Introduction to Modern

Sensors and Applications

Assoc. Prof. Nguyen Van Duy
Department of Electronics Materials and Devices
 CONTENT
I. Introduction
II. Sensor basics
1. Introduction
2. Sensor characteristics
3. Sensor classification
III. Working principle and application of popular sensors
1. Temperature sensors
2. Light sensors
3. Pressure sensors
4. Motion sensors
5. Distance sensors
6. Humidity sensors
7. Magnetic sensors
8. Accelerometer
9. Gas sensors
10. Sound sensors
11. Bio-sensors
 I. INTRODUCTION
SENSOR, Transducers, AND ACTUATOR

sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world
actuator system

• Transducer
• a device that converts a primary form of energy into a corresponding signal with a different energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical, chemical, etc.
• take form of a sensor or an actuator
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
• a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
• acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
• a device that generates a signal or stimulus
 Electrical Engineering, Electronics, and Microelectronics are three interrelated but distinct fields
within the broad domain of engineering and technology. While all deal with electricity in some form,
they differ in their focus, applications, and the scale of devices they work with. Here is a clear
distinction between these fields:

1. Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering is primarily concerned with the generation,
transmission, distribution, and utilization of electrical energy. It deals
with large-scale systems and focuses on power and energy.
•Scope: Electrical engineering involves systems that generate, transmit,
and use electric power. It is mostly about working with high-power
systems and energy distribution networks.
•Applications:
• Power generation systems like power plants.
• High-voltage power lines that transmit electricity over long
distances.
• Electrical machines like motors, transformers, and generators.
• Control systems for managing energy flow and distribution.
• Power electronics used to convert energy types (AC to DC, etc.).
•Examples: National power grid systems, electric motors, heavy machinery,
wind turbines, and solar power systems.
2. Electronics Engineering
Electronics focuses on the control and manipulation of electrical
signals to process information or perform a specific function. It deals
with low-power systems and the design of circuits and devices that
involve semiconductors and other components.
•Scope: Electronics involves designing and developing devices and
systems that work with electronic circuits to process data or signals. It
includes the study of components like transistors, diodes, capacitors,
and integrated circuits (ICs).
•Applications:
• Communication systems (radios, TVs, mobile phones).
• Consumer electronics (smartphones, computers, televisions).
• Embedded systems and control units for cars and appliances.
• Signal processing, both analog and digital.
• Circuit design and systems that automate tasks (robotics, IoT).
•Examples: Microprocessors, audio amplifiers, smartphones, routers,
televisions, and computers.
3. Microelectronics Engineering
Microelectronics is a subfield of electronics that focuses on designing and
fabricating very small electronic components, primarily at the micrometer or
nanometer scale. It deals specifically with miniaturized electronic systems and
involves intricate manufacturing processes to create integrated circuits (ICs) or
chips.
•Scope: Microelectronics involves the development of miniaturized electronic
components (semiconductors, transistors, diodes, resistors) and the study of
materials and processes used to make these components. It plays a significant
role in developing integrated circuits that are fundamental to most modern
electronic devices.
•Applications:
• Fabrication of microchips and integrated circuits (ICs) used in
computers, smartphones, and almost all modern electronics.
• Development of memory chips, processors, and sensors for various
applications.
• Used in industries such as medical devices, aerospace,
telecommunications, and consumer electronics.
• VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) design, which involves packing
millions or billions of transistors onto a single chip.
•Examples: Central processing units (CPUs), graphics processing units (GPUs),
memory chips, microcontrollers, and system-on-chip (SoC) designs used in
smartphones and other devices.
 II. SENSOR BASICS
1. Introduction
Human Sensors
The eyes, ears, tongue, nose, and skin receive signals then send messages to the brain
which outputs a response.
For example, when you touch a hot plate, it is your brain that tells you it is hot, not your skin.
 SENSORS
❖A better term for a sensor is a transducer.
❖A transducer is any physical device that converts one form of energy into another.
❖So, in the case of a sensor, the transducer converts some physical phenomenon into an
electrical impulse that can then be interpreted to determine a reading.
❖A microphone is a sensor that takes vibrational energy (sound waves), and converts it to
electrical energy in a useful way for other components in the system to correlate back to
the original sound.

