifier Level Recorder

S!~7J'-P~-

Fig. 7.7. Vibration test set-up.

Quality Control. In the last few years it has been realized that a vibration
measuring system may be used for quality control of such items as electric
motors, vacuum cleaners, refrigerator units etc. The Bruel & Kjc:er Noise Limit
Indicator has been designed especially for production control of mass pro-
duced items with regard to their noise and vibration output. The instrument
has two alternative inputs for B & K Cathode Followers or Preamplifiers Type
1606. 12 parallel output amplifiers may be fitted with plug-in filters, e.g. third
octave or octave filters, and a control panel with red lamps will indicate when

000000

2211
.,,,!!
0 0 0-0 0 0
00 · =-~-

ZH OODI
Noise Limit Indicator Control Panel
..?6+59(

Fig. 7.8. The Noise Limit Indicator Type 2211.

53
the input signal level exceeds any preset value in each frequency band. On
the basis of noise or vibration investigations on satisfactory production items,
these limits may be set, and a quick production line control may be set up. In
case of a fault in the item being tested, the vibration may be high in one or
two particular frequency ranges. By looking at the frequency range in which
the preset level is exceeded, it is often possible to tell straight away what
the fault is, and it may be corrected without loss of time.
This method of quality control is covered more fully in B & K Technical Review
No. 2-1963, "Quality Control by Noise Analysis". The Technical Review is
mailed free of charge upon request.

54
 8. Accessories
The following accessories are available for the accelerometers and the
transistorized preamplifiers.

For 4344:
AO 0051 1.2 m (4 ft.) of mininoise cable for operation to 100 ° C (212 ° F)
fitted with miniature plugs. Individually calibrated capacitance
value.
AO 0052 1.2 m (4 ft.) of mini noise cable for operation to 260 ° C (500 ° F)
fitted with miniature plugs. Individually calibrated capacitance
value.

For the transistorized preamplifiers Type 2616 and 2623:

UA 0142 1 set of clamping magnet containing 5 permanent magnets UA 0070
with isolated mounting. Used for Preamplifier Type 2623.
UA 0129 Set of 20 miniature plugs JP 0012 with tools and instruction for
mounting of the plugs on cable.
UA 0130 Set of 25 miniature plugs JP 0012.
UA 0186 Set of 25 extension connectors JJ 0032.
AO 0037 1.2 m (4 ft.) of mininoise cable for operation to 100 ° C (212°F)
fitted with miniature plugs JP 0012 in both ends. Individually
calibrated.
AO 0038 1.2 m (4 ft.) of mininoise cable for operation to 260 ° C (500 ° F)
fitted with miniature plugs JP 0012 in both ends. Individually
calibrated.
AC 0010 Mininoise cable up to 600ft. in one length.
90 pF/ m or 30 pF/ ft., for operation to 100° C (212 ° F).
AC 0005 Mini noise cable up to 600 ft. in one length.
90 pF/ m or 30 pF/ ft. , for operation to 260 ° C (500 ° F).
JP 0028 Adaptor plug, microplug to B & K coaxial.

.,__To Accelerometer To Preamplifier ~

-~~~-~/~ • ---mn===tJ====rt§-
AO 0051 JP 0012 JJ 0032 JP 0012 AO 0037 JP 0012
AO oos2 AO 0038
267084

Fig. 8.1 . Drawing showing accelerometer cables, plugs, and extension

connector.

55
 Fig. 8.2. Photograph of VA 0129 and instructions for mounting of the plug
JP 0012.
HithOii of assetiibll'ng
- - -aruet&l(;·a;;:-- -
- miniatvrr connector
JPOOI2

.9

-out~f'aC.Of' centr.--insvlation is 9rap_hite coated.

Clea~p_oseo' iiiiiJiationtopriVrnt -l11akage

Fig. 8.3. Instructions for using VA 0129.

56
 9. Conversion Charts, Tables etc.
The following table is given in order to facilitate the conversion from dB to a
(voltage) ratio. It is used as follows:
Subtract a whole number of n X 20 from the dB value to be converted which
gives a positive remainder between 0 and 20. Look up the ratio in the table
corresponding to the remainder. The value sought is then 1on X value from the
table.

Example: Convert 65.3 dB re. 1 g into units of g.

65.3 = (3) X 20 + 5.3.
5.3 gives from table 1.841. The g-value is then 103 X 1.841 = 1841 g.

With negative values the procedure is the same, e.g.:

Convert- 31.8 dB re. 1 g into units of g.
- 31.8 = (- 2) X 20 + 8.2.
8.2 gives from table 2.570. The g-value is then 10- 2 X 2.570 = 0.02570 g.

Table for Converting Decibels into (Voltage) Ratio

dB .0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
I I I
0 1.000 1.012 1.023 1.035 1.047 1.059 1.072 1.084 1.096 1.109
1 1.122 1.135 1.148 1.161 1.175 1.189 1.202 1.216 1.230 1.245
2 1.259 1.274 1.288 1.303 1.318 1.334 1.349 1.365 1.380 1.396
3 1.413 1.429 1.445 1.462 1.479 1.496 1.514 1.531 1.549 1.567
4 1.585 1.603 1.622 1.641 1.660 1.679 1.698 1.718 1.738 1.758
5 1.778 1.799 1.820 1.841 1.862 1.884 1.905 1.928 1.950 1.972
6 1.995 2.018 12.042 2.065 2.089 2.113 2.138 2.163 2.188 2.213
7 12.239 2.265 2.291 2.317 2.344 2.371 2.399 2.427 2.455 2.483
8 2.512 2.541 2.570 2.600 2.630 2.661 2.692 2.723 2.754 2.786
9 2.818 2.851 2.884 2.917 2.951 2.985 3.020 3.055 3.090 3.126
10 3.162 3.199 3.236 3.273 3.311 3.350 3.388 3.428 3.467 3.508
11 3.548 3.589 3.631 3.673 13.715 3.758 3.802 3.846 3.890 3.936
12 3.981 4.027 4.074 4.121 4.169 4.217 4.266 4.315 4.365 4.416

