Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
1
 Introduction to
Qualitative Research

2
About the course
Qualitative research methods serve to explore
the grey areas that remain outside the confines
of quantitative predictive research in human
behavior. Training in qualitative research is
absolutely essential to understand and explore
the dynamic nature of the society in which we
function. This course introduces students to
qualitative research and helps them understand
how qualitative research supplements
quantitative inquiry in human behavior and the
social sciences.
3
What will we study?

4
Week 1: Introduction to qualitative
research
n Introduction
n The Qualitative Researcher
n Quantitative vs. qualitative research
n History of qualitative research
n The process of qualitative research

5
Weeks 2 & 3: Major paradigms & perspectives
n Dominant paradigms of qualitative research
n Interpretivist thinking
n Verstehen
n Constructivism
n Properties of constructions
n Constructivism: Sub paradigms
n Criticisms of interpretivism & constructivism
n Critical theory
n Characteristics of critical theory
n Critiques of critical theory
6
Weeks 4 & 5: Strategies of inquiry
n Introduction to qualitative inquiry
n Qualitative research design
n Ethnography
n Autoethnography
n Case studies
n Analyzing interpretive practice
n Grounded Theory
n Participatory Action Research

7
Weeks 6 & 7: Methods of collecting &
analyzing empirical materials
n Observations
n Interviewing
n Interpretation of documents & material culture
n Images & visual methods
n Autoethnography, personal narrative &
reflexivity
n Analyzing talk & text
n Data management & analysis methods
n Software & qualitative research
8
Week 8: Interpretation, evaluation &
presentation
n The problem of criteria
n Interpretation
n Writing
n Evaluation and social programs
n Qualitative research and social policy
n Conclusion

9
 What this course is not
n A prescription
n A substitute for a textbook
n A complete summary of the entire field of
qualitative research

10
 Bottomline …
n This course is a stimulus to help you get
interested in the field of qualitative research.
n Get the ideas from here and explore as much
as you like J

11
Thank You
12
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
13
What does qualitative research
involve? (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
n “Qualitative research involves the studied use
and collection of a variety of empirical materials
– case study, personal experience,
introspective, life story, interview, observational,
historical, interactional, and visual texts – that
describe routine and problematic moments and
meanings in individuals’ lives.”

14
What do qualitative researchers study?
(Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)

n “Qualitative researchers study things in their

natural settings, attempting to make sense of,
or interpret, phenomena in terms of the
meanings people bring to them.”

15
 The qualitative researcher as a
bricoleur (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
n “The qualitative researcher as a bricoleur uses the
tools of his or her methodological trade, deploying
whatever strategies, methods, or empirical
materials are at hand. (Becker, 1989). If new tools
have to be invented, or pieced together, then the
researcher will do this. The choice of which tools to
use, which research practices to employ, is not set
in advance. The ‘choice of research practices
depends upon the questions that are asked, and
the questions depend on their context’ (Nelson et
al., 1992, p.2), what is available in the context, and
what the researcher can do in that setting.”
16
Characteristics of the qualitative
researcher as a bricoleur (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
n Ability to perform “… a large number of diverse
tasks ranging from interviewing to observing, to
intperpreting personal & historical documents, to
intensive self-reflection and introspection.”
n Ability and willingness to read a lot and understand
the connections between “… the many interpretive
paradigms (feminism, Marxism, cultural studies,
constructivism, etc.) that can be brought to any
particular problem.”
n Ability to “…work together and between competing
and overlapping perspectives and paradigms.” 17
Characteristics of the qualitative
researcher as a bricoleur (Contd.)
(Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
n Understanding that “… research is an interactive
process shaped by his or her personal history,
biography, gender, social class, race, and
ethnicity, and those of the people in the setting.”
n Knowing that “…science is power, for all research
findings have political implications.”
n Acknowledging, accepting, and understanding that
“… researchers all tell stories about the worlds
they have studied. Thus the narratives, or stories,
scientists tell are accounts couched and framed
within specific storytelling traditions, often defined
as paradigms (e.g., positivism, postpositivism,
constructivism, etc.)”. 18
What do qualitative researchers as
bricoleurs produce? (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
n “… a bricolage, a complex, dense, reflexive,
collagelike creation that represents the
researcher’s images, understandings, and
interpretations of the world or phenomena
under analysis. This bricolage will […] connect
the parts to the whole, stressing the meaningful
relationships that operate in the situations and
social worlds studied (Weinstein & Weinstein,
1991, p.”
19
Thank You
20
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
21
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Research

22
 Uses of positivism (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
“In the positivist version, it is contended that there is a reality out there to
be studied, captured, and understood, whereas postpositivists argue
that reality can never be fully apprehended, only approximated
(Guba, 1990, p.22).”

Qualitative researchers, initially relied on positivist interpretations of the

data they collected, but increasingly they use positivist interpretations
to situate their findings and then move on to the more abstract, more
abstract, ‘not-knowing-everything’ kind of context, i.e. post-positivist
understanding which indicates that by knowing ‘x’, I realize how much
more there is that I do not know and need to find out.

Quantitative researchers want to be sure of everything. They want to

know where one thing ends and the other begins. They want to
quantify everything. Qualitative researchers realize that they may
never know all there is to know.

Similar to continuous and discrete series. 23

Acceptance of postmodern sensibilities
(Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
“These researchers seek alternative methods of evaluating their work,
including verisimilitude, caring, political praxis, multivoiced texts, and
dialogues with subjects. In response, positivists and postpositivists
argue that what they do is good science, free of individual bias and
subjectivity; as noted above, they see postmodernism as an attack on
reason and truth.”

Quantitative researchers believe that there is a way in which all human

beings can collect the same kind of data in the exact same manner
irrespective of their intra and interpersonal environments.
Qualitative researchers accept that the collection and interpretation of
data is confined within the limitations of human behaviour, that
human behaviour, personal attitudes, human emotions, personal
preferences, etc. limit the amount of attention we place on the data
we collect and what we human beings filter out as sense-making
information from the information that does not make any sense to us.
24
Capturing the individual’s point of view
(Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
“Qualitative investigators think that they can get closer to the
actor’s perspective through detailed interviewing and
observation. They argue that quantitative researchers
seldom are able to capture the subject’s perspective because
they have to rely on more remote, inferential empirical
materials. The empirical materials produced by the softer,
interpretive methods are regarded by many quantitative
researchers as unreliable, impressionistic, and not objective.”

Qualitative researchers feel that the mere act of quantifying

perspectives in an attempt to fit them into predetermined
categories (or create new categories for them), leads to the
loss of unique perspectives and capturing of the unique
characteristics of each individual being that is under study
(just because they do not fit into predetermined categories).
25
 Examining the constraints of everyday
life (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
Quantitative researchers “... see this world in action and embed
their findings in it.[…] Quantitative researchers abstract from
this world and seldom study it directly. They seek a
nomothetic or etic science based on probabilities derived
from the study of large numbers of randomly selected cases.
[…] Qualitative researchers are committed to an emic,
idiographic, case-based position, which directs their attention
to the specifics of particular cases.”

Quantitative and qualitative researchers study different things at

different levels. Quantitative researchers study things from
an outsider’s perspective, they study classes or categories of
subjects (nomothetic) as outsiders. Qualitative researchers
study as insiders the uniqueness of individual characteristics
(idiographic) that lie outside the boundaries of categorization.
26
Securing rich descriptions (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
“Qualitative researchers believe that rich descriptions of the social
world are valuable, whereas quantitative researchers, with their etic,
nomothetic commitments, are less concerned with such detail.”

Qualitative researchers look for explanatory information in the

descriptions surrounding individual entities, events and phenomena.
They seek to supplement the information generated as a result of
categorization and generalization with unique descriptions of entities,
phenomena and individuals that have been categorized. They seek
to highlight those aspects of individual entities, phenomena and
individuals that have been pruned as a result of fitting them into
categories. e.g. the question ‘Who are you?’ or ‘Where are you
from?’ was relatively easier to answer some decades ago when
people were not so mobile. But now, it has become so difficult. ‘What
is my identity?’ ‘Who am I to myself and to others? – Himachali,
Punjabi, non resident Himachali or Punjabi, Bengalized Himachali, or
just plain Indian, or better still, confused Indian? 27
Thank You
28
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
29
History of qualitative
research

30
The First Moment (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
The Traditional Period: Early 1900s to World War II

Focus: Researchers “… were concerned with offering

valid, reliable, and objective interpretations in their
writings. […] The other who was studied was alien,
foreign and strange”

“The field worker during this period, was lionized, made

into larger than life figure who went into and then
returned from the field with stories about strange
people.”

This period was also called the period of the Lone

Ethnographer.
31
 The Modernist Phase (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
Post World War II to the 1970s

Focus: Formalization of qualitative methods.

32
The Period of Blurred Genres
(Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)

n 1970s to 1986
n The central task of theory was to make sense out of a
local situation [in light of what one already knew!
Otherwise how would one make ‘sense’ out of it???]”
n So, the purpose of research and theorizing was to
connect the new information one discovered to the old
information and knowledge one already had without
which the new information that one discovered would
likely be meaningless.
n The purpose was to situate the new in the old…
n The question that came to be asked again and again
was, ‘What is qualitative research and how do we
connect it to what we already know about research?’
33
 Crisis of representation (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
n “In writing, the field-worker makes a claim to moral and
scientific authority. These claims allow to function as sources
of validation for an empirical science. They show, that is, that
the world of real lived experience can still be captured, if only
in the writer’s memoirs, fictional experimentations, or
dramatic readings. […] As a series of writings, the field
worker’s texts flow from the field experience, through
intermediate works, to later work, and finally to the research
text that is the public presentation of the ethnographic and
narrative experience. Thus do fieldwork and writing blur into
one another. There is, in the final analysis, no difference
between writing and fieldwork.”

n Writing is an interpretation of fieldwork - fieldwork guides

writing, and writing an understanding of the fieldwork that has
been conducted, then guides further fieldwork that can
continue making sense in line of what has already made
sense in light of past knowledge. 34
 A double crisis (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
n “ A double crisis of representation and legitimation
confronts qualitative researchers in the social sciences.
This linguistic turn makes problematic two key
assumptions of qualitative research.”

¨ Representational crisis: “… qualitative researchers can

directly capture lived experience.”

¨ Legitimation crisis: “… involves a serious rethinking of such

terms as validity, generalizability, and reliability […] This
crisis asks, ‘How are qualitative studies to be evaluated in
the poststructural moment?’ ”

“…any representation must now legitimate itself in terms of

some set of criteria that allows the author (and the reader) to
make connections between the text and the world written
35
about.”
 The Fifth Moment (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
n “The present, defined and shaped by the dual crises
described above […]
n Theories are now read in narrative terms as ‘tales of the
field’.
n Preoccupations with the representation of the ‘other’
remain. New epistemologies from previously silenced
groups emerge to offer solutions to this problem.
n The concept of the aloof researcher has been
abandoned.
n More action-, activist-oriented research is on the
horizon, as are more social criticism and social critique.
n The search for grand narratives will be replaced by more
local, small-scale theories fitted to specific problems and
specific situations (Lincoln, 1993).” 36
Thank You
37
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
38
 The Process of
Qualitative Research

39
The perspective
Self and other – The act/ process of
research assumes that the self is divorced
from the other and it is by virtue of this
divorce or detachment that one is
expected to achieve objectivity. However,
qualitative research goes a step further
and accepts the self as an undetachable
part of the process of research.
40
Phase 1: The researcher as a
multicultural subject (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
The researcher acknowledges where one is
coming from and accepts oneself as rooted in
n history and research traditions
n conceptions of the self and other
n ethics and politics of research

The researcher identifies each of the above and

factors them into the perspectives where the
assumptions for one’s research question,
design, analyses and interpretations emerge. 41
 Phase 2: Interpretive paradigms
(Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)

Ontology
(“What kind of being is the human being?
What is the nature of reality?)
+
Epistemology
(“What is the relationship between the inquirer and the known?)
+
Methodology
(“How do we know the world or gain knowledge of it?”)
=
Paradigm
(“Interpretive framework or ‘a basic set of beliefs that guide
action’ ”)
42
Phase 3: Strategies of inquiry & interpretive
paradigms (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
n Research design: “…what information most appropriately will
answer specific research questions, and which strategies are
most effective for obtaining it?” (LeCompte & Preissle, 1993, p. 30, in Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)

Purposes of a research design

¨ “… a flexible set of guidelines that connects theoretical paradigms
to strategies of inquiry and methods for collecting empirical
material
¨ “… situates researchers in the empirical world and connects them
to specific sites, persons, groups, institutions, and bodies of
relevant interpretive material, including documents and archives.”
¨ “… specifies how the investigator will address the two critical
issues of representation and legitimation.”

43
Phase 3: Strategies of inquiry & interpretive
paradigms (Contd.) (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
n Strategy of inquiry: “…comprises a bundle of skills,
assumptions, and practices that researchers
employ as they move from their paradigm to the
empirical world.”

Purposes of strategies of inquiry

¨ “… put paradigms of interpretation into motion.”
¨ “… connect the researcher to specific methods of
collecting and analyzing empirical materials.”
¨ “…implement and anchor paradigms in specific
empirical sites, or in specific methodological practices,
such as making a case an object of study.”
44
Phase 4: Methods of collecting & analyzing
empirical materials (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)
n Participative (participant observation,
ethnography, interviewing, etc.) and non-
participative methods (non-participant
observation, analysis of secondary data, etc.) of
data collection
n Data management and storage
n Data analysis

45
 Phase 5: The art of interpretation
(Denzin & Lincoln, 1994)

n “The researcher first creates a field text consisting

of field notes and documents from the field
(indexing/ filework).”
n “The writer-as-interpreter moves from this text to a
research text: notes and interpretations based on
the field text.”
n “This text is then re-created as a working
interpretive document that contains the writer’s
initial attempts to make sense out of what he or
she has learned.”
n “Finally, the writer produces the public text that
comes to the reader.”
46
Thank You
47
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
48
 What is a Paradigm? (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

n A set of beliefs that a researcher uses to guide

the research process
n A worldview rooted in
¨ the researcher’s training in the research process
¨ The researcher’s experiences with the context in
which the research process is going to take place
¨ The researcher’s personal belief system about the
research process (why, how, etc.)

49
Cornerstones of a paradigm (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

n Ethics (Axiology): “How will I be as a moral

person in the world?”
n Epistemology: “How do I know the world? What
is the relationship between the knower & the
known?”
n Ontology: “What is the nature of reality, & the
nature of the human being in the world?”
n Methodology: “What is the best means for
gaining knowledge about the world?”
50
 Introduction to the
dominant paradigms of
qualitative research

51
 Positivism (Schwandt, 1997)

n “A term coined by August Comte (1798-1857)

indicating a philosophy of strict empiricism – the
only genuine or legitimate knowledge claims
are those that are founded directly on
experience. Comte sought to advance the
project of ‘positive knowledge’ by distinguishing
this kind of dependable empirical knowledge
from claims made by theology & metaphysics.”

52
 Characteristics of Positivism
(Schwandt, 1997; Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

n Ontology: Naïve realism: Our senses are our primary

windows to the world. We perceive the world directly.
n Epistemology: The findings we are dealing with are true
because they are rooted in empirical inquiry. Anyone
can check them!
n Methodology: Experimentation, validation, verification –
quantitative methods
n Aim of inquiry: Primarily “explanation, prediction &
control”
n Goodness or quality criteria: “Conventional benchmarks
of ‘rigor’; internal & external validity, reliability &
objectivity”
n Type of narration: “Scientific report” 53
Post-positivism (Schwandt, 1997)

“Postpositivists argue that the best we can do is

to develop contingent, fallible knowledge
claims.”

54
 Characteristics of postpositivism
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

n Ontology: “Critical realism – ‘real’ reality but only imperfectly

& probabilistically apprehendable”
n Epistemology: What we have found may or may not be true.
Everything cannot be verified. What we have discovered is
likely to be true.
n Methodology: “Modified experimental […] may include
qualitative methods.”
n Aim of inquiry: Primarily “explanation, prediction & control”
n Goodness or quality criteria: “Conventional benchmarks of
‘rigor’; internal & external validity, reliability & objectivity”
n Type of narration: “Scientific report”
55
 Constructivism
n “… a philosophical perspective interested in the
ways in which human beings individually and
collectively interpret or construct the social and
psychological world in specific linguistic, social,
and historical contexts.” (Schwandt, 1997)
n “The constructivist paradigm assumes a
relativist ontology (there are multiple realities),
a subjectivist epistemology (knower &
respondent cocreate understandings), & a
naturalistic (in the natural world) set of
methodological procedures.” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)
56
 Characteristics of constructivism
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

n Ontology: “Relativism – local & specific

constructed realities”
n Epistemology: “ Transaction/ subjective;
created findings”
n Methodology: “Hermeneutic/ dialectic”
n Aim of inquiry: “Understanding; reconstruction”
n Goodness or quality criteria: “Trustworthiness &
authenticity”
n Narration: “Interpretive case studies” 57
 Critical theory (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

n Focuses on in depth and thorough

understanding of the connection between
assumptions, description, and explanations,
and challenges current beliefs in doing so.
n Emerged out of Marxism
n Frankfurt School:
¨ Prof. Herbert Marcuse:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=2pzfy2izu44&list=PLB8AFCE7A127FABAF

58
 Characteristics of critical theory
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

n Ontology: “Historical realism – virtual reality shaped by

social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic, & gender
values crystallized over time.”
n Epistemology: “Transactional/ subjectivist, value
mediated findings.”
n Methodology: “Dialogic/ dialectic”
n Aim of inquiry: “Critique & transformation; restitution &
emancipation”
n Goodness or quality criteria: “Historical situatedness;
erosion of ignorance & misapprehension; action
stimulus”
n Narration: “Historical, economic, sociocultural analyses”
59
Thank You
60
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
61
Constructivist, Interpretivist
Approaches to Human Inquiry
(Schwandt, 1994)

62
What does a constructivist/
interpretivist do? (Schwandt, 1994)
“The constructivist or interpretivist believes that
to understand this world of meaning one must
interpret it. The inquirer must elucidate the
process of meaning construction and clarify
what and how meanings are embodied in the
language and actions of social actors.”

