Simple Mechanisms Overview

GIVE THE COMPLETE LONG NOTES ON THIS WITH FORMULA AND WHICH TOPES IS IMPOTANT
UNIT II Complex Variable – Integration
Line integral-Contour integration, Cauchy’s integral theorem(Simple Case), Cauchy Integral
formula, Power series expansions: Taylor’s series, zeros of analytic functions, singularities,
Laurent’s series, Residues, Cauchy Residue theorem (without proof), Evaluation of definite
integralinvolving sine and cosine.

Here are complete long notes for Unit II: Complex Variable – Integration with explanations,
important formulas, and topics that are most important for exams.

🌐 UNIT II: Complex Variable – Integration

🔹 1. Line Integral
A line integral in the complex plane is an integral where the function is evaluated along a path or curve
in the complex plane.

Formula:

∫ f (z) dz
​

Where:

f (z) is a complex-valued function.

C is a smooth curve (called a contour).

If z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b, then:

b
∫ f (z) dz = ∫ f (z(t)) ⋅ z ′ (t) dt
​ ​

C a

🔹 2. Contour Integration
A contour is a directed curve in the complex plane.

Contour Integral:

∮ f (z) dz
​

This notation means that the integral is taken over a closed contour C .

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🔹 3. Cauchy’s Integral Theorem (Simple Case)
If:

f (z) is analytic (holomorphic) inside and on a simple closed curve C ,

and C is traversed in the positive (counter-clockwise) direction,

Then:

∮ f (z) dz = 0
​

🔸 Important Point: Only valid if f (z) is analytic everywhere inside and on the contour.
🔹 4. Cauchy’s Integral Formula
If f (z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed contour C , and a is a point inside C , then:

1 f (z)
f (a) = ∮ dz
2πi C z − a
​ ​ ​

Generalized form:

n! f (z)
f (n) (a) = ∮ dz
2πi C (z − a)n+1
​ ​ ​

🔹 5. Power Series Expansions

a) Taylor’s Series

If f (z) is analytic at and near a point z0 , it can be expanded as:

​

∞
f (n) (z0 )
f (z) = ∑ (z − z0 )n
​

​ ​ ​

n=0
n!

✅ Valid in a disk where f (z) is analytic.

b) Zeros of Analytic Functions

A zero of f (z) is a point where f (z) = 0.

If f (z) = (z − z0 )m ⋅ g(z), where g(z0 ) 
​ ​ = 0, then z0 is a zero of order m. ​

🔹 6. Singularities
A point z0 where a function is not analytic but is analytic in its neighborhood (punctured disk) is called
​

an isolated singularity.
Types:

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 sin z
1. Removable: Limit exists and finite (e.g., z
at ​ z = 0)
1
2. Pole: Function blows up to ∞ (e.g., (z−a) n) ​

3. Essential: No limit exists (e.g., e1/z at z = 0)

🔹 7. Laurent Series
Used when a function has a singularity and is analytic in an annular region.
∞
f (z) = ∑ an (z − z0 )n ​ ​ ​

n=−∞

Terms with negative powers are called the principal part.

Terms with positive powers are the regular part.

🔹 8. Residue
The residue of f (z) at a singularity z0 is the coefficient a−1 in its Laurent series expansion.
​ ​

For simple poles:

Res(f , z0 ) = lim (z − z0 )f (z)

​ ​ ​

z→z0 ​

For poles of order n:

1 dn−1
Res(f , z0 ) = lim n−1 [(z − z0 )n f (z)]
(n − 1)! z→z0 dz
​ ​ ​ ​

🔹 9. Cauchy’s Residue Theorem (Without Proof)

Let f (z) be analytic in a region except at isolated singularities z1 , z2 , ..., zn inside a closed contour C . ​ ​ ​

Then:
n
∮ f (z) dz = 2πi ∑ Res(f , zk )
​ ​

C k=1

✅ Very useful to evaluate real integrals using contour integration.

🔹 10. Evaluation of Definite Integrals Involving Sine and Cosine
Many integrals of the form:
∞ ∞
cos(ax) sin x
∫ dx or ∫ dx
x2 + b 2
​ ​ ​ ​

−∞ 0 x

...can be solved using the residue theorem by extending to the complex plane.

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Example:
∞
1 π
∫ dx =
x2 +a 2
​ ​ ​

−∞ a

✅ Most Important Topics for Exams:

Topic Importance
Cauchy’s Integral Theorem ⭐⭐⭐⭐
Cauchy’s Integral Formula ⭐⭐⭐⭐
Laurent Series & Residue ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐
Cauchy Residue Theorem ⭐⭐⭐⭐⭐
Evaluation of Definite Integrals ⭐⭐⭐⭐
Taylor Series ⭐⭐⭐
Types of Singularities ⭐⭐⭐
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