I 13
14
15
4.467
5.012
5.623
4.519
5.070
5.689
4.571
5.129
5.754
4.624 4.677
5.188 5.248
5.821 5.888
4.732
5.309
5.957
4.786
5.370
6.026
4.842
5.433
6.095
4.898 4.955
5.495 5.559
6.166 6.237
16 6.310 6.383 6.457 6.531 6.607 6.683 6.761 6.839 6.918 6.998
17 7.079 7.161 7.244 7.328 7.413 7.499 7.586 7.674 7.762 7.852
18 7.943 8.035 8.128 8.222 8.318 8.414 8.511 8.610 8.710 8.810
19 8.913 9.016 9.120 9.226 9.333 9.441 9.550 9.661 9.772 9.886

57
 Frequency, Acceleration, Velocity, Displacement Nomograph (RMS-values)

7
'X/)/\2' l:>N '-'~I /I'\

">> (\.."'t( / / /

17'~~~>(~~~~~~~19~~~1>(\;~~"\J.~r-...v..,j<V~~~~~~~d;~~~~~~. ~ ~~1/
v ~ :--0 1/ V>< ><l'V< ~ ~ ..t.~:~ V)< ~~ ~~,4-'v~""'v~~><~:»<~~~~..--+-~~

100 1 000 Hz (cfs) 10000

2657"4

58
Temperature:

9 5
F= - C+32 C = - (F - 32}
5 9

Single Degree of Freedom System

M = mass (kg}
K = stiffness (Newt/m)

V~ = 2 n X resonance frequency

where Ll .t = static deflection

Wo
26570"!> of the mass.

For Single Frequency (Sinusoidal) Vibration

Acceleration
I Velocity
I Displacement

1 1
a cos w t - - a sin w t -- -w2 a cos w t
w
1
- w v sin w t v cos w t - - v sin w t
w

-w2 d cos wt -w dsin w t d cos w t

RMS Values

A Alw Al w 2

wV v Vl w

w2 D w D D

59
Conversion of Length

m
I em
I mm
I ft
I in

1
I 100 1000 3.281 39.37

0.01 1 10 0.0328 0.3937

0.001 0.1 1 0.00328 0.03937

0.3048 30.48 304.8 1 12

0.0254 2.54 25.4 0.0833

I 1

Conversion of Acceleration

g m/sec2 cm/sec 2 ft/sec 2 in/sec 2

I
1 9.81 981 32.2 386

0.102 1 100 3.281 39.37

0.00102 0.01 1 0.0328 0.3937

0.03109 0.3048 30.48 1 12

0.00259 0.0254 2.54 0.0833 1

Conversion of Weight (Mass)

kg
I gram
I lbs.
I oz.

1 1000 2.205 35.3

0.001 1 0.0022 0.0353

0.4536 453.6 1 16

0.02835 28.35 0.0625 1

60
 10. Specifications
The Mineature Accelerometer Type 4344 is available as Accelerometer · set
Type 4324 and as Accelerometer Package Type 4364.

DB 0757 YJ 0216 AO 0052

QA 0042 YM 0334

QA 0041 JP 0028 AO 0051

Fig. 10.1. Photograph of an accelerometer set (excl. mahogany case).

The Accelerometer Set Type 4324 contains:

I
Mineature Accelerometer Type 4344
One low noise cable for ordinary temperatures AO 0051
One low noise cable for high temperatures AO 0052
Six threaded steel studs (M 3) YQ 2007
One nut (M 3) YM 0334
One cementing stud DB 0757
- -
Wax YJ 0216
Screw tap for 3 mm thread QA 0041
Allen key for steel studs QA 0042
Microplug to B & K plug adaptor JP 0028
Individual calibration chart

61
 The Accelerometer Package Type 4364 contains:
I
Five Mineature Accelerometers Type 4344
Five low noise cables for ordinary temperatures AO 0051
Five low noise cables for high temperatures AO 0052
Five steel studs (M 3) YQ 2007
Five individual calibration charts

Any extra accessories must be ordered separately, see chapter 8.

Fig. 10.2. Photograph of an accelerometer package.

62
 SPECIFICATIONS

Accelerometer Type
I 4344

Contained in Accelerometer Set 4324

Contained in Accelerometer Package 4364
*Sensitivity (mV/g) 2- 3
*Charge Sensitivity (pC/g) 2- 3
* Free Resonance (kHz) 125
*Capacity lnclud. Cable (pF) ** 900
*Transverse Sensitivity (%) L: 8
0
Max. Amb ient Temperature ( C} 260
*Temperature Stability (dBr C) 0.02
Lowest Leak Resist. at 20°C (MQ) 20,000
Typical value at 250 ° C (MQ) 20,000
Magnetic Sensitivity (,uV/Gauss) 1
Acoustic Sensitivity (,uVI,ubar) L: 0.5
Torque Sensitiv., 2- 20 kgcm (%) L: 1
Max. shock (g 's) 14,000
2% o+- 25,ooo
* Freq. Range (Hz)
10% o+-4o,ooo
Type of Connection Side
Height (mm) 10.2
Weight (grams) 2
Material of Base Titanium
Provision for Water Cooling No

Mounting thread M3

* Individual values given on the cal ibrat ion chart.

• • With standard low-noise cable , 1.2 m (4 feet) long.
+ The low frequency cut-off is determined by t he preamplif ier.

63
B K

ORBOE PRINT . COPENHAGEN . DENMARK March 1968