63
Interpretivist
Thinking
(Schwandt, 1994)

64
 Challenges (Schwandt, 2014)
n Objectivity
n How does one study the subjective human experience and
still “…avoid the subjectivity and error of naïve inquiry
through the judicious use of [a standardized, scientifically
proven and acceptable] method”?
n “We do not simply live out our lives in time and through
language; rather, we are our history. The fact that language
and history are both the condition and the limit of
understanding is what makes the process of meaning
construction hermeneutical.” (Schwandt, 1994)
[hermeneutics: “art, theory and philosophy of the interpretation of meaning of an object (a text, a
work of art, human action, the utterances of another speaker, and so on)”] (Schwandt, 1997).

n Maintenance of the uniqueness of human inquiry:

Explanation (scientific inquiry) vs. understanding
(hermeneutics)
65
 Responses to these challenges
(Schwandt, 1994)
n “… a synthesis between social realism [depiction of real life through
art form, primarily painting] and constructivism [how it is represented
and perceived by people who are affected by it]” Hammersly (1992a,
1992b) .
n – The use of well-defined methods (LeCompte & Preissle,1993, and Kirk & Miller,
1986) in order to
¨ Eliminate error (John K Smith,1989)
¨ “…avoid the subjectivity and error of naïve inquiry through the judicious
use of method” (John K Smith,1989)
n “A third response is to deny the opposition of subjectivity and
objectivity and overcome it by fully accepting the hermeneutical
character of existence.”
¨ “The third interpretivist position assumes that the defining characteristic
of an ontological hermeneutics is that linguisticality and historicality are
constitutive of being human (Wachterhauser, 1986). In other words, we do not
simply live out our lives in time and through language; rather we are our
history. The fact that that language and history are both the condition
and the limit of understanding is what makes the process of meaning
construction hermeneutical.” 66
Thank You
67
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
68
 Verstehen
(Pronunciation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SXiQf_pV8r0)

69
 What is Verstehen?
“Verstehen is a German term that means to
understand, perceive, know, and comprehend
the nature and significance of a phenomenon.
To grasp or comprehend the meaning intended
or expressed by another. Weber used the term
to refer to the social scientist's attempt to
understand both the intention and the context of
human action.”

Source: http://www.faculty.rsu.edu/users/f/felwell/www/Theorists/Weber/Whome2.htm retrieved

28th September, 2016
70
Verstehen clarified (Schwandt, 1994)
n Verstehen is “…not an attempt by the inquirer ‘to get
inside the head of another’ to understand the context the
other was rooted in.”
n Verstehen refers to our understanding of the world that
is a result of our experience with it. (Schutz, 1967, in Schwandt, 1994)
n “According to Schutz (1967), Verstehen could also be
explored as an epistemological problem. […] Verstehen
is the grounds from which all inquiry starts and from
within which it can only be carried out.”
n Verstehen as a process:
¨ “…the process by which we make sense or interpret our
everyday world.”
¨ “…the process by which the social scientist attempts to
make sense of the first.” – they ‘why’ of interpretations, and
interconnectedness and situatedness of interpretations
71
Types of hermeneutical interpretations
of verstehen (Schwandt, 1994)

n Objective, validation hermeneutics: “It assumes that

meaning is a determinate, objectlike entity waiting to
be discovered in a text, a culture, or the mind of a
social actor.”
n Ontological hermeneutics: “Taylor (1971, 1987) […]
claims that if our interpretations seem implausible or if
they are not understood by our interlocuters, ‘there is
no verification procedure we can fall back on. We can
only continue to offer interpretations; we are in an
interpretive circle’ (P. 75)”
72
 Examples of Interpretivist Persuasions
(Schwandt, 1994)

n Clifford Geertz – Interpretive theory of culture.

¨ “The structuralist program is firmly rooted in the logical
empiricists’ bid to find the ‘real’ meaning of myth,
ceremony, and other cultural artifacts.
¨ For the structuralist, the categories and structures of
culture provide powerful explanatory devices accounting
for the behaviours of members of a group or society.
¨ Structural – functional research frameworks are
reductionist in that they claim to discover the one true
interpretation lying behind or beneath the complexity of
appearances.”
¨ e.g.‘What makes Indians happy?’ or ‘How are Indian
households structured?’, etc.
73
 Examples of Interpretivist Persuasions (Contd.)
(Schwandt, 1994)

n George Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer: Symbolic

Interactionism
Premises:
¨ “… human beings act toward the physical objects and other
beings in their environment on the basis of the meanings that
these things have for them.”
¨ “… these meanings derive from the social interaction
(communication, broadly understood) between and among
individuals. Communication is symbolic because we communicate
via languages and other symbols; further in communicating we
create or produce significant symbols.”
¨ “… these meanings are established and modified through an
interpretive process: ‘The actor selects, checks, suspends,
regroups, and transforms the meanings in light of the situation in
which he is placed and the direction of his action … meanings are
used and revised as instruments for the guidance and formation of
action.’ [Blumer, 1969, in Schwandt, 1994]” 74
 Examples of Interpretivist Persuasions
(Schwandt, 1994)

n Clifford Geertz – Interpretive theory of culture.

¨ “The structuralist program is firmly rooted in the logical
empiricists’ bid to find the ‘real’ meaning of myth,
ceremony, and other cultural artifacts.
¨ For the structuralist, the categories and structures of
culture provide powerful explanatory devices accounting
for the behaviours of members of a group or society.
¨ Structural – functional research frameworks are
reductionist in that they claim to discover the one true
interpretation lying behind or beneath the complexity of
appearances.”
¨ e.g.‘What makes Indians happy?’ or ‘How are Indian
households structured?’, etc.
75
 What do symbolic interactionists do?
(Blumer, 1969, in Schwandt, 1994)

n They “…[regard] human beings as purposive agents.

[who] engage in ‘minded’, self-reflexive behaviour (Blumer,
1969, p. 81); [who] confront a world that they must interpret in

order to act rather than a set of environmental stimuli to

which they are forced to respond.”
n They pay “…careful attention to the overt behaviours
and behaviour settings of actors and their interaction.”
n “Symbolic interactionism requires that the inquirer
actively enter the worlds of people being studied in order
to ‘see the situation as it is seen by the actor, observing
what the actor takes into account, observing how he
interprets what is taken into account’ (p. 56)”
76
 Examples of Interpretivist Persuasions (Contd.)
(Schwandt, 1994)

n Interpretive interactionism (Denzin,1992):

“… interpretive interactionism must explicitly
engage in cultural criticism.”
¨ (a) ‘aims to always subvert the meaning of a text, to
show how its dominant and negotiated meanings can
be opposed’,
¨ (b) ‘expose[s] the ideological and political meanings that
circulate within the text, particularly those which hide or
displace racial, class, ethnic and gender biases’; and
¨ (c) ‘analyze[s] how texts address the problems of
presence, lived experience, the real and its
representations, and the issues of subjects, authors,
and their intentionalities’ (p. 151).” 77
Thank You
78
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
79
Constructivism

80
 What is constructivism? (Schwandt, 1997)

n Definition (Schwandt, 1997): “… a philosophical

perspective interested in the ways in which
human beings individually and collectively
interpret or construct the social and
psychological world in specific linguistic, social,
and historical contexts.”

n “Constructivists hold that knowledge of the

world is not a simple reflection of what there is,
but a set of social artifacts; a reflection of what
we make of what is there.” (Schwandt, 1997)
81
Constructivists inquire into the natural
occurrence of phenomena, not the
categorizable, rule-driven ‘should be’ ways of
the occurrence of phenomena and events, but
the real, dynamic, unpredictable, natural
dance between the ways of occurrence, and
understanding of the ways of occurrence of
phenomena. (Schwandt, 1994)

82
Constructivists believe … (Schwandt, 1997)

n “That knowledge and truth are created, not discovered by

mind.”
n “… learners construct understanding. They do not simply mirror
and reflect what they are told or what they read. Learners look
for meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events
of the world even in the absence of full or complete
information.” (Bodner, 1986)
n In the pluralistic character of reality: “… reality is expressible in
a variety of symbol and language systems;
n In the plastic character of reality: “… reality is stretched and
shaped to fit purposeful acts of intentional human agents.”
n “… contrary to common sense, there is no unique ‘real world’
that pre-exists and is independent of human mental activity and
human symbolic language.”
83
“… constructionists are concerned above all
with the production and organization of
differences, and they therefore reject the
idea that any essential or natural givens
precede the process of social
determination.” (Fuss, 1989, in Schwandt, 1997)

84
Goodman’s constructivist philosophy
(Schwandt, 1997)

n “Through our nonverbal and verbal symbol

systems we create many versions of the world in
the sciences, the arts, and the humanities.” (Goodman,
1984, in Schwandt, 1997)

n “… worldmaking as we know it always starts from

worlds already on hand, the making is a
remaking” (Goodman, 1978, p. 6, in Schwandt, 1997)
n “These ‘remakings’ are not simply different
interpretations of the same world, but literally
different world versions.” (Schwandt, 1997)
n “Stated somewhat differently, our frames of
interpretation (versions) belong both to what is
interpreted (worlds) and to a system of 85
interpretation.” (Schwandt, 1997)
 Goodman’s constructivist philosophy
(Contd.) (Schwandt, 1997)

n “Rightness is defined as an act of fitting and working but

‘not a fitting onto – a correspondence or matching or
mirroring of independent Reality – but a fitting into a
context or discourse or standing complex of other
symbols’ (Goodman, 1984, p. 158, in Schwandt, 1997).
n “… cognition is reconceptualised as the advancement of
understanding wherein we begin ‘from what happens to
be currently adopted and proceed to integrate &
organize, weed out & supplement, not in order to arrive
at truth about something already made but in order to
make something right – to construct something that
works cognitively, that fits together & handles new
cases, that may implement further inquiry &
invention’.” (Goodman, 1984, p. 163, in Schwandt, 1997)
86
Thank You
87
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
88
Constructivist inquiry (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, in Schwandt, 1994)

n “The act of inquiry begins with issues and/ or

concerns of participants and unfolds through a
‘dialectic’ of iteration, analysis, critique, reiteration,
reanalysis, and so on that leads eventually to a
joint (among inquirer and respondents)
construction of a case (i.e. findings or outcomes).
n The joint constructions that issue from the activity
of inquiry can be evaluated for their ‘fit’; with the
data and information they encompass; the extent
to which they ‘work’, that is, provide a credible
level of understand; and the extent to which they
have ‘relevance’; and are ‘modifiable’.”
89
Properties of constructions
(Guba & Lincoln, 1989, in Schwandt, 1994)

n “Constructions are attempts to make sense of or to

interpret experience, and most are self-sustaining
and self-renewing.
n The nature or quality of a construction that can be
held depends upon ‘the range or scope of
information available to a constructor, and the
constructor’s sophistication in dealing with that
information’ (p. 71)
n Constructions are extensively shared, and some of
those shared are ‘disciplined constructions,’ that is
collective and systematic attempts to come to
common agreements about a state of affairs, for
example, science (p.71)” 90
Properties of constructions (Contd.)
(Guba & Lincoln, 1989, in Schwandt, 1994)

n “Although all constructions must be considered meaningful,

some are rightly labelled ‘malconstruction’ because they are
‘incomplete, simplistic, uninformed, internally inconsistent, or
derived by an inadequate methodology’ (p. 143)
n The judgment of whether a given construction is malformed
can be made only with reference to the ‘paradigm out of
which the constructor operates’ (p. 143); in other words,
criteria or standards are framework specific, ‘so for instance
a religious construction can only be judged adequate or
inadequate utilizing the particular theological paradigm from
which it is derived’ (p. 143)
n One’s constructions are challenged when one becomes
aware the new information conflicts with the held
construction or when one senses a lack of intellectual
sophistication needed to make sense of new information.”91
 Types of constructivism
n Radical constructivism:
¨ Ernst von Glasersfeld (1991, in Schwandt, 1994):
n “… we cannot know such a thing as an independent,
objective world that stands apart from our experience of
it. Hence we cannot speak of knowledge as somehow
corresponding to, mirroring, or representing that world.”
Knowledge acquires its status only by virtue of fitting in
the world it is created in.
n “Knowledge is good if and when it works, if and when it
allows us to achieve our goals.” (Bodner, 1986)
n “The relationship between knowledge and reality is
instrumental, not verificative: To know is ‘to possess ways
and means of acting and thinking that allow one to attain
the goals one happens to have chosen’.” 92
 Radical constructivism (Contd.)
(Schwandt, 1997)

n Piaget (1896-1980, in Schwandt, 1997) – “…

knowledge of the world is mediated by cognitive
structures […] [and these structures are]
products of a process of construction resulting
from interaction of mind and environment.”

93
 Types of constructivism (Contd.)
n Social constructionism:
¨ Dialogue between the researcher and the
participants facilitates “… a process of continuous
reflexivity, thereby ‘enabling new forms of linguistic
reality to emerge’.” (Gergen & Gergen, 1991, p. 88, in Schwandt, 1994)
¨ “The overall aim of this approach is ‘to expand and
enrich the vocabulary of understanding’.” (Gergen &
Gergen, 1991, in Schwandt, 1994)

¨ “… the goal of constructivist inquiry is to achieve a

consensus (or, failing that, an agenda for
negotiation) on issues and concerns that define the
nature of the inquiry.” (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, in Schwandt, 1994) 94
Thank You
95
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
96
 A constructivist paradigm
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985, in Schwandt, 1994)

n “…what is real is a construction in the minds of

individuals.”
n Pluralism: “…There are multiple, often
conflicting, constructions, and all (at least
potentially) are meaningful.”
n Relativism: “… the question of whether
constructions are true is sociohistorically
relative. Truth is a matter of the best-informed
and most sophisticated construction on which
there is consensus at a given time.” 97
 A constructivist paradigm (Contd.)
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985, in Schwandt, 1994)

n Observer-observed relationship:
¨ “… the observer cannot (should not) be neatly
disentagled from the observed in the activity of
inquiring into constructions.
¨ “…the findings or outcomes of an inquiry are
themselves a literal creation or construction of the
inquiry process.”
¨ “Constructions, in turn, are resident in the minds of
individuals: ‘They do not exist outside of the
persons who create and hold them; they are not
part of some ‘objective’ world that exists apart from
their constructors’.” (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, p.143, in Schwandt, 1994)
98
 Constructivism: Sub-paradigms
(Moshman, 1982)

n Exogenous constructivism
n Endogenous constructivism
n Dialectical constructivism

99
Exogenous constructivism (Moshman, 1982)

n : “… emphasizes the reconstruction of

structures preformed in the environment.”
n “Structures of knowledge are adequate or ‘true’
to the extent that they accurately copy (or at
least adapt or accommodate to) the external
structures that they ideally represent.”

100
Endogenous constructivism (Moshman, 1982)

n “… emphasizes the coordination of previous

organismic structures.”
n “… internal construction of new knowledge from
old.”
n “The whole […] determines and explains the
functioning of the parts more than vice versa.”

101
Endogenous constructivism (Contd.)
(Moshman, 1982)

n “Since each structure is constructed endogenously

from earlier structures, rather than from information
provided by the environment, the structures follow
one another in predictable, invariant sequences,
though without causally linked in the sense of a
direct antecedent-consequent relation.”
n “Endogenously constructed structures do not, even
in principle, represent anything in the environment;
their adaptation to that environment is a by-product
of their intrinsic organization.”
102
 Dialectical constructivism (Moshman, 1982)

n “… emphasizes the construction of new

structures out of organism/ environment
interaction.”
n “… exogenous learning [and] endogenous
development […] exist in a relation of reciprocal
constraint & facilitation.”

103
Dialectical constructivism (Contd.)
(Moshman, 1982)

n “… the source of all knowledge lies in the

continuing interactions between organism &
environment, neither of which can simply
impose itself on the other.”
n “New constructions are never true in any
absolute sense but are more adequate than
their predecessors in that they synthesize a
previous thesis & antithesis in such a way as to
incorporate & transcend both.”
104
Thank You
105
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
106
Criticisms to Interpretivism
&
Constructionism
(Schwandt, 1994)

107
The problem of criteria (Schwandt, 1994)

¨ “In the absence of some set of criteria, such

accounts are subject to the charges of solipsism
(they are only my accounts) and relativism (all
accounts are equally good or bad, worthy or
unworthy, true or false, and so on).”

108
Resolution of the problem of criteria
(Schwandt, 1994)

n Methodology: “The notion of an appeal to procedural criteria as

grounds for judging the goodness of interpretations is strong.”
n Arguments for subtle realism:
¨ “The intuition is that the truth, worth, or value of a claim, theory,
interpretation, construction, and so forth is ultimately determined by
something beyond the claim, theory, interpretations, construction.”
¨ “… there can be ‘multiple, non-contradictory descriptive and
explanatory claims about any phenomenon,’, ‘without denying that if
those interpretations are accurate they must correspond in relevant
aspects to the phenomena described’.” (Hammersley, 1992, p. 135 & 194, in Schwandt, 1994)
n “[To acknowledge] that a human inquirer is permanently engaged in
a discourse with his or her own object. […] [&] to give up the worry
about a separation of mind and world and focus instead on
intentional, meaningful behaviour that is by definition historically,
socially, and culturally relative.”