In a typical IoT system, a sensor may collect information and route to a control center
where a decision is made and a corresponding command is sent back to an actuator
in response to that sensed input.
 Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
• convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
• General Electronic Sensor
• primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into electrical signal
• secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or digital values

analog usable
real
• Typical Electronic Sensor System signal values
world
primary secondary
transducer transducer

sensor

input
signal sensor data microcontroller network
(measurand)
sensor signal processing display
analog/digital
communication
Sensor applications
Mining, Industrial Process Environmental Pollution Control Space Habitat Air Quality
and Monitoring

Sensor

Military Medical Diagnostics Food Industry

Physical Principles of Sensing

➢ Electric Charges, Fields, and Potentials

➢ Capacitance: Capacitor and Dielectric Constant
➢ Magnetism: Faraday’s Law, Solenoid, Permanent Magnets
➢ Induction
➢ Resistance: Specific Resistivity, Temperature Sensitivity, Strain
Sensitivity
➢ Piezoelectric Effect
➢ Pyroelectric Effect
➢ Hall Effect
➢ Seebeck and Peltier Effects
➢ Sound Waves
2. Characteristics of sensors
• Accuracy: This defines how correctly the sensor output represents the true value. In order to assess
the accuracy of a sensor, either the measurement should be benchmarked against a standard
measurand or the output should be compared with a measurement system with a known accuracy.
For instance, an oxygen gas sensor, which operates at a room with 21% oxygen concentration, the gas
measurement system is more accurate if it shows 21.1% rather than 20.1% or 22%.
• Error: It is the difference between the true value of the quantity being measured and the actual value
obtained from the sensor. For instance, in the gas sensing example, if we are measuring the oxygen
content in the room having exactly 21% oxygen, and our sensor gives us a value of 21.05%, then the
error would be 0.05%.
• Resolution: Resolution signifies the smallest incremental change in the measurand that will result in
a detectable increment in the output signal. Resolution is strongly limited by any noise in the signal.

• Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the ratio of incremental change in the output of the sensor to its incremental
change of the measurand in input. For example, if we have a gas sensor whose output voltage
increases by 1 V when the oxygen concentration increases by 1000 ppm, then the sensitivity would be
1/1000 V/ppm, or more simply 1 mV/ppm.

• Selectivity: A sensor’s ability to measure a single component in the presence of others is known as its
selectivity. For example, an oxygen sensor that does not show a response to other gases such as CO,
CO2 and NO2, may be considered as selective.
Sensitivity
• Precision: Precision is the estimate which signifies the number of decimal places to which a
measurand can be reliably measured. It relates to how carefully the final measurement can be
read, not how accurate the measurement is.

Full-scale out put

(FSO) is the
algebraic difference
between the
electrical output
sig-
nals measured with
maximum input
stimulus and the
lowest input
stimulus applied.
This must include
all deviations from
the ideal transfer
function.
• Minimum Detectable Signal (MDS): This is the minimum detectable signal that can be extracted in a sensing system, when
noise is taken into account. If the noise is large relative to the input, it is difficult to extract a clear signal from the noise

• Detection Limit: It is the smallest magnitude of the measurand that can be measured by a sensor.

• Reproducibility: The sensor’s ability to reproduce responses after some measurement condition has been changed. For
example, after shutting down a sensing system and subsequently restarting it, a reproducible sensor will show the same
response to the same measurand concentration as it did prior to being shut down.

• Hysteresis: It is the difference between output readings for the same measurand, when approached while increasing from the
minimum value and the other while decreasing from the peak value.

• Stability: The sensor’s ability to produce the same output value when measuring a fixed input over a period of time.
• Response Time: The time taken by a sensor to arrive at a stable value is the response time. It is generally expressed as the time
at which the output reaches a certain percentage (for instance 95%) of its final value, in response to a stepped change of the
input. The recovery time is defined in a similar way but conversely.