109
 The problem of
‘Descriptivism’ (Schwandt, 1994)
n “… interpretive accounts lack any critical interest or the
ability to critique the very accounts they produce.”
n “The individual-as-social scientist operates with the
attitude of the disinterested observer and abides by the
rule for evidence and objectivity within the scientific
community. Whereas the individual-as-citizen
legitimately has a practical (in a classic sense),
pragmatic, interested attitude, the individual-turned-
social-scientist brackets out that attitude and adopts the
posture of objective, disinterested, empirical theorist. […]
Critics hold that it is precisely because of this distancing
of oneself as inquirer that interpretivists cannot engage
in an explicitly critical evaluation of the social reality they
seek to portray.” 110
Criticisms to constructivism (Contd.)
(Bodner, 1986)

n "If individuals construct their own knowledge,

how can groups of people appear to share
common knowledge?“
n Resolution: “Construction is a process in which
knowledge is both built and continually tested.
Individuals are not free to construct any
knowledge, their knowledge must be viable, it
must "work".”

111
Thank You
112
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
113
Critical Theory
… questions the assumptions that form the
basis of ‘truth’, meaning, & knowledge

114
What is critical theory? (Schwandt, 1997)

n Aim: To challenge currently held beliefs

n “…rejects the idea of a disinterested social scientist, and
is oriented toward social and individual transformation”
n “Critical inquiry supports a kind of reasoning that is
practical, moral, and ethically and politically informed.”
n Focus on in depth and thorough understanding of the
connection between assumptions, description, and
explanations
n Self – reflexivity: “[critical] theory must account for its
own conditions of possibility and their transformative
effects.”
115
 What does critical theory do?
Dr. Paul Sheehan, Associate Professor,
Department of English, Macquarie University,
Sydney, Australia

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=RLVi8sHEkRs

Request for permission to use the video

submitted. Permission awaited.
116
Who is a criticalist? (Kincheloe & McLaren, 1994)

n A criticalist is defined as “… a researcher or theorist who

attempts to use her or his work as a form of social or
cultural criticism and who accepts certain basic
assumptions:
n that all thought is fundamentally mediated by power
relations that are social and historically constituted;
n that facts can never be isolated from the domain of
values or removed from some form of ideological
inscription;
n that the relationship between concept & object &
between signifier & signified is never stable or fixed & is
often mediated by the social relations of the capitalist
production & consumption”
117
Assumptions made by criticalists (Contd.)
(Kincheloe & McLaren, 1994)

n “that language is central to the formation of subjectivity

(conscious & unconscious awareness);
n that certain groups in any society are privileged over others
&, although the reasons for this privileging may vary widely,
the oppression that characterizes contemporary societies is
most forcefully reproduced when subordinates accept their
social status as natural, necessary, or inevitable;
n that oppression has many faces & that focusing on only one
at the expense of others (e.g. class oppression vs. racism)
often elides the interconnections among them; & finally,
n that mainstream research practices are generally, almost
most often unwittingly, implicated in the reproduction of
systems of class, race, & gender oppression.”
118
Critical researchers vs. traditional
researchers (Kincheloe & McLaren, 1994)

n “Whereas traditional researchers cling to the guard

rail of neutrality, critical researchers frequently
announce their partisanship in the struggle for a
better world.
n Traditional researchers see their task as the
description, interpretation, or reanimation of a slice
of reality, whereas critical researchers often regard
their work as a first step toward forms of political
action that can redress the injustices found in the
field site or constructed in the very act of research
itself.” 119
Critical researchers vs. traditional
researchers (Contd.) (Kincheloe & McLaren, 1994)

n “Critical researchers enter into an investigation

with their assumptions on the table, so no one is
confused concerning the epistemological & political
baggage they bring with them to the research site.”
n Characterized by the ability to challenge
assumptions and reflexively adjust these
assumptions based on their contextual fit
n “Critical researchers maintain that the meaning of
any experience will depend on the struggle over
the interpretation & definition of that 120
experience.” (Giroux, 1983; McLaren, 1986; Weiler, 1988, in Kincheloe & McLaren,
1994)
Thank You
121
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
122
Foundation of critical theory
(Kincheloe & McLaren, 1994)

“As Einstein & Heisenberg pointed out long ago,

what we see is not what we see but what we
perceive. The knowledge that the world yields has
to be interpreted by men & women who are a part
of that world. What we call information always
involves an act of human judgment. From a critical
perspective, this act of judgment is an interpretive
act. The interpretation of theory, critical analysts
contend, involves understanding the relationship
between the particular and the whole & between
the subject & object of analysis.” 123
 Characteristics of critical theory
(Guba & Lincoln, 1994)

n Ontology (what is studied or believed):

Historical realism: Challenging contextually and
reflexively ‘realized’ meanings of historical
‘facts’ and ‘truths’
n Epistemology (why & how do we know what we
know): Transactional & subjectivist: “What can
be known is inextricably intertwined with the
interaction between a particular investigator
and a particular object or group.”
124
Characteristics of critical theory (Contd.)
(Guba & Lincoln, 1994)

n Methodology:
¨ Dialogic & dialectical: Dialogue and discussion “…to
uncover and excavate those forms of historical and
subjugated knowledges that point to experiences of
suffering, conflict, and collective struggle; … to link
the notion of historical understanding to elements of
critique and hope’.” (Giroux, 1988, p. 213, in Guba & Lincoln, 1994,)
¨ “The inquirer is cast in the role of instigator and
facilitator, implying that the inquirer understands a
priori what transformations are needed.” but who
would know more – the inquirer or the participants
themselves …? 125
Characteristics of critical theory (Contd.)
(Guba & Lincoln, 1994)

n How does knowledge accumulate?:

¨ “… grows and changes through a dialectical
process of historical revision that continuously
erodes ignorance and misapprehensions and
enlarges more informed insights.”
¨ Generalizability is a function of similarity across a
complexity of contexts

126
Characteristics of critical theory (Contd.)
(Guba & Lincoln, 1994)

n Criteria for judging the goodness or quality of

inquiry:
¨ “Historical situatedness of the inquiry”
¨ Call to action by the inquiry “… to [facilitate/
stimulate] the transformation of the existing
structure.”

127
Characteristics of critical theory (Contd.)
(Guba & Lincoln, 1994)

n Role of values in inquiry:

¨ “[Excluding the role of values is harmful] to the
interests of the powerless and of ‘at-risk’ audiences”
n Place of ethics in inquiry:
¨ “… there is a moral tilt that the inquirer be revelatory
(in the rigorous meaning of ‘fully informed consent’)
rather than deceptive. […] these considerations do
not prevent unethical behaviour, but they do provide
some process barriers that make it more difficult.”
128
Characteristics of critical theory (Contd.)
(Guba & Lincoln, 1994)

n Role of voice
¨ “The inquirer’s voice is that of the ‘transformative
intellectual’ (Giroux, 1988, in Kincheloe & McLaren, 1994) who has
expanded consciousness and so is in a position to
confront ignorance and misapprehensions. Change
is facilitated as individuals develop greater insight
into the existing state of affairs (the nature and
extent of their exploitation) and are stimulated to act
on it.”

129
Characteristics of critical theory (Contd.)
(Guba & Lincoln, 1994)

n Implications for the training of novice inquirers:

¨ Thorough training in & understanding of both
qualitative & quantitative methods
¨ Thorough understanding of different paradigms of
qualitative research
¨ Development of a keen interest in and the grounds
for questioning what exists

130
Thank You
131
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
132
 Critiques of critical theory
n The word ‘critical’ in critical theory seems to
imply that the work outside of this paradigm is
not critical, or rigorous enough
n “Intellectualist bias arises when the researcher
is not conscious of or not sufficiently critical of
the 'presuppositions inscribed in the act of
thinking the world, of retiring from the world and
from action in the world in order to think that
action' (Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992: 39, in Karakayali, 2004). The result is
the inability to grasp the 'logic of practice’ (Bourdieu,
1977, 1990a, 1990b, in Karakayali, 2004)

133
Critiques of critical theory (Contd.)
n “'To be able to see and describe the world as it is,
you have to be ready to be always dealing with
things that are complicated, confused, impure,
uncertain, all of which runs counter to the usual
idea of intellectual rigour ' “(Bourdieu et al., 1991: 259, in Karayakali,
2004)

n “It is rather questionable that the aim of sociology,

especially of a critical kind, can simply be defined
as 'to describe the world as it is'. It is also doubtful
that 'intellectual rigour' is always opposed to com-
plexity. Adorno's (1999) 'negative dialectics' which
aim to underline the irreducibility of the 'object' to
its 'concept' would be a case in point (see also Adorno et al.,
1976: 77).”
134
Critiques of critical theory (Contd.)
n It stems from a need to liberate common people
from the injustices they are facing. But who
decides what is injustice?
n It highlights social hierarchies as a basis for the
injustices that human beings face? But social
hierarchies are a reality of society.
n Discounts the merits of capitalism
n Too pessimistic
n If we emerge out of the historical social fabric, are
we not likely to forget why we did what we did, and
possibly make the same mistakes? 135
Criticisms of critical theory (Contd.)
n It says that action is required but it fails to
provide a plan for that action.
n It aims towards an ideal. But who defines that
ideal? How do we know that no other ideal is
there? In aiming for this ideal, the practicality of
the action is missed.
n Is all this rigor towards a thorough critical
analysis really worth it?

136
Source: https://globalcenterforadvancedstudies.org/the-critique-of-critical-theory/.
Permission to use the image awaited. 137
 Applications of critical theory
n Theory of Communicative Action: Jürgen Habermas
[Source: The Epistemological Lifeboat: http://www.iva.dk/jni/lifeboat/info.asp?subjectid=34]
“Habermas situates utterances in social theory:
¨ people act when they speak to others in contexts participates recognize.
¨ The speech act behind the surface of the utterance includes
commitments or some aspect of the relationship between the
interlocutors, e.g, questioning, promising, ordering, requesting, etc. […]
¨ Communicators can assess the legitimacy of the social connection as
part of the very process of using them, but only so far as they
acknowledge each other as competent subjects. […]
¨ Discourse partners aware of the norms of behavior between them can
expect to pursue questions with the other person without necessarily
rupturing their relationship and, importantly, by receiving an answer, a
warrant, for the speaker’s claim; to “cash-in” the claim. […]
¨ discourse partners can remove the locus of attention from the surface or
semantic level to the use of the utterance between them, that is the
pragmatic level, by “decentering” the discourse.”
n Equity and justice
138
Thank You
139
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
140
Qualitative Inquiry

141
Research design (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

n “ How will the design connect to the paradigm

or prospective being used? That is, how will
empirical materials be informed by & interact
with the paradigm in question?
n How will these materials allow the researcher to
speak to the problems of praxis & change?
n Who or what will be studied?
n What strategies of inquiry will be used?
n What methods or research tools will be used for
collecting & analyzing empirical materials?”
142
Stages of research design (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

n “Reflection
n Planning
n Entry (into the field that is being studied)
n Data collection
n Withdrawal from the field
n Analysis
n Write-up”

143
 Framework of research design
(Janesick, 2000, in Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

n “Research question
n Research site
n Timeline
n Research strategy”

144
What are Strategies of Inquiry (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

n “The strategy of inquiry comprises the skills,

assumptions, enactments, & material practices
that the researcher as methodological-bricoleur
uses in moving from a paradigm & research
design to the collection of empirical materials.”
n “Strategies of inquiry connect researchers to
specific approaches & methods for collecting &
analyzing empirical materials.”

145
Strategies of Inquiry (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

n Ethnography: “Ethnography involves an ongoing

attempt to place specific encounters, events, &
understandings into a fuller, more meaningful
content […] [through] research design, fieldwork, &
various methods of inquiry […] [by drawing on]
personal experience & autobiography.” (Tedlock, 2000, in
Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

n Grounded Theory: “… in its essential form,

consists of systematic, inductive guidelines for
collecting & analyzing empirical materials to build
middle-range theoretical frameworks that explain
collected empirical materials.” (Charmaz, 2000, in Denzin & Lincoln,
2000)

146
 Strategies of inquiry (Contd.)
n Case study: “… a case is typically regarded as a
specific & bounded (in time & place) instance of a
phenomenon selected for study.” (Schwandt, 1997)

n Testimonio: “A testimonio is a novel or novella-

length narrative, produced in the form of a printed
text, told in the first person by a narrator, who is
also the real protagonist or witness of the events
he or she recounts. Its unit of narration is usually a
‘life; or a significant life experience.” (Beverly, 2000, in Denzin &
Lincoln, 2000)
147
Strategies of inquiry (Contd.)
(Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)

n Participatory Action Research (PAR): “… is an

alternative philosophy of research (& social life)
associated with liberation theology, neo-Marxist
approaches to community development, &
human rights activism.”

n “Participatory Action Researchers believe in the

shared ownership of research projects as well
as the value of community based analyses of
social problems.” 148
Thank You
149
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
150
Qualitative Research Design
as Choreography
(Janesick, 2000)

151
Qualitative researchers & Choreographers
(Janesick, 2000)

n “… situating & re-contextualizing the research project

within the shared experience of the researcher & the
participants in the study.”
n …refus[ing] to separate art [“providing a sense of the
whole of something” (Dewey, 1934/ 1958, in Janesick, 2000)] from ordinary
experience.”
n “… refus[ing] to be limited to just one approach or one
technique from […] history […] [by] us[ing] various
techniques & rigorous & tested procedures in working to
capture the nuance & complexity of the social situation
under study.”
n “… begin[ning], explicitly or implicitly, with the question,
What do I want to know [or say through] in this study [or
dance]?”
152
Stages of Qualitative Research Design
(Janesick, 2000)

1. “…warm-up, preparation, or prechoreographic

stage of design decisions at the beginning of
the study”
2. “…exploration, or tryout, & total workout stage,
when design decisions are made throughout
the study”
3. “… illumination & formulation or completion
stage, when design decisions are made at the
end or near the end of the study.”
153
Stage 1: Warm-up & Preparation
(Janesick, 2000)

1. “The questions that guide the study

2. Selection of a site & participants
3. Access & entry to the site & agreements with
participants
4. Timeline for the study
5. Selection of appropriate research strategies
6. The place of theory in the study
7. Identification of the researcher’s own beliefs & ideology
8. Identification of appropriate informed consent
procedures & willingness to deal with ethical issues as
they present themselves”
154
Assumptions in qualitative research
design (Janesick, 2000)

n “… qualitative research design is ideologically

driven.”
n Researcher bias

155
Characteristics of qualitative research
design (Janesick, 2000)

n “Qualitative design is holistic.”

n “Qualitative research is not constructed to prove
something or to control people.”
n “Qualitative design looks at relationships within
systems or cultures.”
n “Qualitative design is concerned with the personal,
face-to-face, & immediate.”
n “Qualitative design is focused on understanding
given social settings, not necessarily making
predictions about those settings.”
156
Characteristics of qualitative research
design (Contd.) (Janesick, 2000)

n “Qualitative design demands that the

researcher stay in the setting over time.”
n “Qualitative design demands time in analysis
equal to the time in the field.”
n “Qualitative design sometimes requires that the
researcher develop a model of what occurred in
the social setting.”
n Qualitative design requires the researcher to
become the research instrument.” 157
Characteristics of qualitative research
design (Contd.) (Janesick, 2000)

n “Qualitative design incorporates informed consent

decisions & is responsible to ethical concerns.”
n “Qualitative design incorporates room for description of
the role of the researcher as well as description of the
researcher’s own biases & ideological preference.”
n “Qualitative design requires the construction of an
authentic & compelling narrative of what occurred in the
study & the various stories of the participants.”
n “Qualitative research requires ongoing analysis of the
data.”
158
Stage 2: Exploration & exercises
(Janesick, 2000)

n Practice - Different from pilot study: “Stretching

exercises allow prospective qualitative
researchers to practice interview, observation,
writing, reflection, & artistic skills to refine their
research instruments, which are the
researchers themselves.”

159
When making research design decisions…
(Janesick, 2000)

n “Look for meaning, the perspectives of the

participants in the study.
n Look for relationships regarding the structure,
occurrence, & distribution of events over time.
n Look for points of tension: What does not fit?
What are the conflicting points of evidence in
the case?”

160
Stage 3: Cooling down: Illumination &
Formulation (Janesick, 2000)

n “The researcher must decide when to actually

leave the field setting.”
¨ Staggering the process of pulling out of the field
¨ Wrapping up the inquiry and data collection process
¨ Emotional considerations especially for the
participants
n Data analysis
n Data interpretation

161
 Stage 4: Narration (Janesick, 2000)

n Method of narration: “… the researcher must

find the most effective way to tell the story & to
convince the audience of the meaning of the
study.”

n Researcher involvement: “The role of the

qualitative researcher […] demands a
presence, an attention to detail, & a powerful
use of the researcher’s own mind & body in
analysis & interpretation of the data.”
162
Thank You
163
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
164
 Methodolatory (Janesick, 2000)

n Methodolatory: “A combination of method and

idolatory, [that describes] a preoccupation with
selecting & defending methods to the exclusion of
the actual substance of the story being told.”
n “Methodolatory is the idolatory of method, or a
slavish attachment & devotion to method, that so
often overtakes the discourse in the education &
human service fields.”
n Slavish preoccupation with method that takes the
researcher away, in many cases, without the
researcher realizing, from the actual meaning of
research, e.g. overuse of statistical tools. 165
“Qualitative research depends on the
presentation of solid descriptive data, so
that the researcher leads the reader to an
understanding of the meaning of the
experience under study.” (Janesick, 2000)

166
 Bracketing (Janesick, 2000)

n “The researcher uses constant comparative

analysis to look for statements & indices of
behavior that occur over time & in a variety of
periods during the study.”

167
Steps of bracketing (Denzin, 1989, in Janesick, 2000)

1. “Locate within the personal experience, or self-story,

key phrases & statements that speak directly to the
phenomenon in question.
2. Interpret the meanings of these phrases as an informed
reader.
3. Obtain the participants interpretation of these findings,
if possible.
4. Inspect these meanings for what they reveal about the
essential, recurring features of the phenomenon being
studied.
5. Offer a tentative statement or definition of the
phenomenon in terms of the essential recurring
features identified in Step 4.
168
 Inductive Analysis (Moustakis, 1990, in Janesick, 2000)

1. “…immersion in the setting”

2. “…incubation […] allows for thinking, becoming
aware of nuance & meaning in the setting, &
capturing intuitive insights, to achieve
understanding.”
3. “… illumination […] allows for expanding awareness.”
4. “… explication […] includes description & explanation
to capture the experience of individuals in the study.”
5. “… creative synthesis enables the researcher to
synthesize & bring together as a whole the
individual’s story, including the meaning of the lived
experience.” 169
 Data Triangulation (Denzin, 1978, in Janesick, 2000)

n “Data triangulation: the use of a variety of data

sources in a study;
n Investigator triangulation: the use of several
different researchers or evaluators;
n Theory triangulation: the use of multiple
perspectives to interpret a single set of data;
n Methodological triangulation: the use of multiple
methods to study a single problem.”
170
 Crystallization (Janesick, 2000)

n “Crystallization recognizes the many facets of any given

approach to the social world as a fact of life.”
n “The crystal ‘combines symmetry & substane with an
infinite variety of shapes, substances, transmutations,
multidimensionalities, & angles of approach. Crystals
grow, change, & alter, but are not amorphous’.” (Richardson,
1994, p. 522, in Janesick, 2000)

n “What we see when we view a crystal […] depends on

how we view it, how we hold it up to the light or not.”
n “Crystallization provides us with a deepened complex,
thoroughly partial, understanding of the topic.
Paradoxically, we know more & doubt what we
know” (Richardson, 1994, p. 522, in Janesick, 2000)
171
Credibility, validity & reliability (Janesick, 2000)

n “Validity in qualitative research has to do with

description & explanation & whether or not the
explanation fits the description.”
n “…qualitative researchers do not claim that there is
only one way of interpreting an event. There is no
one ‘correct’ interpretation.”
n So, how does one check? – “… [using] member
checks & audit trails” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985)
n Insist that the situation be studied in its entirety,
within its context, within its chaos, within its
complexity. 172
Thank You
173
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
174
Ethnography

175
 What is ethnography?
n “… the process & product of describing &
interpreting cultural behavior.” (Schwandt, 1997)
n “Ethnos, a Greek term, denotes a people, a race or
cultural group.” (Smith, 1989, in Vidich & Lyman, 2000)
n “When ethno as a prefix is combined with graphic
to form the term ethnographic, the reference is to
the subdiscipline known as the descriptive
anthropology – in its broadest sense, the science
devoted to describing ways of life of
humankind.” (Vidich & Lyman, 2000)
n “Ethnography, then, refers to a social scientific
description of a people & the cultural basis of their
peoplehood”. (Peacock, 1986, in Vidich & Lyman, 2000)
176
 Genres of Ethnography (Tedlock, 2000)

n Biography/ Life history:

¨ Aim: “To illuminate cultural, historical, & social facts
rather than individual lives or aspects of
personality.” (Shaw, 1930; Underhill, 1936, in Tedlock, 2000)
¨ Voice: ‘synecdoche’ – “… a rhetorical figure […] in
which a ‘representative’ individual is selected &
made to stand for an entire culture.”

177
Genres of Ethnography (Contd.) (Tedlock, 2000)

n Memoir: “… a personal document […] in which

the author takes the reader back to a corner of
the author’s own life in the field that was
unusually vivid, full of affect, or framed by
unique events.”
¨ May be documented under a pseudonym.
Reasons:
n Distancing oneself from the actual event helps with
healing
n Enhances perceived objectivity

n Enhances readability & publishability for general

readership 178
Genres of Ethnography (Contd.) (Tedlock, 2000)

n Narrative ethnography: “Overlapping of

memoirs and life histories”
¨ “… created when individuals attempted to portray
accurately the subjects of biographies but also to
include their own experience in their texts.”
¨ Ethnographic critical theory intertwines the position
of the self within the context of the other in order to
explain & emphasize why and how studying the self
can explain the tensions experienced by the general
population

179
Genres of Ethnography (Contd.) (Tedlock, 2000)

n Fictive genres:
¨ Short story
¨ Novella
¨ Play
¨ ….

n Diaries or travelogues

180
 Bottomline (Tedlock, 2000)

n “… the self and other [are] vulnerable

experiencing subjects working to coproduce
knowledge.” (Abu-Lughod, 1993, in Tedlock, 2000)
n “The observer & the observed are not entirely
separate categories.”
n “Experience is intersubjective & embodied, not
individual & fixed, but social & processual.”
n “Intersubjectivity & dialogue involve situations
where bodies marked by the social – that is, by
difference (gender, ethnicity, race) – may be
presented as partial identities.” 181
 Bottomline (Contd.) (Tedlock, 2000)

n “The experience of being [anyone] can never be singular. It

will always be dependent on a multiplicity of locations &
positions that are socially constructed.”
n “These positionings are different for each individual, as well
as for each culture that ethnographers come into contact with
as field-workers, observant participants, & collectors of life
stories.”
n “Theory is not a transparent, culture-free zone, not a duty-
free intellectual marketplace hovering between cultures,
lacking all connection to embodied, lived experience.”
n “Writing for & about the community in which one has grown
up & lived, or at least achieved some degree of insider
status, should produce engaged writing centering on the
ongoing dialectical political-personal relationship between
self & other.”
182
Thank You
183
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
184
Autoethnography

185
 What? (Ellis & Bochner, 2000)

n “Autoethnography is an autobiographical genre of writing

& research that displays multiple layers of
consciousness, connecting the personal to the cultural.
n Back & forth autoethnographers gaze, first through an
ethnographic wide-angle lens, focusing outward on
social & cultural aspects of their personal experience;
then they look inward, exposing a vulnerable self that is
moved by and may move through refract, & resist
cultural interpretations.
n As they zoom backward & forward, inward & outward,
distinctions between the personal & cultural become
blurred, sometimes beyond distinct recognition. “
186
Forms of autoethnography (Ellis & Bochner, 2000)

n “Short stories
n Poetry
n Fiction
n Novels
n Photographic essays
n Personal essays
n Journals
n Fragmented & layered writing
n Social science prose.” 187
Focus of autoethnography (Ellis & Bochner, 2000)

n “Concrete action
n Dialogue
n Emotion
n Embodiment
n Spirituality
n Self-consciousness”
“”… appearing as relational & institutional stories
affected by history, social structure, & culture,
which themselves are dialectically revealed
through action, feeling, thought, & language.” 188
Challenges faced by autoethnographers
(Ellis & Bochner, 2000)

n Narration of one’s own experiences

n Ability to understand, acknowledge, introspect and
reveal one’s own emotions, “feelings, motives, or
contradictions”
n “Confronting things about [oneself] that are less than
flattering”
n “… honest autoethnography generates a lot of fears &
doubts – and emotional pain.”
n “… [not] having any control over how readers interpret
[what you have written about what you experienced]”
n Feeling of humiliation regarding oneself and one’s family
members & loved ones 189
Methods of autoethnography (Ellis & Bochner, 2000)

n Systematic sociological introspection (Ellis, 1991)

n Biographical method (Denzin, 1989)
n Personal experience methods (Clandinin & O’Connelly, 1994)
n Feminist methods (Reinbarz, 1979)
n Narrative inquiry (Bochner, 1994)
n Consciousness-raising methods (Holloway, 1989)
n Co-constructed narrative (Bochner & Ellis, 1992)
n Interactive interviewing (Ellis, Kiesinger, & Tillmann-Healey, 1997)

190
Approaches to autoethnography
(Ellis & Bochner, 2000)

n Reflexive ethnographies:
¨ “Authors use their own experiences in the culture
reflexively to bend back on self and look more
deeply at self-other interactions.”
¨ “… the researcher’s personal experience becomes
important primarily in how it illuminates the culture
under study.”
¨ Radical empiricism: “… a process that includes the
ethnographer’s experiences & interaction with other
participants as vital parts of what is being studied.”
191
Approaches to autoethnography (Contd.)
(Ellis & Bochner, 2000)

n Native ethnographies: “Researchers who are natives of

cultures that have been marginalized or exoticized by others
write about & interpret their own cultures for others.”
¨ Complete-member researchers: “Researchers explore groups of
which they already are members or in which, during the research
process, they have become full members with complete
identification & acceptance.”
¨ Personal narratives: “Social scientists take on the dual identities of
academic & personal selves to tell autobiographical stories about
some aspect of their experience in daily life.”
¨ Literary autoethnographies: “An author’s primary identification is
as an autobiographical writer rather than a social scientist, & the
text focuses as much on examining a self autobiographically as on
interpreting a culture for a nonnative audience.”
192
 Criticisms (Ellis & Bochner, 2000)

n “Stories give life a structure it does not have

[and thus] […] fictionalize life.”
n “Personal narrative reflects or advances a
‘romantic construction of the self’ unworthy of
being classified as part of social science. […]
[and in doing so] [the] goal becomes
therapeutic rather than analytic.” (Atkinson, 1997, in Ellis &
Bochner, 2000)

193
Thank You
194
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
195
Case Studies

196
 What is a case study? (Stake, 2000)

n An in depth inquiry into a site to study a

particular phenomenon or circumstance.
n When we study a case, we explore in depth a
particular example of a phenomenon or
circumstance we want to study. Hence we
choose what we want to study.
n A case record is a product of inquiry into the
case

197
 Types of case studies (Stake, 2000)

n Intrinsic case study:

“… a case study that has been undertaken because
the researcher wants better understanding of of this
particular case.”. Hence an intrinsic case study is an
example in itself. It provides enough grounds for the
researcher to delve into and may be used to
demonstrate comparisons or exceptions in most
cases.

198
 Types of case studies (Contd.)
(Stake, 2000)

n Instrumental case study:

“… a particular case is examined mainly to
provide insight into an issue or to redraw a
generalization.” Hence this kind of case study
mainly serves as an example of the
characteristics of a larger population.

199
 Types of case studies (Contd.)
(Stake, 2000)

n Collective case study:

A situation where “… a researcher may jointly study a
number of cases in order to investigate a
phenomenon, population, or general condition.”
Hence a collective case study is an instrumental
case extended to several cases.

200
Components of a case study (Stake, 2000)

n The nature of the case

n Historical background of the case
n Other contexts (e.g. economic, political, legal, &
aesthetic)
n Other cases through which this case is
recognized
n Those informants through whom the case can
be known

201
Organizing around
issues & case
selection
202
Conceptual structure of the case
(Stake, 2000)

n A typical case study is organized around a

number of research questions or issues which
center around a common theme. It is a holistic,
wholesome unit within itself with its own
complexities in terms of different influences,
subsections, etc.

203
 Choice of issues (Stake, 2000)

n The choice of issues depends upon the questions the

researcher wants answers to
n “To treat the case as an exemplar, researchers ask,
Which issues bring out our initial concerns, the dominant
theme? To maximize understanding of the case, they
ask, Which issues seek our compelling uniqueness? For
an evaluation study, they ask, Which issues reveal merit
& shortcoming? But in general, they ask, Which issues
facilitate the planning & activities of inquiry, including
inspiring & rehabilitating the researcher?”
n If the study is to be representational or instrumental,
former sampling is required to choose a case that
represents maximum characteristics of the population. 204
 Storytelling (Stake, 2000)

n The case may be organized in such a way that

it tells its own story (Carter, 1993; Coles, 1989,
in Stake, 2000)
n The presentation styles of the story could
include, “… realist, impressionist, confessional,
critical, formal, literary, & jointly told.”
n What, how and how much is to be told is
decided by the researcher.

205
Learning from the particular case
(Stake, 2000)

n The researcher’s main aim in writing a case is

to teach the readers something they do not
know. S/he may do it didactically or through
‘discover learning’ in which, “the researcher
provides materials for the readers to learn, on
their own, things the teacher does not know as
well as those he or she does know.”

206
Knowledge transfer from researcher
to reader (Stake, 2000)

n Through a case, the researcher starts from a

point of knowledge that is common to both &
then takes the reader to observe, accept &
appreciate the unknown.

207
 Triangulation (Stake, 2000)

n A technique used for case studies wherein the

researcher uses, “… multiple perceptions to
clarify meaning, by identifying the different
ways the phenomenon is being seen, verifying
the repeatability of an observation.”

208
 Comparisons (Stake, 2000)

n When the case is used to compare two

phenomena, the comparison is substituted for
the case as the focus of the study.

209
Arrangements of the study (Stake, 2000)

n The work of a researcher is “observational &

reflective”. S/he observes the situation & then
draws out local, foreshadowed & consequential
meanings which form a part of the case record.

210
 Teaming (Stake, 2000)

n A case study research team is formed where

the study is too complex.
n The team leader assigns the study of each part
to each team member.
n Each member follows a common theme.
n All team members meet & discuss their work
with other members of the team & then the
team leader synthesizes all the parts &
presents them as a unified case study.
211
Ethical concerns in conducting case
study research (Stake, 2000)

n Informed consent
n Anonymity
n Very limited public access
n Minimization of risks associated with
participation & disclosure of case results &
interpretation.

212
Ethical issues in case writing (Stake, 2000)

n Personal Bias: Personal biases & attitudes may

affect the choice of issues & the treatment of
those issues by the researcher
n Subjectivity: Since the scope of the case is
limited, & except in large cases, only one
researcher observes the situation for a long
time, it becomes very difficult to write the case
in an objective opinion-free manner. Hence the
problem of subjectivity is likely to creep in.
213
Thank You
214
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
215
Analyzing Interpretive
Practice
(Gubrium & Holstein, 2000)

216
 Analysis & Interpretive Practice
(Gubrium & Holstein, 2000)

n Analysis tells us “… what is being

accomplished, under what conditions, and out
of what resources.”
n “Interpretive practice engages both the hows &
whats of social reality; it is centered North in
how people methodically construct their
experiences & their worlds.”

217
Conceptual bases of analysis &
interpretive practice (Gubrium & Holstein, 2000)

n Phenomenology - Typification
n Ethnomethodological formulations
n Conversation analysis
n Foucauldian discourse analysis

218
 Phenomenological sociology
(Schwandt, 1997)

n Schutz (1899-1956, in Schwandt, 1997):

¨ “… aimed to explain how it is that the life-world is
actually produced & experienced by individuals.”
¨ “… to effectively study the everyday world, the
social inquirer must bracket or suspend one’s taken-
for-granted attitude toward its existence; the inquirer
must assume the attitude of a disinterested
observer.”

219
 Phenomenology (Schwandt, 1997)

n “Phenomenologists insist on careful description of ordinary

conscious experience of everyday life (the life-world), a
description of ‘things’ (the essential structures of
consciousness) as one experiences them. These ‘things’ we
experience include perception, […], believing, remembering,
deciding, feeling, judging, evaluating, all experiences of
bodily action, and so forth.
n Phenomenological descriptions of such things are possible
only by turning turning from things to their meaning, from
what is to the nature of what is.
n This turning away can be accomplished only by a certain
phenomenological reduction or epoche that entails
‘bracketing’ or suspending what Husserl calls the ‘natural
attitude.’
n The natural attitude is the everyday assumption of the
independent existence of what is perceived & thought about.”
220
Variants of phenomenology (Schwandt, 1997)

n Existential phenomenology: “… is more

oriented toward describing the experience of
everyday life as it is internalized in the
subjective consciousness of individuals.”
n Hermeneutics

221
 Hermeneutics (Gadamer, 1990, in Schwandt, 1997)

n “… hermeneutics is ontological, universal, &

conversational;
¨ ontological because ‘understanding’ is our very
mode of being in the world;
¨ Universal because understanding underlies all
human activity;
¨ ‘conversational’ because the interpretation of an
object is always a dialogical encounter – as
interpreters we participate in, open ourselves to,
share in, & listen to the claims that the object is
making on us.”
222
Hermeneutics (Contd.) (Gadamer, 1990, in Schwandt, 1997)

n “Understanding is always open & anticipatory;

one never achieves a final, complete
interpretation. This is so because we are
always interpreting in light of ‘prejudice’ (or
prejudgment, preconception) that comes from
the tradition of which we are a part.
n This tradition […] constitutes the ‘horizon’ in
which we do our thinking.
n Language [is understood as] an activity that,
like play, reflects an intentionality of meaning.”
223
Typification (Gubrium & Holstein, 2000)

n A process that helps individuals to categorize

their experiences or club them & link them to
something they already know in order to
understand what is going on.
n Occurs usually through ordinary language, in
“an environment that is concurrently
constructed & experienced in fundamentally the
same terms by all parties, even while mistakes
may be made in its particular apprehensions.”

224
Thank You
225
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
226
Analyzing Interpretive
Practice
(Gubrium & Holstein, 2000)

227
Ethnomethodological Formulations
(Gubrium & Holstein, 2000)

n An ethnomethodological formulation is the

interpretation based on the point of view of
participants, actors or subjects in a particular
social situation. The focus here is “on how
members actually ‘do’ social life, aiming in
particular to document how they concretely
construct and sustain social entities, such as
gender, self & family.”

228
 Ethnomethodology (Schwandt, 1997)

n “… the study of everyday practical reasoning”

n “… the study of the processes whereby rules
that cover interactional settings are
constructed.”
n “… a family of related approaches concerned
with describing & portraying how people
construct their own definitions of a social
situation or, more broadly, with the social
construction of knowledge.”
229
Ethnomethodological approaches to
social inquiry share … (Schwandt, 1997)

1. “a general orientation derived from phenomenological

sociology – a focus on the ways the life-world is
produced, experienced, or accomplished interactionally
& discursively;
2. a methodological approach that prefers observation
focused on (both the audio & visual) recording of micro-
exchanges & fine-grained analysis of transcripts of
those data;
3. A commitment to bracket out the researcher’s own
sense of the way encounters are socially structured or
accomplished to describe how members in a specific
setting or parties to an interaction accomplish a sense
of structure.” 230
Conversation analysis (Schwandt, 1997)

n An evolved form of ethnomethodology “… that

focus[es] on the details of ordinary, mundane,
naturally occurring talk to reveal the
collaborative practices used by speakers to
accomplish intelligible conversation & the
norms implicit in conversation.”