• Dynamic Range or Span: The range of input signals that will result in a meaningful output for the sensor is the dynamic range
or span. All sensors are designed to perform over a specified range. Signals outside of this range may be unintelligible, cause
unacceptably large inaccuracies, and may even result in irreversible damage to the sensor
3. Classification of sensors

Classification based on
sensing materials

Classification base on
detection means
Classification base on
phenomena

Classification base on
field of applications
III. WORKING PRINCIPLE AND APPLICATIONS OF POPULAR SENSORS
 1. Temperature Sensors
A temperature sensor is a device that detects and measures temperature and converts it
into a readable signal or data for monitoring and control. Temperature sensors are widely
used in various industries, from home appliances to industrial applications, environmental
monitoring, and automotive systems.

Key Features of Temperature Sensors:

•Accuracy: The degree to which the sensor can measure the true temperature.
•Response Time: How quickly the sensor can detect and respond to a change in temperature.
•Range: The temperature limits within which the sensor can operate accurately.
•Sensitivity: How small a temperature change the sensor can detect.
Temperature sensors are critical components in modern technology, allowing for precise temperature
monitoring and control across various applications.
 Types of Temperature Sensors and Their Working Principles:
1. 1. Thermocouples:
Principle: Thermocouples work based on the Seebeck effect, where a voltage (or electromotive force) is
generated when two different metals are joined at two points, and a temperature difference exists between
these points. The voltage produced is proportional to the temperature difference and can be measured to
determine the temperature.Applications: Used in high-temperature environments like furnaces, engines,
and industrial processes.
1.2. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs):
•Principle: RTDs rely on the fact that the electrical resistance of a metal (typically platinum) increases
linearly with temperature. By measuring the resistance, the temperature can be determined.
•Applications: Common in laboratory, industrial processes, and high-accuracy applications due to their
precision.
1.3. Thermistors:
•Principle: Thermistors are temperature-sensitive resistors whose resistance decreases (NTC - Negative
Temperature Coefficient) or increases (PTC - Positive Temperature Coefficient) with temperature. NTC
thermistors are more common, and the relationship between resistance and temperature is nonlinear.
•Applications: Used in home appliances, medical devices, and automotive applications where a quick response
to temperature changes is needed.
1.4. Infrared (IR) Sensors:
•Principle: Infrared sensors detect the thermal radiation emitted by an object and measure its intensity. By
analyzing this radiation, the sensor can determine the temperature of the object without making physical
contact.
•Applications: Used for non-contact temperature measurement, such as in medical thermometers, industrial
monitoring, and HVAC systems.
1.5. Semiconductor Sensors:
•Principle: These sensors use the temperature-dependent properties of semiconductors to measure
temperature. The voltage or current characteristics of the semiconductor change with temperature, allowing
the temperature to be inferred.
•Applications: Used in integrated circuits, environmental sensors, and low-cost consumer electronics.
1.6. Bimetallic Sensors:
•Principle: These sensors use two different metals bonded together. As the temperature changes, the metals
expand at different rates, causing the bimetal strip to bend. This mechanical movement can be used to trigger
a switch or provide a temperature reading.
•Applications: Used in thermostats and safety devices such as temperature control systems.
 2. Light Sensors (Photo sensors)
Light sensors, also known as photo sensors, are devices that detect light or changes in light
intensity and convert it into a readable signal (electrical, analog, or digital) for use in various
applications. These sensors can detect visible light, infrared, or ultraviolet light, depending
on their design and material.
Key Features of Light Sensors:
•Sensitivity: Determines how well the sensor can detect low levels of light.
•Response Time: How fast the sensor reacts to changes in light intensity.
•Spectral Range: The range of wavelengths the sensor can detect (e.g., visible light, infrared,
ultraviolet).
•Dynamic Range: The range of light intensities the sensor can detect, from very dim to very bright
light.
Light sensors are essential in numerous applications, from everyday consumer electronics to industrial
systems, enabling devices to respond dynamically to changes in ambient light or the presence of light
sources.
Types of Light Sensors and Their Working Principles:
2.1. Photodiode:
Principle: A photodiode operates on the principle of the photoelectric effect. When light photons hit the
p-n junction of the diode, they generate electron-hole pairs. This creates a small current or voltage in