231
Fundamentals of conversation analysis
(Heritage, 1984, in Gubrium & Holstein, 2000)

n “Interaction is sequentially organized & this may

be observed in the regularities of ordinary
conversation.
n Social interaction is contextually oriented in that
talk is simultaneously productive of, & reflects,
the cirumstances of its production.”
n The above properties characterize all social
interaction so that no form of talk or interactive
detail can be dismissed as irrelevant.
232
Foucauldian Discourse Analysis (Gubrium & Holstein, 2000)
n Foucault (1960, in Gubrium & Holstein, 2000) “…
considers how historically & culturally located systems of
power/ knowledge construct subjects & their worlds.
Foucauldians refer to these systems as ‘discourses’
emphasizing that they are not merely bodies of ideas,
ideologies or other symbolic formulations but are also
working attitudes, modes of address, terms of reference,
& courses of action suffused into social practices.”
n On the one hand, ethnomethodologists try to find out
(what) meaning is being constructed out of social
interaction, & on the other, Foucauldians try & find out
how that meaning is being constructed & the influences
of different types of social interaction on the construction
of meaning.” 233
 Analytic bracketing (Gubrium & Holstein, 2000)

n “… [a] technique of oscillating indifference to the

realities of everyday life.”
n “As analysis proceeds, the observer intermittently
orients to everyday realities as both the products of
members’ reality-constructing procedures & the
resources from which realities are constituted.
n “At one moment, the analyst may be indifferent to
the structures of everyday life in order to document
their production through discursive practice. In the
next analytic move, [s/he] brackets discursive
practice in order to assess the local availability,
distribution, &/or regulation of resources for reality
construction.” 234
Analytic bracketing (Contd.) (Gubrium & Holstein, 2000)

n “Analytic bracketing amounts to an orienting practice for

alternately focusing on the whats and then the hows of
interpretive practice (or vice versa) in order to assemble
both a contextually scenic & a contextually constructive
picture of everyday language-in-use.”
n “The objective is to move back & forth between
discursive practice & discourses in practice,
documenting each in turn & making informative
references to the other in the process.”
n “The constant interplay between the analysis of these
two sides of interpretive practice mirrors the lived
interplay among social interaction, its immediate
surroundings, & its going concerns.” 235
Beyond ethnomethodology (Gubrium & Holstein, 2000)

n Clubbing the ethnomethodological & the

Foucauldian points of view, qualitative
researchers now try to analyze both the whats
& the hows in the construction of meaning to
interpret social situations.

236
Thank You
237
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
238
Grounded Theory

239
What is grounded theory? (Charmaz, 2000)

n Developed by Glaser & Strauss.

n “Grounded theory methods consist of
systematic inductive guidelines for collecting &
analyzing data to build middle-range theoretical
frameworks that explain the collected data.”
n “Throughout the research process, grounded
theorists develop analytic interpretations of their
data to focus further data collection, which they
use in turn to inform & refine their developing
theoretical analyses.”
240
 Perspectives (Charmaz, 2000)

n Glaser (1978, 1992, in Charmaz, 2000):

¨ “… [assumes] an objective, external reality
¨ a neutral observer who discovers data
¨ reductionist inquiry of manageable research
problems
¨ and objective rendering of data.”
n Strauss & Corbin (1990 & 1998, in Charmaz, 2000):
¨ “… [assume] an objective external reality
¨ [aim] toward unbiased data collection
¨ [propose] a set of technical procedures
¨ and [espouse] verification.”
241
Constructivist approach to grounded
theory (Guba & Lincoln, 1994 & Schwand, 1994, in Charmaz, 2000)

“… assumes
n the relativism of multiple social realities
n recognizes the mutual creation of knowledge by
the viewer & the viewed
n and aims towards interpretive understanding of
subjects’ meanings.”

242
Criteria for evaluating a grounded theory
(Glaser, 1978, 1992, in Charmaz, 2000)

n Fit: “… categories must explain the data they [include].”

n Work: “… [GT] must provide a useful conceptual
rendering & ordering of the data that explains the
studied phenomena.”
n Relevance: “… [GT must offer] analytic explanations of
actual problems & basic processes in the search
setting.”
n Durability: “… [GT must account] for variation.”
n Modifiability: “… [GT allows researchers to] modify their
emerging or established analyses as conditions change
or further data are gathered.” 243
Strategies of grounded theory (Charmaz, 2000)

n “Simultaneous collection & analysis of data

n Two-step data coding process
n Comparative methods
n Memo writing aimed at the construction of
conceptual analyses
n Sampling to refine the researcher’s emerging
theoretical ideas
n Integration of the theoretical framework.”

244
Data Collection & Analyses (Charmaz, 2000)

n Gathering “… extensive amounts of rich data” with

thick description
¨ Thick description: “… to thickly describe social action is
[…] to begin to interpret it by recording the
circumstances, meanings, intentions, strategies,
motivations, & so on that characterize a particular
episode. It is this interpretive characteristic of
description rather than detail per se that makes it
thick.” (Schwandt, 1997)
n Sources of data: “… observations, conversations,
formal interviews, autobiographies, public records,
organizational reports, respondents’ diaries &
journals, & [the researcher’s] own tape recorded
reflections.” 245
Limitations of the representation of data
(Charmaz, 2000)

n “Data are narrative constructions.” (Maines, 1993, in

Charmaz, 2000)

n Data are “… constructions of experience; they

are not the experience itself.” (Bond, 1990, in Charmaz, 2000)

246
Care to be taken while collecting data
(Charmaz, 2000)

n While collecting data, the researcher must

¨ Avoid “… forcing data into predetermined categories
through the imposition of artificial questions.”
¨ “… ask questions & follow hunches, if not in direct
conversation with respondents, then in the
observers’ notes about what to look for.”
¨ Pay attention to the concerns of the respondents
and still objectively be able to distance oneself and
find out more about aspects that may not reveal
themselves so easily.
247
Thank You
248
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
249
Grounded Theory

250
 Coding data (Charmaz, 2000)

n A process that helps to “… define and

categorize data.”
n Codes emerge out of data [Comparison –
quantitative techniques – codes are
predetermined & data fits into the
predetermined codes or categories]

251
Types of coding techniques (Charmaz, 2000)

n Line by line coding: “… examining each line of data

& then defining actions or events within it.” (Glaser, 1978,
in Charmaz, 2000)

¨ Sensitizing concepts: “… those background ideas that

inform the overall research problem.”
n “… offer ways of seeing, organizing, & understanding
experience.”
n “… provide starting points for building analysis, not ending
points for evading it.”
n Should be used “… only as points of departure from which to
study the data.”
¨ “Line by line coding keeps us thinking about what
meanings we make of our data, asking ourselves
questions of it, & pinpointing gaps & leads in it to focus
on during subsequent data collection.” 252
Types of coding techniques (Contd.)
(Charmaz, 2000)

n Dimensionalizing & axial coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1990)

¨ “… divide properties into dimensions that lie along a
continuum.”
¨ “… develop a ‘dimensional profile.’ of the properties
of a category.”
¨ Axial coding:
n “… reassembling data [in order to facilitate the] making of
connections between a category and its subcategories.
This includes conditions that give rise to the category, its
context, the social interactions through which it is
handled, & its consequences.”
253
Types of coding techniques (Contd.)
(Charmaz, 2000)

n Selective or focused coding (Charmaz, 1983, 1995c & Glaser,

1978, in Charmaz, 2000):

¨ “… uses initial codes that reappear frequently to

sort large amounts of data.”
¨ e.g. Significant events: “A significant event stands
out in the memory because it has boundaries,
intensity, & emotional force … The emotional
reverberations of a single event echo through the
present & future & therefore, however subtly, shade
thoughts.”
254
Types of coding techniques (Contd.)
(Charmaz, 2000)

n The conditional matrix (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, in

Charmaz, 2000):
¨ “… an analytic diagram that maps the range of
conditions & consequences related to the phenomenon
or category.”
¨ “… a series of circles in which the outer rings represent
those conditions most distant from actions &
interactions & the inner rings represent those closest to
actions & interactions.”
¨ … researchers create matrices to sensitize themselves
to the range of conditions conceivabbly affecting the
phenomena of interest & to the range of hypothetical
consequences.” 255
Comparative method (Charmaz, 1983, 1995c & Glaser, 1978,
1992, in Charmaz, 2000)

n “Comparing different people (such as their

views, situations, actions, accounts, &
experiences)
n Comparing data from the same individuals with
themselves at different points in time
n Comparing incident with incident
n Comparing data with category
n Comparing a category with other categories”

256
 Memo writing (Charmaz, 2000)

n “… helps to spark [the researchers’] thinking & encourages

[the researchers’] to look at [their] data & codes in new
ways.’
n … “helps to define leads for collecting data – both for further
initial coding & later theoretical sampling.”
n “… [helps to] elaborate processes, assumptions, & actions
that are [included in their] codes.”
n “… [helps to] explore codes”, and allows researchers to “…
explain upon the processes they identify or suggest.”
n “… [helps to] connect categories & define how they fit into
larger processes” which helps to further give a direction to
sorting through data & retain focus in the study.
n “… aids in linking analytic interpretation with empirical
reality.” 257
 Theoretical sampling (Charmaz, 2000)

n Aim: “… to refine ideas, not to increase the size

of the original sample.”
n Process:
¨ As categories emerge and evolve into “theoretical
constructs”, researchers “… likely find gaps in [their
data] and holes in [their] theories.”
¨ “Then [they] go back to the field & collect delimited
data to fill those conceptual gaps & holes – [they]
conduct theoretical sampling.”
¨ Researchers “… choose to sample specific issues
only; [they] look for precise information to shed light
on the emerging theory.” 258
Utility of theoretical sampling (Charmaz, 2000)

n “Theoretical sampling helps us:

¨ To define the properties of our categories [and
identify the gaps between them]
¨ To identify the contexts in which they are relevant
¨ To specify the conditions under which they arise,
are maintained, and vary
¨ And to discover their consequences”

259
Critical challenges to grounded theory
(Charmaz, 2000)

n “... limits entry into subjects’ worlds, & thus

reduces understanding of their experience
n curtails representation of both the social world
& subjective experience
n relies upon the viewer’s authority as expert
observer; &
n posits a set of objectivist procedures on which
analysis rests.”

260
Thank You
261
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
262
 Participatory
Action Research

263
 What is participatory research?
(Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)

n Attributes of participatory research:

¨ “shared ownership of research projects
¨ Community-based analysis of social problems
¨ Orientation toward community action”

264
Where & why does participatory
research happen? (Kemmis & MCTaggart, 2000)

n In developing countries, proponents include the

haves for the have-nots
n Sites include far flung remote areas or very
underprivileged communities

265
 Primary criticism (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)

n Lack of scientific rigor

n Confusion between ‘social activism, community
development & research’
n In doing participatory research, occasionally,
the welfare of those being helped may be put at
risk – disturbance of status quo.

266
Participatory action research (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)

n “[PAR] frequently emerges in situations where

people want to make changes thoughtfully –
that is, after critical reflection. It merges when
people want to think ‘realistically’ about where
they are now, how things came to be that way,
&, from these starting points, how, in practice,
things might be changed.”

267
Traditions in/ aspects of the study of practice
(Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)

n “The individual performances, events, & effects that

constitute practice as it is viewed from the ‘objective,’
external perspective of an outsider (the way the practitioner’s
individual behavior appears to an outside observer);
n The wider social & material conditions & interactions that
constitute practice as it is viewed from the ‘objective,’
external perspective of an outsider (the way the patterns of
social interaction among those involved in the practice
appear to an outside observer);
n The intentions, meanings, & values that constitute practice
as it is viewed from the ‘subjective,’ internal perspective of
individual practitioners themselves (the way individual
practitioners’ intentional actions appear to them as individual
cognitive subjects)”
268
Aspects of the study of practice (Contd.)
(Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)

n “The language, discourses, & traditions that constitute

practice as it is viewed from the ‘subjective’ internal
social perspective of members of the participants’ own
discourse community who must represent (describe,
interpret, evaluate) practices in order to talk about &
develop them, as happens, e.g. in the discourse
communities of professions (the way the language of
practice appears to communities of practitioners as they
represent their practices to themselves & others);
n The change & evolution of practice – taking into account
all four of the aspects of practice just mentioned – that
comes into view when it is understood as reflexively
restructured & transformed over time, in its historical
dimension.”
269
 Epistemological perspectives
(Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)

n “Practice as individual behavior, to be studied

objectively”
¨ “This approach to the study of practice is likely to be
adopted when the research question is one asked by
people administering organizations who want to provoke
change by changing the inputs, processes, & outputs of
the organization as a system (in which people are seen
as elements of the system).
n “Practice as group behavior or ritual, to be studied
objectively”
¨ “… this perspective [is] also likely to be adopted when
the research question is one asked by people
administering systems who want to change them by
changing system inputs, processes, & outputs.” 270
Epistemological perspectives (Contd.)
(Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)

n “Practice as individual action, to be studied from

the perspective of the subjective”
¨ “… human action (including practice) cannot be
understood as ‘mere’ behavior; it must be seen as
shaped by the values, intentions, & judgments of the
practitioner.”
¨ “This perspective is likely to be adopted when the
research question is one asked by people who
understand themselves to be autonomous &
responsible persons acting in life worlds of human
relationships & interactions, who believe that changing
these life worlds requires engaging, & perhaps re-
forming, selves & relationships in shared life-world
settings.”
271
Epistemological perspectives (Contd.)
(Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)
n “Practice as social action or tradition, to be understood from
the perspective of the subjective”
¨ “…takes into account that people and the way they act are also
formed historically – that they always come to situations that have
been preformed, & in which only certain kinds of action are now
appropriate or possible.
¨ “… [takes into account] that people’s own perspectives, & their
very words, have all been formed historically & in the interactions
of social life – they are historically, socially, & discursively
constituted.”
¨ “… researcher [understands him/herself] as a human agent who,
with others, must act at any particular moment in a situation that is
already socially, historically, & discursively formed, & in which s/he
is also, to some extent, a representative of a tradition that contests
the ground with other traditions (because different & competing
traditions about different things typically are simultaneously at play
in any particular situation).” 272
Epistemological perspectives (Contd.)
(Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)
n Practice as reflexive, to be studied dialectically:
¨ “… sees the individual & the social, & the objective & the
subjective, as related aspects of human life & practice, to be
understood dialectically – i.e., as mutually opposed (& often
contradictory) but mutually necessary aspects of human, social, &
historical reality, in which each aspect helps to constitute the
other.”
¨ “… necessary to understand practice as enacted by individuals
who act in the context of history & in ways constituted by a vast
historical web of social interactions among people.”
¨ … [tries to] recognize not only that people’s actions are caused by
their intentions & circumstances, but also that people cause
intentions & circumstances – i.e., that people are made by action
in the world, & that they also make action & history.”

273
Thank You
274
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
275
 Participatory
Action Research

276
Key features of participatory action
research (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)

“Spiral of self reflexive cycles of

¨ Planning a change
¨ Acting & observing the process & consequences of
the change
¨ Reflecting on these processes & consequences, &
then
¨ Replanning
¨ Acting & observing
¨ Reflecting …
277
Benefits of action research (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)

n ‘Through action research, people can come to

understand their social & educational practices
as located in particular material, social, &
historical circumstances that produced (&
reproduce) them - & in which it may be possible
to transform them.”

278
Issues that action researchers deal with
(Kemmis & Mc Taggart, 2000)

n “Social practices of material symbolic, & social

¨ Production,
¨ Communication, &
¨ Social organization
n Which shape & are shaped by social strcutures in
¨ The cultural,
¨ The economic, &
¨ The political realms
n Which shape & are shaped by the social media of
¨ Language/ discourses
¨ Work, &
¨ Power
n Which largely shape, but can also be shaped by participants’ own knowledge expressed in
participants’
¨ Understandings
¨ Skills
¨ Values
n Which, in turn, shape & are shaped by their acts of material, symbolic, & social
¨ Production
¨ Communication, &
¨ Organization” 279
Key features of participatory action
research (Contd.) (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)

n “[PAR] is a social process: [PAR] deliberately explores

the relationship between the realms of the individual &
the social. […] [PAR] is a process followed in research in
settings, such as those of education & community
development, where people, individually & collectively,
try to understand how they are formed & re-formed as
individuals & in relation to one another in a variety of
settings.”
n “[PAR] is participatory: […] It is a process in which each
individual in a group tries to get a handle on the way his/
her knowledge shapes his/ her sense of identity &
agency & reflects critically on how that present
knowledge frames & constrains his/ her action.”
280
Key features of participatory action
research (Contd.) (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)

n “[PAR] is practical & collaborative: […] It is a process in which people

explore their practices of communication, production, & social
organization & try to explore how to improve their interactions by
changing the acts that constitute them – to reduce the extent to which
participants experience these interactions (& their longer-term
consequences) as irrational, unproductive (or inefficient), unjust, and/
or unsatisfying (alienating).”

n “[PAR] is emancipatory: […] It is a process in which people explore

the ways in which their practices are shaped & constrained by wider
social (cultural, economic, & political) structures & consider whether
they can intervene to release themselves from these constraints – or,
if they can’t, how best to work within & around them to minimize the
extent to which they contribute to irrationality, lack of productivity
(inefficiency), injustice, & dissatisfactions (alienation) among people
whose work & lives contribute to the structuring of a shared social
life.” 281
Key features of participatory action research
(Contd.) (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)
n “[PAR] is critical: […] It is a process in which people deliberately
set out to contest & to reconstitute irrational, unproductive (or
inefficient), unjust, &/or unsatisfying (alienating) ways of
interpreting & describing their world (language/ discourses),
ways of working (work), & ways of relating to others (power).”
n “[PAR] is recursive (reflexive, dialectical): “[PAR] aims to help
people to investigate reality in order to change it (Fals Borda, 1979, in
Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000) & to change reality in order to investigate it
– in particular by changing their practices through a spiral of
cycles of critical & self-critical action & reflection, as a deliberate
social process designed to help them learn more about (&
theorize) their practices, their knowledge of their practices, the
social structures that shape & constrain their practices, & the
social media in which their practices are expressed.”

282
Key features of participatory action research
(Contd.) (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)
n “[PAR] aims to transform both theory & practice: […] [PAR] […]
involves ‘reaching out’ from the specifics of particular situations
as understood by the people within them, to explore the
potential of different perspectives, theories, & discourses that
might help to illuminate particular practices & practical settings
as a basis for developing critical insights & ideas about how
things might be transformed. Equally, it involves ‘reaching in’
from the standpoints provided by different perspectives,
theories, & discourses, to explore the extent to which these
provide practitioners themselves with a critical grasp of the
problems & issues they actually confront in specific local
situations.”

283
 Bottomline (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2000)

n “Participatory action research is a form of ‘insider

research’ in which participants move between two
thought positions: on one side, seeing themselves, their
understandings, their practices, & the settings in which
they practice from the perspective of insiders who see
these things in an intimate, even ‘natural’ way that may
be subject to the partiality of view characteristic of the
insider perspective; & on the other side, seeing
themselves, their understandings, their practices, & the
setting from the perspective of an outsider (sometimes
by adopting the perspective of an abstract imagined
outsider, & sometimes by trying to see things from the
perspective of real individuals or role incumbents in &
around the setting) who do not share the partiality of
the inside view but who also do not have the benefit of
‘inside knowledge’.” 284
Thank You
285
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
286
Methods of collecting
&
analyzing data
287
Observation
(Angrosino & Mays de Perez, 2000)

288
 Assumptions (Angrosino & Mays de Perez, 2000)

n Observation is the “… fundamental base of all

research methods in the social sciences.” (Adler & Adler,
1994, in Angrosino & Mays de Perez, 2000)

n Observations are usually rendered as descriptions

n Observers try & maintain objectivity as far as
possible. They never become a part of the
situation that they are observing even if they
participate to understand it better.

According to critics, it is impossible to observe the

situation/ phenomenon objectively because the
observer is influenced by the observed.
289
 For example
n Double slit experiment in quantum physics

(A photon behaves like a wave when it is not

observed and like a particle when it is observed
and the information contained in its movement is
measured.)
e.g. Dr. Tom Campbell’s explanation of the double
slit experiment available at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DsxA7OU7fR0

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DfPeprQ7oGc
290
Observation: The classic tradition
(Beverly, 2000)

n Critics feel that classic methods of observation

are wrought with ‘observer bias’ & the “…
quality of what is recorded becomes the
measure of usable observational data rather
than the quality of the observation itself.”

291
Categories/ stages of participants
(Gold, 1958, in Angrosino & Mays de Perez, 2000)

n Complete participant
n Participant as observer
n Observer as participant
n Complete observer

292
Rethinking observation as a context of
interaction (Beverly, 2000)

n Characteristics of contemporary ethnographic

research:
¨ “… The increasing willingness of ethnographers to
affirm or develop a ‘membership’ role in the
communication they study
¨ The recognition of the possibility that it may neither
be feasible nor possible to harmonize the observer
& the ‘insider’ perspectives so as to achieve a
consensus about ethnographic truth; &
¨ The transformation of the erstwhile ‘subjects’ of
research into ethnographers’ collective partners.” 293
 Principles of social interaction relevant to
observation as a tool for collection of
qualitative data (Angrosino & Mays de Perez, 2000)
n Conscious Adoption of a Situational Identity:
¨ “… The basis of social interaction is the decision
(which may be spontaneous or part of a careful
plan) to take part in a social setting rather than react
passively to a position assigned by others.”
¨ Problem: Very thin line between participant
observation & actual involvement.

294
Principles of social interaction … (Contd.)
(Angrosino & Mays de Perez, 2000)

n Perception of power:
¨ “In most social interactions, people assess behavior not
in terms of its conformity to social or cultural norms in
the abstract, but in regard to its consistency, which is a
perceived pattern, that somehow makes sense to others
in a given social situation.”
¨ This principle discusses the difference between ideal &
real culture.
¨ No set norms are followed in a culture – there are
deviations as a culture lives & progresses. So, when the
researchers try to find out the ‘ideal’ or a representative,
they could end up constructing a virtual community.
¨ Gender may influence: Availability of observation
opportunities to male vs. female observers.
Interpretation by male vs. female observers. 295
Principles of social interaction … (Contd.)
(Angrosino & Mays de Perez, 2000)

n Negotiating a situational identity

¨ “Interaction is always a tentative process that
involves continuous testing by all participants of the
conception they have of the roles of others.”
¨ The researcher goes in with a pre-existing notion &
tests it time & again within his/ her role at the site.
¨ Problem: It becomes difficult to balance the roles of
a participant observer & a member in ethnographic
research.

296
Principles of social interaction … (Contd.)
(Angrosino & Mays de Perez, 2000)

n Criteria for validation:

¨ “Participant validate the cues generated by others in the
setting by internal and/ or external criteria.” (Internal &
external criteria refer to the intra & inter-group norms
respectively), i.e. they ask whether what they are doing
is in conformity with the rules within the group &
universally as well.
¨ In order for the research to be complete, a researcher
needs to validate & capture every aspect of the situation
& phenomenon exactly as it means to people within &
outside the situation & then convey the meaning exactly
in the same format in the report. (Wolf, 1992, in Angrosino & Mays de
Perez, 2000) 297
Principles of social interaction … (Contd.)
(Angrosino & Mays de Perez, 2000)

n Contextualization of meaning in research:

¨ “People come into interactions by assuming situational identities
that enhance their own self conception or serve their own needs,
which may be context specific rather than socially or culturally
normative.”
¨ Members of a community react to the particular ethnographer &
not to ‘an outsider’ in the generic sense.
¨ Hence reports are shaped by the influence the presence &
participation of the ethnographer on the situation or phenomenon.
¨ Denzin (1997, in Angrosino & Mays de Perez, 2000): “The ethnographer must
become aware of his/ her own class, race, gender, & ethnicity, etc.
Not to minimize or ‘hold them constant’ as classic observers
taught to do so but to integrate them creatively into both the
process of observation & the production of a written presentation
of the fruits of that observation.” 298
Ethics in observation for research
(McCormick, 1973, McCormick & Ramsey, 1978, in Angrosino & Mays de Perez, 2000)

n “The means will not cause more harm than

necessary to achieve the value.”
n “No less harmful way exists at present to
protect the value.”
n “The means to achieve the value will not
undermine it.”

299
Thank You
300
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
301
The Interview

302
 What is an interview? (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

n “The interview is a conversation, the art of

asking questions & listening.”

303
What does an interview produce?
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2000)

n “An interview produces situated

understandings grounded in specific
interactional episodes.”

304
Perspectives on interviewing (Schwandt,
1997)

n “… a set of techniques for generating &

analyzing data from structured, group, &
unstructured interviews with respondents,
participants, & key informants.”
¨ Concerns:
n “Logistics & mechanics of arranging & conducting
interviews.”
n “Costs & benefits of various interview strategies.”

305
Perspectives on interviewing (Contd.)
(Schwandt, 1997)

n “… particular kind of human encounter in the

field” that facilitates inquiry into sensitive
information
¨ Concerns:
n “Obtaining informed consent”
n “Dealing with sensitive information”

n “Anonymity”

n “Confidentiality”

306
Perspectives on interviewing (Contd.)
(Schwandt, 1997)

n “… a linguistic event unfolding in particular

sociopolitical contexts.”

307
Assumptions for interviews for research
(Mishler, 1986, in Schwandt, 1997)

n “the interview is a behavioral event; it is spoken

of as a ‘verbal behavior’, a ‘verbal exchange’, or
a ‘pattern of verbal interaction’.”
n “the interview process is framed within the
context of stimulus-response (question &
answer);
n “the interview situation is isolated from cultural
& situational norms & frameworks of meaning.”
308
 Types of interviews (Fontana & Frey, 2000)

n Structured interviews
n Unstructured interviews
n Semi-structured interviews

309
 Structured interviews (Fontana & Frey, 2000)

n Questions framed to facilitate arrival at

predetermined categories
n Questions pre-established with limited
responses & little or no flexibility
n Questions use very standard explanations
n No deviation from introduction of the study,
sequence of wording of questions

310
Structured interviews (Contd.) (Fontana & Frey, 2000)

n Interviewer abstains from interpretations &

presents the questions as they have been
presented in the interview
n Interviewer does not try to improvise. There is a
balanced rapport between the interviewer &
respondent. Neutral attitude of the respondent &
‘interested listening’ facilitate easy participation by
respondent
n Nothing is left to chance in the process or
procedure, everything is tried out & tested before
administering the interview 311
Structured interviews (Contd.) (Fontana & Frey, 2000)

n Sources of problems:
¨ Behavior of respondent
n Faulty memory
n Socially desirable responses which may be incorrect

¨ Nature of questionnaire, method of administration,

or sequence or wording of questions
¨ Interviewer characteristics or inappropriate
questioning techniques may lead to
miscommunication of questions

312
Thank You
313
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
314
Interviewing

315
 Unstructured interview (Fontana & Frey, 2000)

n Open ended interview

n Characteristics
¨ Participant observation

¨ Highly influenced by personal attitudes

¨ Quite flexible in nature since it is ‘unstructured’

¨ Informants may or may not be identifiable

¨ More involvement on the part of the interviewer &

interviewee 316
 Unstructured interview (Fontana & Frey, 2000)

n Interviewer’s concerns:
¨ Accessing the site – adaptability to the site

¨ Understanding the culture of the respondents

¨ Deciding how to present oneself

¨ Locating an informant – “The researcher must find an

insider, a member of the group studied, who is willing to
be an informant & act as a guide & translator of cultural
mores, & at times, jargon or language.”

¨ Gaining the trust of the respondents

¨ Establishing a good rapport with the respondents 317

Types of unstructured interviewing
(Fontana & Frey, 2000)

n Oral history : Most often dependent on memory

& the ability to recall, which, in turn, are often
influenced by the social processes they relate
to
¨ Remembering one’s life “… in terms of [one’s]
experience with others.” (Schwartz, 1999, in Fontana & Frey, 2000)
n Creative interviewing: Researcher keeps the
final goal in mind & structures interviews &
questions according to the changing patterns of
interaction among the interviewer & interviewee
318
Types of unstructured interviews (Contd.)
(Fontana & Frey, 2000)

n Gendered interviews: Used in situations where

the sex of the interviewer influences:
¨ The kinds of situations s/he has access to
¨ The kind of interpretation the data may undergo
¨ The attitude of respondents to the interview
situation & the interviewer

319
 Framing & interpreting unstructured
interviews (Fontana & Frey, 2000)

n Informal conversation should be carried out

keeping the final goal in mind
n Use of appropriate language & words
n Non-verbal techniques
n Kinds of communication to be used
n Age of respondents
n Effect of interviewer’s own age on respondents

320
 Group interviewing (Fontana & Frey, 2000)

n Characteristics:
¨ Interviewer/ moderator directs the inquiry &
interaction among respondents in a very structured
fashion
¨ Exploratory & may be used to:
n Test a methodological technique
n Try out a definition of a research problem

n Identify key informants

¨ May be used for triangulation & other data gathering

techniques
¨ Used in conjunction with other techniques
321
Skills of group interviewers (Fontana & Frey, 2000)

n Flexibility
n Objectivity
n Empathy
n Ability to persuade
n Ability to listen

322
Concerns regarding group interviews
(Fontana & Frey, 2000)

n Domination by one individual or subgroup over

entire group
n Quiet participants who do not feel comfortable
participating
n Obtaining responses from all members of the
group to ensure coverage of the entire group
n Balancing the moderator’s & interviewer’s role
n Balancing between the script of questions &
evaluation of issues within the group, & focus
on the original problem 323
 Advantages of group interviews
(Fontana & Frey, 2000)

n Less expensive than individual interviews

n Yield richer data
n May prove to be stimulating for respondents &
may also help respondents recall significant
details regarding the problem to be discussed
n Flexible format

324
Problems group interviewer could face
(Fontana & Frey, 2000)

n Results cannot be generalized

n Dominance within the group may suppress
individual expression
n Singe group dynamics are more complex, a
more skillful person is needed as an
interviewer/ moderator
n Very difficult to research sensitive topics in a
group interview
325
 Interviewing & technology
n Telephonic interviewing
n Electronic interviewing
n…
n…

326
Thank You
327
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
328
Interpretation of Documents
& Material Culture
(Hodder, 2000)

329
Artifact analysis & its importance for
the interpretation experience (Hodder, 2000)

n Artifacts represent the environment under study

n The environment being studied directs the
interpretation of the artifacts associated with it
in and through contextual references
n e.g. the placement of reading material or altars
(prayer areas) in our homes in India –
preferably around the head of the bed.

330
Toward a theory of material culture
(Hodder, 2000)

n “The theory of material culture refers to the use

of symbols (artifacts) along with documents in
particular areas of reference.”

331
Significance of material culture (Hodder, 2000)

n “Some material culture is designed specifically

to be communicative and representational”, as
in the case of written texts or overtly explicit
symbols like uniforms, badges, emblems, and
the like.

The author feels that, “… the development of

complex symboling systems allows more
information to be processed more efficiently.”

332
Significance of material culture (Contd.)
(Hodder, 2000)

n “… the ideological component of symbols is

identified within relations of power & domination
& increasingly power & systems of value &
prestige are seen as multiple & dialectical.”

A significant implication of this is “… the

inability to produce dictionaries of material
culture” as different people interpret different
things differently in time & space.
333
 Material meanings in time (Hodder, 2000)

n Different symbols assume different meanings at

different points in time.
n Contexts vary with time

334
 Method (Hodder, 2000)

n The three areas which can be used to evaluate

the quality of interpretation of material artifacts
are:
¨ The researcher should identify the context within
which things had a similar meaning. “The
boundaries of the text are never ‘given’, they have
to be interpreted.”

335
Method – three areas used for
evaluation (Contd.) (Hodder, 2000)

n The second area of evaluation deals with the

recognition of similarities & differences. In a
context, people respond to similar situations,
within specific boundaries, but it is very difficult
to define boundaries.

336
Method – three areas used for
evaluation (Contd.) (Hodder, 2000)

n The third criterion deals with the relevance of

general & specific historical theories to the data
in hand.

337
 Confirmation (Hodder, 2000)

n The interpretation of documents & material

culture may be carried out through coherence &
correspondence.
¨ Coherence is seen “… if the parts of the argument
do not contradict each other & the conclusions
follow from premises.” Coherence may be both
internal and external.
¨ Correspondence “… embeds the fit of data & theory
within coherence.[…] Data are made to cohere by
being linked within theoretical arguments.”

338
Elements pointing towards the success of
the interpretation of data (Hodder, 2000)
n Fruitfulness:
¨ benefitsproduced by interpreting the data
¨ number and kinds of new directions & new
perspectives opened up at the end of the study
n “Peer review (formally & informally in journals)
& on the no. of people who believe, cite & build
on them.”
n “Trustworthiness, professional credentials, &
status of the author, & supporters of an
interpretation.” 339
Thank You
340
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
341
Autoethnography,
personal narrative
&
reflexivity
(Ellis & Bochner, 2000)

342
What is autoethnography? (Ellis & Bochner, 2000)

n A study of one’s own culture (auto = self + ethnos =

culture + graphy = research process).
n The goal of an ethnographer is to “… enter & document
the moment by moment, concrete details of a life” & use
his/ her “… life experience to generalize to a larger
group or culture.”
n “… an autobiographical genre of writing & research that
displays multiple layers of consciousness, connecting
the personal to the cultural. Back & forth ethnographers
gaze, first through an ethnographic wide-angle lens,
focusing on social & cultural aspects of their personal
experience; then they look inward, exposing a
vulnerable self that is moved by & may move through,
refract, & resist cultural interpretations.”
343
 Personal narratives (Ellis & Bochner, 2000)

n “in order to complete member research, where

the emphasis is on the research process & the
group being studied, social scientists recently
have begun to view themselves as the
phenomenon & to write evocative personal
narratives specifically focused on their
academic as well as their personal lives.” The
meaning constructed in these reports stems
from the researcher’s own experiences as a
part of the setting they attempt to study.
344
 Criticisms (Ellis & Bochner, 2000)

n “… to what kind of truth do these stories

aspire?”
¨ To this, the author’s response is that the story does
not aspire to reflect the researcher’s past
accurately, rather, it looks towards the
consequences it produces, the kind of person it
shapes the researcher into, & the new possibilities it
introduces for the researcher for living his/ her life.”
n “… personal narrative reflects or advances a
‘romantic construction of the self’ ”, & hence is
unworthy of being a part of social science. 345
Doing autoethnography – Method &
Form (Ellis & Bochner, 2000)

Stages
1. Bringing out every painful & emotional detail &
explaining the kinds of decisions made & the
reasons for making those decisions.
2. Networking with people who have had similar
experiences.
3. Writing the report in such a manner so as to
honor the ethical code for research, that is,
informing the people involved about the exact
nature of the research, preserving their anonymity
(if required) & ensuring their safety at all costs.
346
Defending & Expanding Autoethnography
(Ellis & Bochner, 2000)

n The whole process of autoethnography may

serve as a medium of catharsis for people who
attempt to study highly emotional or painful
experiences they have gone through. When
they write the report, the focus shifts from their
personal experiences to their experiences &
responsibilities as researchers in terms of the
different factors influencing the whole study,
like, “… bias, validity, eligibility criteria,
operationalization, control variables,
confounding factors, building models,
replicability, & objectivity.” 347
 Applied
Ethnography
348
 Applied research (Chambers, 2000)

n “Applied work helps people make decisions & is

generally directed toward informing others of
the possible consequences of policy options or
of programs of directed change.
n These consequences may be anticipated (as in
impact studies & forecasting), or they may be
determined in retrospect (as in evaluation
research).”
n “The most immediate measure of the
significance of applied research is its
contribution to decision making.” 349
Aim of applied ethnography (Chambers, 2000)

n “… study of the cultural processes that occur in

efforts to respond to particular human
problems.”
n e.g. “… how social groups collide & mix in
situations of change & in the cultural meanings
that result from the interactions of interested
groups or stakeholders.”