proportion to the light intensity.
Applications: Used in light meters, smoke detectors, and optical communication systems. Photodiodes are
sensitive, fast, and often used in precise light detection.
2.2. Phototransistor:
•Principle: A phototransistor works similarly to a regular transistor but is controlled by light instead of an
electric current. When light falls on the base of the transistor, it allows current to flow from the collector to
the emitter, amplifying the current generated by light.
•Applications: Used in optical switches, light-sensing circuits, and light-activated devices due to their
higher sensitivity than photodiodes.
2.3. Photoresistor (LDR - Light Dependent Resistor):
•Principle: A photoresistor (or LDR) is made from semiconductor materials whose resistance decreases
when exposed to light. In the dark, the resistance is high, but when illuminated, the resistance drops,
allowing more current to pass through.
•Applications: Used in street lights, solar garden lights, camera exposure controls, and devices where light
levels need to be detected.
2.4. Photovoltaic Cells (Solar Cells):
•Principle: Photovoltaic cells directly convert light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect.
When photons from sunlight strike the semiconductor material (typically silicon), they excite electrons,
generating a flow of electricity.
•Applications: Used in solar panels to generate electricity, calculators, and small battery-powered devices.
2.5. Charge-Coupled Device (CCD):
•Principle: A CCD sensor works by converting light into an electrical charge. When light hits the pixels on the CCD
array, each pixel stores an electrical charge proportional to the intensity of the light. This charge is then read out
sequentially and converted into a digital signal.
•Applications: Used in digital cameras, scanners, and optical microscopes due to their high image quality and
sensitivity.
2.6. Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) Sensor:
•Principle: CMOS sensors convert light into electrical signals by measuring the charge generated at each pixel
when light strikes it. Each pixel has its own amplifier, which is a key difference from CCDs, making CMOS
sensors faster and more energy-efficient.
•Applications: Widely used in digital cameras, smartphones, and webcams because of their lower power
consumption and faster processing speeds compared to CCD sensors.
•CCD sensors create high-quality, low-noise images. CMOS sensors are usually more susceptible to noise.
•Because each photosite on a CMOS sensor has several transistors located next to it, the light sensitivity of a CMOS
chip tends to be lower, as many of the photons hit the transistors instead of the photosite.
•CCD sensors consume as much as 100 times more power than an equivalent CMOS sensor.
•CMOS sensors can be manufactured on most standard silicon production lines, so are inexpensive to produce
compared to CCD sensors.
2.7. Infrared Sensors (IR Sensors):
•Principle: IR sensors detect infrared radiation emitted by objects. There are two main types: passive IR sensors,
which detect infrared radiation emitted naturally by objects, and active IR sensors, which emit infrared light and
measure the reflection or interruption caused by objects.
•Applications: Used in motion detection, night-vision cameras, proximity sensors, and remote control systems.
2.8. Ultraviolet (UV) Sensors:
•Principle: UV sensors detect ultraviolet light, which is outside the visible spectrum. These sensors work by
detecting the photons in the UV range and generating a corresponding electrical signal.
•Applications: Used in UV index monitoring, sterilization processes, and flame detection systems.
 3. Pressure sensors
Devices that measure the force exerted by a fluid (liquid or gas) on a surface and convert this pressure into an
electrical signal that can be measured and processed. Pressure is defined as force per unit area, and pressure
sensors are used in a wide range of industries, including automotive, aerospace, medical, and industrial
processes.
Types of Pressure Measured:
•Absolute Pressure: The pressure relative to a perfect vacuum (zero pressure).
•Gauge Pressure: The pressure relative to the surrounding atmospheric pressure (e.g., tire pressure).
•Differential Pressure: The difference between two pressures applied to two sides of the sensor (e.g., flow
measurement in pipes).
Key Features of Pressure Sensors:
•Range: The range of pressures the sensor can accurately measure (from vacuum to very high pressures).
•Sensitivity: How small a change in pressure the sensor can detect.
•Accuracy: How close the measured pressure is to the actual pressure.
•Response Time: How quickly the sensor can respond to changes in pressure.
•Operating Environment: Conditions such as temperature, humidity, and corrosiveness that the sensor can
handle.
Pressure sensors play a crucial role in a wide variety of systems, providing feedback and control in everything
from industrial processes to medical devices and everyday consumer products.
Types of Pressure Sensors and Their Working Principles:

3.1. Strain Gauge Pressure Sensors:

Principle: Strain gauge sensors work on the principle of strain or deformation. A strain gauge is bonded to a
diaphragm that deforms under pressure. As the diaphragm bends, the strain gauge stretches or compresses,
changing its electrical resistance. This change in resistance is measured and converted into a corresponding
pressure reading.
Applications: Used in automotive pressure measurement (e.g., oil and fuel pressure), industrial process
control, and medical devices (e.g., blood pressure monitors).
3.2. Capacitive Pressure Sensors:
•Principle: Capacitive pressure sensors use the change in capacitance caused by the movement of a diaphragm.
The sensor consists of two parallel plates: one fixed and one flexible. When pressure is applied, the distance
between the plates changes, leading to a change in capacitance. This change is proportional to the applied
pressure and is converted into an electrical signal.
•Applications: Common in low-pressure measurements like HVAC systems, barometers, and portable devices
where small pressure variations need to be detected.
3.3. Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors:
•Principle: Piezoelectric sensors use materials like quartz or certain ceramics that generate an electrical charge
when mechanically deformed under pressure. The piezoelectric effect causes a charge to develop on the surface
of the material, which is directly proportional to the applied pressure. The generated charge can be measured
and converted into a pressure reading.
•Applications: Suitable for high-pressure or dynamic environments, such as measuring combustion pressure in
engines, hydraulic systems, or detecting vibrations and shocks in industrial applications.
3.4. Resonant Pressure Sensors:
•Principle: These sensors use the change in the resonant frequency of a material (usually a silicon membrane) as
pressure is applied. The pressure-induced stress on the resonator changes its frequency, and this change can be
measured to determine the pressure.
•Applications: High-precision measurements, often used in scientific research, aerospace, and industrial process
control.
3.5. Optical Pressure Sensors:
•Principle: Optical sensors use the deflection or movement of a diaphragm under pressure to change the
characteristics of light (such as intensity or phase) transmitted through a fiber optic system. The change in light
properties can be detected and correlated with the pressure applied to the sensor.
•Applications: Used in environments where electronic sensors might not work, such as in high-voltage applications
or areas with strong electromagnetic interference (EMI).
3.6. Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors:
•Principle: Piezoresistive sensors measure the change in electrical resistance of a material (usually silicon) when
it is subjected to mechanical stress due to pressure. These sensors are often implemented as part of
microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). When pressure is applied, the resistance changes, and this change is
measured to determine the pressure.
•Applications: Widely used in automotive sensors (e.g., manifold air pressure), medical devices, and consumer
electronics (e.g., smartphones, wearable devices).
3.7. Manometers:
•Principle: Manometers are simple pressure-measuring devices that use a liquid column to measure pressure.
The height of the liquid in a U-shaped tube changes in response to pressure differences, and this height can be
used to calculate the pressure based on the density of the liquid.
•Applications: Used in laboratory experiments, HVAC systems, and barometric pressure measurement.
 3.8. Vacuum Pressure Sensors (Vacuum Gauges):
•Principle: These sensors measure low pressures or vacuum levels. They can use various mechanisms such as
capacitance, ionization, or thermal conductivity to detect the small changes in pressure in a vacuum environment.
•Applications: Used in vacuum systems, semiconductor manufacturing, and space technology.

Ionization Gauges
Pirani Gauge

measurement range: 10 ÷ 10-4 Torr measurement range: 10-2 ÷ 10-11 Torr

measurement range: 1000 ÷ 10-4 Torr