350
 Approaches (Chambers, 2000)

n Practical anthropology (Malinowski, 1929, in Chambers, 2000):

“… the ethnographer’s ability to observe
behaviors & to explain their significance in
relation to their functions in a larger institutional
& cultural context.”
n Critical understanding and explanation of covert
elements of culture to explain the relationship
between the self & the other (Kluckhohn, 1948, in Chambers,
2000)

n Action anthropology & participant interference

(Tax, 1958, in Chambers, 2000): “… to ‘learn while helping’…”
351
Varieties of applied ethnography (Chambers, 2000)

n Cognitive approaches:
¨ “… tend to focus on failures of communication, or cultural
‘breakdowns’.”
¨ “… tend to be built on those communicative breakdowns that are
directly experienced by the researcher & that are to be resolved
by the researcher’s attempts to understand what made the
breakdowns occur.”
¨ “There is also an assumption, seldom made entirely clear, that the
ethnographer is better positioned to unravel communicative
disorders between groups than are members of the groups
themselves [because] […] they initially understand much less of
the situation & are therefore more likely to experience firsthand
the kinds of blunders & breakdowns that yield rich data & point
toward communicative resolutions.”
¨ “Stakeholders, who are more closely associated with the problem
at hand, are likely to have already developed cognitive defenses
that insulate them from direct experience of the kinds of
breakdowns that yield significant data or understanding.” 352
Varieties of applied ethnography (Contd.)
(Chambers, 2000)

n Approaches of macro & micro-analysis:

¨ “… to resituate the local within the larger contexts of
regional, national, & even global events. […] auto
ethnography is about these relationships, rather than about
the experiences of particular groups or populations in
isolation.”
¨ “… tendency for applied ethnography to expand its
methodological reach, not only with the use of increasingly
sophisticated qualitative methods, but also by adopting or at
least responding to more quantitative research methods.”

353
Varieties of applied ethnography (Contd.)
(Chambers, 2000)
n Integration of qualitative aspects of research with larger
research activities:
¨ Beginning of research activity – defining of research
parameters
¨ “Wherever research requires accurate portrayals of
stakeholder values or opinions, qualitative ethnographic data
have often proven superior to survey data, particularly in
cases that involve long-term field exposure & in situations
where informants might feel at risk or have other reasons to
provide incorrect responses, or where their ‘truer’ responses
might develop over time.”
¨ Ethnographic data helps direct quantitative validation of the
phenomena being studied and provides a contextual
reference to explain results obtained through quantitative
methods.
354
Varieties of applied ethnography (Contd.)
(Chambers, 2000)
n Action Approach:
¨ Schensul (1985, in Chambers, 2000): Action oriented
research is described “… within the context of a collaborative
model in which researchers & community activists form
‘policy research clusters’ that are focused on important
community problems. […] In these settings, the ethnography
is shaped in part by ‘the constraints of field situations
including the social & political realities of the dissemination/
utilization context,’ as well as by considerations that the
research does not violate ‘cultural principles’ within the
community.”
¨ Argyris (1990, in Chambers, 2000): “… a major goal of
action research is to encourage participants to test their own
‘theories-in-use’ as they relate to particular social problems.”

355
Varieties of applied ethnography (Contd.)
(Chambers, 2000)
n Clinical Approach:
¨ “… seeks to train people to use ethnographic strategies to
gain a better understanding of their own cultural situations,
or to understand more fully those cultural processes that
influence others with whom they are involved.”
¨ “… those activities in which professionals of various kinds
are encouraged to think about their practice in ethnographic
terms.”
¨ “[a form of ethnographic teaching] in which the professionals
are encouraged to use an ethnographic perspective & at
least some methods of ethnographic inquiry to first conduct
‘self-ethnography’, & later to apply principles of ethnography
to understanding cultural diversity within the clinical
setting.” (Stein, 1982, in Chambers, 2000)

356
Issues in applied
ethnography (Chambers, 2000)

357
Criticisms of ethnography in applied work
(Chambers, 2000)

n Reliability & validity

n Difficulties with retrieving meaningful
information from the complex, rich and deep
data that is collected over a significant amount
of time
n Time taken to analyze data and relevance of
results in light of dynamic nature and speed of
environmental evolution
n Tendency to be biased in collection, analysis
and interpretation of data 358
Defenses of ethnography in applied work
(Chambers, 2000)

n “The long-term & relatively intimate acquaintance with

research subjects that is characteristic of much ethnography
provides rich, contextual information that can increase the
depth of our knowledge of particular subjects.”
n “…[successful application] to research siutuations in which
subjects are not likely to be candid in response to such
instruments as survey questionnaires, or where there are
likely to be significant differences of interpretation regarding
the appropriate responses to direct questions, cultural
differences in the etiquette of inquiry, or even in the meaning
of particular questions or responses.”
n “… simply helping people (clients, research subjects, & so
on) think about the idea of culture, how culture works, &
culture’s consequences.”
359
 Methods of applied ethnography
(Chambers, 2000)

n Focus group interviews

n “…‘step-wise’ research, in which long-term field
presence is replaced by brief ethnographic
‘visits’ to solve particular research problems
posed by an ongoing research project”
n “… participatory research strategies that involve
those at the research site in data collection
efforts.”

360
 Criteria of utility (Chambers, 2000)

n Accessibility of research findings: “… the knowledge be

available in an appropriate manner to those who have a
stake in a program of change.”
n “Applied ethnography should also be relevant to the goals &
prescribed activities of stakeholders & clients.”
n “…[applied ethnography] also needs to be responsive to
different claims upon the significance of a course of action.”
n “… applied ethnography should meet a criterion of credibility
in terms of being responsive to those standards of evidence
& proof that are favored by clients & stakeholders.”
n Applied research needs to address matters of prospect &
judgement([…] to understand that stakeholders & clients are
often more interested in what could be, or even in what
should be, than they are in what currently is).”
361
Thank You
362
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
363
Visual methods in
qualitative research

364
Categories of visual research
(The Image and Identity Research Collective (IIRC), McGill University, Canada)

n Arts based research

n Memory work
n Self study
n Visual methodologies

365
 Arts Based Research: Features
(The Image and Identity Research Collective (IIRC), McGill University, Canada)

n “Reflexivity: Connects to the self yet distances us from

ourselves, acting as a mirror”
n “Can be used to capture the ineffable, the hard-to-put-
into-words”
n “Is memorable, can not be easily ignored—demands our
sensorial, emotional, and intellectual attention”
n “Can be used to communicate more holistically
simultaneously keeping the whole and the part in view”
n “Through visual detail and context, shows why and how
study of the one can resonate with the lives of many”
366
Arts Based Research: Features (Contd.)
(The Image and Identity Research Collective (IIRC), McGill University, Canada)

n “Through metaphor and symbol, can carry theory

elegantly and eloquently”
n “Makes the ordinary seem extraordinary—
Provokes, innovates, and breaks through common
resistance, forcing us to consider new ways of
seeing or doing things”
n “Involves embodiment and provokes embodied
responses”
n “Can be more accessible than most forms of
academic discourse”
n “Makes the personal social and the private public”
367
Methods of Arts Based Research
(The Image and Identity Research Collective (IIRC), McGill University, Canada)

n Cellphilm: Cell Phone + Film

¨ What is a cellphilm: Vanessa Oliver (2016)
¨ International Cellphilm Festival, Montreal:
https://internationalcellphilmfestivalblog.wordpress.com/
n Participatory Video: Video created by participants to explicate their
dialogue or decision making process
¨ Transformative Story-telling for Social Change:
http://www.transformativestory.org/what-are-the-methods-for-
transformative-storytelling/collective-storytelling-through-participatory-
video/the-process-of-participatory-video/
¨ http://participate2015.org/methods/participatory-video-pv/
n Photovoice: Capturing specific social events through photographic
techniques to highlight the concerns raised in those events: Wang
and Burris, 1997
¨ Paper by Wang & Burris
¨ https://photovoice.org/
¨ http://www.pwhce.ca/photovoice/pdf/Photovoice_Manual.pdf
368
 Research photography (Harper, 2000)

n What do photographs capture?

“Things taken for granted by a cultural insider
(which rules are followed, which norms guide
behavior that is not regulated by rules, &
what areas of social life lie primarily outside
the perusal or rules) are not obvious to
cultural outsiders.” Cultural outsiders (in this
case, photographers) capture a slice of life
as it is, with minimal influence of the above.
369
Photography Research
n http://www.holocaustresearchproject.org/
images/index.html

370
Methods of organizing logical meanings
of photographs (Harper, 2000)

n Empirical:
¨ “This orientation towards photograph recognizes that a
photographic image is created when light leaves its
trace on an element that has a memory. For the image
to exist, there had to be light reflected off a subject; thus
the photograph is a record of the subject at a particular
moment.”
¨ “If[photographs] are read carefully, with the help of a
cultural insider, they begin to offer evidence of
normative behavior.”
¨ Interpretation vs. objective truth 371
 Visual Narratives (Harper, 2000)

n Film or video:
¨ “Single images taken sequentially (often many per
second) that, when viewed in rapid succession,
seem to re-create the movement the eye sees.”
¨ “Every visual narrative involves a decision
concerning how much information to include per
time unit.”
¨ Choices & decisions regarding what to include and
what to let go, or foreground and background, or
span of capture, etc.
372
 Photo elicitation (Harper, 2000)

n “… a researcher might present a group of

images to a [specific group] to elicit their
explanations” to see how they view the role of
an action or artifact in relation to the question
that has been asked.

373
 Experience and image (Harper, 2000)

n The vantage point changes to the self.

Photographing a phenomenon with self as a
participant in the phenomenon.
n Also called the phenomenological mode.
n “… photographs express the artistic, emotional,
or experiential intent of the photographer.”

374
Social construction of photography
& visual sociology (Harper, 2000)

n “… the social positions of the photographer and

the subject come into play when a photograph
is made.”
n “… making photographs defines identities,
institutional relationships, and histories.”
n Influence of expected gender roles. In real life,
would we expect to see routine photographs of
a woman mechanic on the shop floor of a
construction unit? 375
Principles of analysis of visual data
(The Image and Identity Research Collective (IIRC), McGill University, Canada)
(http://iirc.mcgill.ca/txp/?s=Methodology&c=Visual%20methodologies)

n “The whole is often greater than or different from

the sum of the parts”
¨ “Be guided by the research question”
¨ “Keep track of your reactions and ideas in a journal or
log”
¨ “Every time you gather or analyze your data, keep a
meticulous log giving a detailed account of the context”
¨ “Keep track of data and label everything carefully”
¨ Lay out data very very carefully and keep reminding
yourself how the organization of data relates to your
research question.
¨ Keep visual notes of your understanding of the data laid
out in front of you as it evolves 376
Principles of analysis of visual data (Contd.)
(The Image and Identity Research Collective (IIRC), McGill University, Canada)
(http://iirc.mcgill.ca/txp/?s=Methodology&c=Visual%20methodologies)

n “Questioning images using a Critical Theory or

Cultural Studies framework.
¨ What does the image-text say about whatever you are
researching (e.g., learning, teaching, love, play, politics,
work, technology)?
¨ How do these images create meaning? What social,
cultural, or political knowledge is required to be able to
interpret the images? For whom are the images
intended? What significance does that have?
¨ How were the images produced or created? By whom
and under what circumstances? Are there power
relationships involved?
¨ What stories do the images tell? ” 377
Principles of analysis of visual data (Contd.)
(The Image and Identity Research Collective (IIRC), McGill University, Canada)
(http://iirc.mcgill.ca/txp/?s=Methodology&c=Visual%20methodologies)

n “Questioning images using a Critical Theory or Cultural Studies

framework (Contd.).
¨ What is your emotional reaction to these images? How do
other people react to them? What might these reactions
signify in terms of interpreting the images?
¨ What is the main "text" or messages conveyed by the
images?
¨ What are the counter-texts or the hidden (implicit)
messages?
¨ How are visible minorities represented or portrayed?
¨ How are gender differences and similarities portrayed?
¨ How is the group you are focussing on (e.g., children)
represented?
¨ Who has power or how is power distributed or used?
¨ What is the relationship between the image-text and the
378
status quo?”
How do photographs contribute to
qualitative research? (Harper, 2000)

n “The photographs by themselves seem curiously

detached, even quiet and subdued, yet they
emerge from an adrenaline saturated experience.”
n “Photography can produce data that enlarge our
understanding of sociological processes, from the
formation of one’s own definition of the situation to
the negotiation of actors with different machines.”
n “Photographs record details that may engage
viewers to reflect upon larger cultural realities.”
n “Using photos as sequences allows us to see how
social actions take place.”
379
The future of visual research (Harper, 2000)

n Organizations: e.g.
http://societyforvisualanthropology.org/
n Technologies:
¨ Photovoice
¨ Cellphilm
¨ ...

n Increasing interest in studying the social

applicability of research

380
Thank You
381
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
382
Analyzing
Talk & Text
(Silverman, 2000)

383
“Words are simply a transparent medium to
‘reality’ ” (Silverman, 2000)

384
“… the meaning of a word derives largely
from its use.” (Wittgenstein, 1968, in Silverman, 2000)

385
Kinds of linguistically mediated data
(Silverman, 2000)

n Interviews
n Realist approach to interview: This approach
deals with “… checking the accuracy of what
your respondents tell you through other
observations.”
n Narrative approach: This approach deals with
“… analysis of the culturally rich methods
through which interviews & interviewees, in
concrete, generate plausible accounts of the
world.” 386
Questions to keep in mind while interpreting
data (Silverman, 2000)
n “What status do you attach to your data?” This
question deals with the multiplicity of meanings &
implications in responses.
n “Is your analytic position appropriate to your practical
concerns?” A lot of analysis leads to more
complexities thus clouding the main issue. Hence
instead of analyzing, the author advises the
interviewers to present complex data as a description
to facilitate better understanding of the study.

387
Questions to keep in mind while interpreting
data (Silverman, 2000)
n “Do interview data really help in addressing your
research topic?” The researcher should choose the
tool for the study very carefully. E.g. in situations
where secondary data can give a better insight,
interviews will not help much.
n “Are you making too large claims about your
research?”
n “Does your analysis go beyond a mere list?”

388
 Texts (Silverman, 2000)

n Content analysis:
¨ “Researchers establish a set of categories & then
count the number of instances that fall into each
category. The crucial element is that the categories
are sufficiently precise to enable different codes to
arrive at the same results when the same body of
material is examined.” (Berelson, 1952, in Silverman, 2000)
¨ Problems:
n Possible incongruence between participants & the
categories researchers decide to put them into
n Choice of categories depends upon the researcher, & so
is a very subjective issue. 389
Texts (Contd.) (Silverman, 2000)

n Membership categorization analysis

¨ Inthis method, the researcher categorizes every
‘member’ of the study according to certain criteria.
¨ Concern – Researchers need to be very careful
while using this method as members may fall into
more than one category.

390
 Texts (Contd.) (Silverman, 2000)

n Researchers who analyze texts should:

¨ Have a clear analytic approach
¨ Recognize that successful analysis goes beyond a
list
¨ Limit their data to avoid complexities

391
 Transcripts (Schwandt, 1997)

n “Transcription is written account – a text – of

what a respondent or informant said in
response to a fieldworker’s query or what
respondents said to one another in
conversation.”

392
Factors confounding transcripts (Schwandt, 1997)

n Mediation of transcriptions and fieldnotes by “…

the field worker’s own standards of relevance
for
¨ What is of interest
¨ Historically situated queries put to informants”
n “Norms current in the field worker’s professional
community for what is proper work”
n “Intentional & unintentional ways a fieldworker
or informant is misled”
n “A fieldworker’s mere presence on the scene as
an observer & participant” 393
Analyzing audio-recording of naturally
occurring talk (Schwandt, 1997)

n Discourse analysis: “…is principally concerned with the

analysis of the process of communication itself. […] [It]
seeks to understand the action(s) that various kinds of
talk ‘performs’.”
¨ Dynamic relationships between the parts of the interaction
event, i.e. between words, phrases, sentences or
paragraphs
¨ Situatedness of the interaction event in the social situation.
n Conversation analysis: “… the collaborative practices
used by speakers to accomplish intelligible conversation
& the norms implicit in conversation”
394
 Conversation analysis (Schwandt, 1997)

n : “… the collaborative practices used by

speakers to accomplish intelligible conversation
& the norms implicit in conversation”
n Tries to find patterns in pauses, repetitions,
fillers, lengthening of sounds, etc. in addition to
turn taking, conversation overlaps,
interruptions, silences, etc. in interactions under
study.

395
While carrying out conversation analysis
(Silverman, 2000)

n “Always try to identify sequences of related talk

n Try to examine how speakers take on certain
roles or identities through their talk
n Look for particular outcomes in the talk & work
backward to trace the trajectory through which
a particular outcome was produced.”

396
Common errors in conversation analysis
(Silverman, 2000)

n “Explaining a turn at talk by reference to the

speaker’s intentions (except insofar as such
intentions are topicalized in the conversation)
n Explaining a turn at talk by reference to a
speaker’s role or status
n Trying to make sense of a single line of
transcript or utterance in isolation from the
surrounding talk.”

397
Advantages of recording & transcribing
naturally occurring talk (Silverman, 2000)

n Recording helps keep a complete record of

conversations as it is impossible to recall every minute
detail of the conversation like, ‘pauses, overlaps, &
inbreaths’ which constitute an integral part of non-verbal
communication in the setting.
n Recordings are a permanent record that adds to the
credibility of raw data
n Data in the recordings is the most raw form of data
available
n “Sequences & utterances can be interpreted without
being limited to extracts chosen by the first researcher.”
398
Thank You
399
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
400
Data management
&
analysis methods
(Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

401
 Traditions regarding analysis of
qualitative data (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n Linguistic tradition: Text is treated as the object

of analysis. e.g. conversation analysis,
discourse analysis, narrative analysis, etc.
n Sociological tradition: Text is treated as “… a
window into human experience.”

402
Types of texts in the sociological
tradition (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “… words or phrases generated by techniques

for systematic elicitation”
n “… free flowing texts, such as narratives,
discourse, & responses to open ended
interview questions”

403
Collecting & analyzing words or phrases
(Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n Techniques for systematic elicitation: “… to

identify lists of items that belong in a cultural
domain & to assess the relationships among
these items. […] Cultural domains comprise
lists of words in a language that somehow
‘belong together’.”
¨ Free lists
¨ Paired comparisons, pile sorts, triad tests
¨ Frame substitution

404
 Free lists (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “… particularly useful for identifying the items in

a cultural domain.”
n Short, open ended questions resulting in lists of
concepts & ideas associated with concepts.
e.g. ‘What do you know about …?’
n “Interpreters interpret the frequency of mention
& the order in which items are mentioned in the
lists as indicators of items’ salience. The co-
occurrence of items across lists & the proximity
with which items appear in lists may be used as
measures of similarity among items.” 405
Paired comparisons, pile sorts, triad tests
(Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n Paired comparison: A method used to generate the relative

importance of a number of options. e.g. “…’(a) On a scale of
1 to 5, how similar are lemons & watermelons with regard to
sweetness? (b) Which is sweeter, watermelons or
lemons?’ […] The first question produces a set of fruit by fruit
matrices. The second question produces, for each
respondent, a perfect rank ordering of the set of fruits.”
n Pile sort: “… the researcher asks each respondent to sort a
set of cards or objects into piles. Item similarity is the number
of times each pair of items is placed in the same pile.”
n Triad test: “… the researcher presents sets of three items &
asks each respondent either to ‘choose the two most similar
items’ or to ‘pick the item that is the most different.’ The
similarity among pairs of items is the number of times people
choose to keep pairs of items together.” 406
 Frame substitution (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “… the researcher asks the respondent to link

each item in a list of items with a list of
attributes.”

407
Techniques for analyzing data about cultural
domains (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)
n Componential analysis: “… produces formal
models of the elements in a cultural domain”
n Taxonomies: “… display hierarchical
associations among the elements in a domain”
n Mental maps: “… [display] fuzzy constructs &
dimensions.”

408
 Componential analysis (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “… a formal, qualitative technique for studying the

content of meaning.”
n “… based on the principle of distinctive features”
n “Any two items can be distinguished by some
minimal set (2n) of binary features, i.e. the features
either occur or do not occur. It takes two features
to distinguish four items 3 features to distinguish
eight items, and so on. The trick is to identify the
smallest set of features that best describes the
domain of interest.”
n Output: “… models based on logical relationships
among features.”
409
 Taxonomies (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n Taxonomy refers to the classification of ideas

and concepts and the allocation of a name to
the specific category that represents significant
characteristics of that category.
e.g. http://www.philanthropydirectory.org/about-
us/taxonomy-philanthropy
¨ Folk taxonomies:
n High inter-informant variation, i.e. “… different people
may use different words to refer to the same category of
things.”
¨ Overlappingcluster analysis: “… identifies groups of
items where a single item may appear in multiple
groups.” 410
 Mental maps (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “… visual displays of the similarities among

items, whether or not those items are organized
hierarchically.”

e.g. https://www.pinterest.com/pin/
130393351683511341/
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/
408560997420855980/
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/
211950726192111996/
411
Methods for analyzing free-flowing text
(Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n Types of analysis:
¨ “Textis segmented into its most basic meaningful
components, i.e. words”
n Key-words-in-context
n Word counts
n Structural analysis
n Cognitive maps
¨ “Meanings are found in large blocks of text”
1. Sampling
2. Finding themes
3. Building codebooks
4. Marking texts
5. Analysis
412
 Key-words-in-context (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “ Researchers create key-words-in-context

(KWIC) lists by finding all the places in a text
where a particular word or phrase appears &
printing it out in the context of some number of
words before & after it.”
n Output: Concordance
¨ Historically carried out on religious texts
¨ e.g. http://webchapel-x.com/kjvb/conc/

413
 Word counts (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “… useful for discovering patterns of ideas in

any body of text”
n “Word analysis can help researchers to
discover themes in texts.”
n “This kind of analysis considers neither the
contexts in which the words occur not whether
the words are used negatively or positively, but
distillations like these can help researchers to
identify important constructs & can provide data
for systematic comparison across groups.” 414
Structural analysis & semantic networks
(Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “… examines the properties that emerge from

relations among things.”
n Co-occurrence matrices
¨ Co-word
¨ Co-link
¨ Co-citation, etc.
n Semantics = study of meanings
n Semantic networks demonstrate networks of
meanings, e.g. thesaurus.com
415
 Cognitive maps (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “If cognitive models or schemata exist, they are

expressed in the texts of people’s speech & can
be represented as networks of concepts.”
n Visual representation of the way we process
information in the world around us, and the way
we make sense of the world around us.
n Rooted in Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory: In
order to make sense of the world around us, we
develop our own categories and classifications
(personal constructs)
n Special type of mental maps 416
Thank You
417
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
418
 Analyzing
chunks of text
(Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

419
 Coding (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n A process that “… forces the researcher to

make judgements about the meanings of
contiguous blocks of text.”
n Tasks:
1. Sampling
2. Finding themes
3. Building codebooks
4. Marking texts
5. Constructing models
6. Testing these models against empirical data
420
 Sampling (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “… identif[ication of] a corpus of texts, [followed

by selection of] the units of analysis within the
texts [that serve as representations of those
texts].”
¨ Thematic units: “… chunks of texts that reflect a
single theme”
n “… where the objective is to compare across
texts […], the units of analysis need to be
nonoverlapping.”

421
 Finding themes (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “… abstract constructs that investigators

identify before, during & after data collection.”
n Methods:
¨ Grounded theory: “… line by line reading of the text
while looking for processes, actions, assumptions, &
consequences.”
¨ Schematic analysis: “… looking for metaphors,
repetitions of words, & shifts in content.”
¨ Content analysis: Key-words-in-context
¨ Significant events, etc.
422
 Building codebooks (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “Codebooks are organized lists of codes (Often

in hierarchies).
n “A good codebook should include a detailed
description of each code, inclusion & exclusion
criteria, & exemplars of real text for each
theme.”
n Codebooks are aids to memory

423
 Marking texts (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “… assigning of codes to contiguous units of

text.”
n Uses of codes:
¨ “Codes act as tags to mark off text in a corpus for
later retrieval or indexing.”
¨ “Codes act as values that are applied to fixed,
nonverlapping units of analysis.”

424
Analyzing chunks of
texts: Building
conceptual models
(Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

425
 Conceptual models (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n Theoretical models demonstrating links and

relationships between concepts emerging out of
the study.
¨ Grounded theory
¨ Schema analysis
¨ Visual display of concepts & models
¨ Classical content analysis
¨ Content dictionaries
¨ Analytic induction & Boolean tests
¨ Ethnographic decision models
426
 Grounded theory (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “Grounded theory is an iterative process by

which the analyst becomes more and more
‘grounded’ in the data & develops increasingly
richer concepts & models of how the
phenomenon being studied really works.”

427
 Schema analysis (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “… combines elements of the linguistic &

sociological traditions.” […] based on the idea
that people must use cognitive simplifications to
help make sense of the complex information to
which they are constantly exposed.”
¨ “Begin with a careful reading of verbatim texts &
seek to discover & link themes into theoretical
models.”
¨ “Repetitiveness of associative linkages”

428
Classical content analysis (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “… comprises techniques for reducing texts to a

unit-by-variable matrix & analyzing that matrix
quantitatively to test hypotheses.”
¨ Select sample of texts
¨ Code each unit for each of the themes or variables
in the codebook
¨ Output: unit-by-variable matrix that can be analyzed
using a variety of statistical techniques

429
 Content dictionaries (Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “Computer-based, general-purpose content

analysis dictionaries”
n Process of building such dictionaries:
¨ “Researchers assign words, by hand, to one or
more categories according to a set of rules”
¨ “Rules are a part of a computer program that parses
new texts, assigning words to categories”

430
Analytic induction & Boolean texts
(Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “Analytic induction is a formal, non-quantitative

method for building up causal explanations
from a close examination of cases”
n Steps:
¨ “Define a phenomenon that requires explanation, &
propose an explanation”
¨ “Examine a case to see if the explanation fits”
¨ “If it fits, examine another case”
¨ “If it doesn’t fit, then, consider the rules of analytic
induction […] change the explanation or redefine
the phenomenon”
431
 Ethnographic decision models
(Ryan & Bernard, 2000)

n “… causal analyses that predict behavioral choices

under specific choices.”
n “…comprises a series of nested if-then statements that
link criteria (& combinations of criteria) to the behavior of
interest)”
n Steps:
¨ “Researchers identify the decisions they want to explore &
the alternatives that are available”
¨ “Researchers conduct open-ended interviews to discover the
criteria people use to select among alternatives.”
¨ “Systematically collect data preferably from a new group of
people, about how each criterion applies or does not apply to
a recent example of the behavior”
¨ Data is used to build a preliminary model & test its
postdictive accuracy. 432
Thank You
433
 Qualitative Research Methods

Aradhna Malik (PhD)

Assistant Professor
Vinod Gupta School of Management,
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
434
 Software
&
Qualitative Research
435
Minihistory of use of computers in
qualitative research (Weitzman, 2000)

n Traditionally,
¨ Fieldnotes and interviews – Typed & photocopied
¨ Coding –
n Marking notes with markers or pencils,
n cutting & pasting the marked segments on to file cards,

n sorting & shuffling cards

¨ Analyses

n Early 1980s:
¨ QUALOG
436
 Minihistory … (Contd.) (Weitzman, 2000)

n Early 1980s:
¨ QUALOG: “Emphasises Dewey's 'induction
process'. Many relationships are built in. User
formulates queries about codes, such as an if-then
query. Replies are confirming and disconfirming
instances. Unappealing interface. Uses
LogLisp.” (http://sru.soc.surrey.ac.uk/SRU1.html)
¨ Ethnograph: Helps with coding & compiling data
n http://www.qualisresearch.com/Demo.htm

437
 Minihistory … (Contd.) (Weitzman, 2000)

n Early 1980s (Contd.):

¨ NUDIST (Non-numerical Unstructured Data Indexing,
Searching and Theorizing) (Richards & Richards, 1991):
n “The document system provides for processing and
maintenance of the on-line and off-line textual or other
documents which form the basic data of the qualitative
research project (that's the "NUD" part).
n A hierarchical indexing system for the documents, which
includes a database of indexing data (references to text units
in documents), and facilities to create, modify and inspect that
database (that's the 'T' part).
n The analysis system, the most significant part of NUDIST (the
"ST" part), is a set of facilities for manipulating the indexing
database in various ways in processes of category creation
designed to help the researcher define and explore research
ideas, find text relevant to complex ideas, pursue wild hunches
in all directions, keep the fruitful ones, and formulate and test
hypotheses.” 438
 Minihistory … (Contd.) (Weitzman, 2000)

n CAQDAS (Computer-aided Qualitative Data

Analysis Software): e.g.
¨ http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_CAQDAS/
¨ http://guides.library.illinois.edu/c.php?
g=348074&p=2346107

439
 Software used these days
n Nvivo: http://www.qsrinternational.com/
n ATLAS.ti: http://atlasti.com/free-trial-version/
n List of more tools: https://
digitalresearchtools.pbworks.com/w/page/
17801694/
Perform%20Qualitative%20Data%20Analysis

440
 What software can help with
(Weitzman, 2000)
n “Making notes in the field
n Writing up or transcribing field notes
n Editing: Correcting, extending or revising field notes
n Coding: Attaching keywords or tags to segments of
texts, graphics, audio, or video to permit later retrieval
n Storage: keeping text in an organized database
n Search & retrieval: Locating relevant segments of text &
making them available for inspection
n Data linking: Connecting relevant data segments to each
other, forming categories, clusters, or networks of
information
n Memoing: Writing reflective commentaries on some
aspect of the data, theory, or method as a basis for
deeper analysis”
441
 What software can help with (Contd.)
(Weitzman, 2000)

n “Content analysis: Counting frequencies, sequences, or

locations of words & phrases
n Data display: Placing selected or reduced data in a
condenses, organized format, such as a matrix or
network, for inspection
n Conclusion drawing & verification: Aiding in the
interpretation of displayed data & the testing or
confirmation of findings
n Theory building: Developing systematic, conceptually
coherent explanations of findings, testing hypotheses
n Graphic mapping: Creating diagrams that depict findings
or theories
n Report writing: Interim & final”
442
 False hopes and fears (Weitzman, 2000)

n The text can be ‘dumped’ into a program, which

will generate an output that will need to be
interpreted.
n The program can build theory

Response:
Developments in Artificial Intelligence may be
able to take care of the above some time in
future, but the above, even if available in some
rudimentary form, need to be supported by
personal inputs of the researcher/ expert.
443
 Real Hopes (Weitzman, 2000)

n Consistency of search for terms, location of

specific terms, relationships between terms, etc.
n Speed
n Representation: “Software that provides a graphic
map of relationships among codes, text segments,
or cases can help researchers to visualize &
extend their thinking about the data or theory at
hand.”
n Consolidation: of “… field notes, interviews, codes,
annotations, reflective remars, diagrams, audio &
structural maps of the data & theory…” 444
 Real Fears (Weitzman, 2000)

n “The ease of searching for key words &

‘autocoding’ them may encourage the
researcher to take shortcuts.”
n “There is the possibility that the use of
computers may tempt qualitative researchers
into ‘quick & dirty research with its attendant
danger of premature theoretical closure” (Lee &
Fielding, 1991, in Weitzman, 2000)

n “… the availability of software may tempt

researchers to skip over the process of learning
properly about research.” 445
Types & functions of software for QDA
(Weitzman, 2000)

n Text retrievers: “… specialize in finding all the

instances of words & phrases in text, in one or
several files.”
n Textbase managers: “… database programs
specialized for storing text in more or less
organized fashion […] [by] holding text together
with information about it, & allowing you to quickly
organize & sort your data in a variety of ways &
retrieve it according to different criteria.”
n Code-and-retrieve Programs: “… [allow
researchers] to apply category tags (codes) to
passages of text & later retrieve & display the text
according to [the researcher’s] coding.” 446
Types & functions of software for QDA (Contd)
(Weitzman, 2000)

n Code-based theory builders:

¨ “… may allow [researchers] to represent relations
among codes, build higher-order classifications &
categories, or formulate & test theoretical
propositions about the data.”
¨ “They may have more powerful memoing features,
[…] [and] extended & sophisticated hyperlinking
features.”
¨ “They may also offer capabilities for ‘system
closure’ allowing [researchers] to feed results of
[their] analyses back into the system as data.” 447
Types & functions of software for QDA (Contd)
(Weitzman, 2000)

n Conceptual network builders:

¨ “… are programs that emphasize the creation &
analysis of network displays.”
¨ “Some of them are focused on allowing you to
create network drawings: graphic representations of
the relationships among concepts.”
¨ “Others are focused on the analysis of cognitive or
semantic networks.”
¨ Combine graphical networks with the analytic work
that is carried out with text & codes e.g. ATLAS.ti
448
 Homework
n Find examples for each of the above and add
them to the discussion in the Discussion Forum

449
How to make intelligent, individualized
software choices (Weitzman, 2000)
n “What kind of computer user are you?” – level
of complexity
n “Are you choosing for one project or for the next
few years?” – speed of evolution of programs
used

450
How to make intelligent, individualized
software choices (Contd.) (Weitzman, 2000)
n “What kind of database and project will you be
working on?” – appropriateness of software to
expected data management:
¨ Data sources per case
¨ Single vs. multiple cases
¨ Fixed records vs. revised
¨ Structured vs. open
¨ Uniform vs. diverse entries
¨ Size of database
451
How to make intelligent, individualized
software choices (Contd.) (Weitzman, 2000)
n “What kind of analyses are you planning to do?” -
appropriateness of software to expected analyses & results:
¨ Exploratory vs. confirmatory
¨ Coding scheme firm at start vs. evolving
¨ Multiple vs. single coding
¨ Iterative vs. one pass
¨ Fineness of analysis
¨ Intentions for displays
¨ Qualitative only or numbers included
¨ Collaboration
452
How to make intelligent, individualized
software choices (Contd.) (Weitzman, 2000)
n “How important is it to you to maintain a sense
of ‘closeness’ to your data?”
n “What are your financial constraints when
buying software & the hardware it needs to run
on?”

453
 Debates in the field (Weitzman, 2000)

n Closeness to the data: Over-objectivity leading

to lack of familiarity with data?
n Does software drive methodology?: Over-
dependence on software is likely to limit the
method that is used …
n Should new researchers start of doing analysis
by hand?
n Does software really affect Rigor?
Consistency? Thoroughness?
454
Thank You
455