Electrodynamics 1

For Third Year Students

Lecturer: Dr. Maha Mostafa

Physics Department
Faculty of Science-Tanta University
 Course content
Part I (VECTOR ANALYSIS)
Chapter 1 : Vector Algebra
Chapter 2 : Coordinate Systems and Transformations

Part II(ELECTROSTATICS)
Chapter 3 : Electrostatic Fields
Chapter4 : ELECTRIC FIELDS IN MATERIAL SPACE
Chapter5: ELECTROSTATIC BOUNDARY VALUE
PROBLEMS
CHAPTER 1: VECTOR ALGEBRA
1.1. Scalars and Vectors
1.2. Unit Vector
1.3. Vector Addition and Subtraction
1.4. Position and Distance Vectors
1.5. Vector Multiplication
1.6. Components of a Vector
1.7. Problems
 SCALARS AND VECTORS
A scalar : is a quantity that has only magnitude.
Quantities such as: time, mass, distance,
temperature, entropy and electric potential are
scalars.
A vector : is a quantity that has both magnitude and
direction.

Vector quantities include: velocity, force,

displacement, and electric field intensity.
 UNIT VECTOR
 A vector (A) has both magnitude and direction.

 The magnitude of A is a scalar written as A or |A|.

 A unit vector aA along A is defined as: a vector

whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1) and its direction is
along A, that is,
𝑨 𝑨
𝒂𝑨 = =
𝑨 𝑨
 Note that 𝑎𝐴 = 1, Thus we may write A as:
𝐀 = 𝐀 𝐚𝐀

which completely specifies A in terms of its magnitude A

and its direction aA.
A vector A in Cartesian (or rectangular)
coordinates may be represented as:
(Ax, Ay, Az) or Axax + Ayay + Azaz

where
• Ax, Ay and Az are called the components of A in the
x-, y-, and z-directions, respectively.

• ax, ay, and az are unit vectors in the x-, y-, and z-
directions, respectively.
• The magnitude of vector A is given by:

• and the unit vector along A is given by:

VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

Two vectors A and B can be added together to give

another vector C; that is,
C=A+B
Thus, if A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz)
C = (Ax + Bx)ax + (Ay + By )ay + (Az + Bz) az
Vector subtraction is similarly carried out as:
D = A - B = A + ( -B)
= (Ax - Bx)ax + (Ay - By)ay + (Az - Bz) az
The three basic laws of algebra obeyed by any given vectors A, B, and
C, are summarized as follows:

Law Addition Multiplication

Commutative A+B=B+A kA = Ak

Associative A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C k(lA) = (kl)A

Distributive k(A + B) = kA + kB

where k and l are scalars.

 POSITION AND DISTANCE VECTORS

Position vector:
• A point P in Cartesian coordinates may be
represented by (x, y, z).

• The position vector rp (or radius vector) of

point P is defined as: the directed distance
from the origin 0 to P, that is,

rp = OP = xax + yay + zaz

 Distance Vector
The distance vector is: the displacement from one
point to another.

• If two points P and Q are given by (xp, yp, zp) and

(xQ, yQ, zQ), the distance vector (or separation
vector) is the displacement from P to Q ; that is,
rpQ = rQ - rp
= (xQ - xp)ax + (yQ - yp)ay + (zQ - zp)az
Ex1: If A = 10ax - 4ay + 6az and B = 2ax + ay , find
(a)the component of A along ay, (b) the magnitude of 3A - B, (c) a
unit vector along A + 2B.

Solution:
(a)The component of A along ay is Ay = -4.
(b)3 A - B = 3 ( 10, - 4, 6 ) - ( 2, 1, 0)
= (30,-12,18)- (2,1,0)
= (28, -13, 18)
• Hence, |3A - B | = 𝟐𝟖 𝟐 + −𝟏𝟑 𝟐 + 𝟏𝟖 𝟐

= 35.74
(c) Let C =A+ 2B = (10, -4,6) + (4,2,0) = (14, -2,6).
 A unit vector along C is

ac = c / |c|

= (14, -2, 6) / 𝟏𝟒 𝟐 + −𝟐 𝟐 + 𝟔 𝟐

or ac = 0.9113ax - 0.1302ay + 0.39063az

Ex.2: Points P and Q are located at (0, 2, 4) and (-3, 1, 5).
Calculate
(a) The position of vector rp
(b) The distance vector from P to Q
( c) The distance between P and Q
Solution:
(a)rp = 0ax + 2ay + 4az = 2ay + 4az
(b)rPQ = rQ - rP = ( - 3, 1, 5) - ( 0, 2, 4) = ( - 3, - 1, 1 )
or rpQ = -3ax – ay + az
(c) Since rpQ is the distance vector from P to Q, the
distance between P and Q is the magnitude of this
vector; that is,

d = | rpQ | = 𝟗+𝟏+𝟏 = 3 .317

Alternatively:

d= 𝒙𝑸 − 𝒙𝑷 𝟐 + 𝒚𝑸 − 𝒚𝑷 𝟐 + 𝒛𝑸 − 𝒛𝑷 𝟐

= 𝟗+𝟏+𝟏 = 3.317
Ex3:
 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION
 When two vectors A and B are multiplied, the result is
either a scalar or a vector depending on how they are
multiplied.
Thus there are two types of vector multiplication:
1. Scalar (or dot) product: A· B
2. Vector (or cross) product: A X B

 Multiplication of three vectors A, B, and C can result in

either:
3. Scalar triple product: A · ( B X C)
Or
4. Vector triple product: A X ( B X C)
 A. Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors A and B,
 written as A · B
 is defined geometrically as: the product of the
magnitudes of A and Band the cosine of the smaller
angle between them when they are drawn tail to tail.
Thus,

where ɵAB is the smaller angle between A and B.

The result of A · B is called either:
 the scalar product because it is scalar,
or
the dot product due to the dot sign.
• If

, then:

which is obtained by multiplying A and B component by component.

 Two vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal (or

perpendicular) with each other if A · B = 0.
Note that dot product obeys the following:

(i) Commutative law:

A· B = B·A

(ii) Distributive law:

A· (B + C) = A· B + A· C

(iii) Also note that

 B. Cross Product
The cross product of two vectors A and B,
• written as AX B,
• is a binary operation on two vectors in
three-dimensional space.
• is a vector quantity whose magnitude is
the area of the parallelogram formed by
A and B

• and is in the direction of advance of a right-handed screw as A is

turned into B. (The direction is found using the right-hand rule)
Cross product: the product of the magnitudes of A
and B and the sine of the angle θ between A and B

where an is a unit vector normal to the plane

containing A and B
• The vector multiplication of the previous equation is
called cross product owing to the cross sign; it is
also called vector product because the result is a
vector.

• If A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and B = (Bx, By, Bz), then

• Note that the cross product has the following properties:
(i) It is not commutative
AXB # BXA
It is anticommutative:
AXB = -BXA
(ii) It is not associative:
A X (B X C) # (A X B) X C
(iii) It is distributive:
A X (B + C) = A X B + A X C

iv) AXA=0
Also note that
 C. Scalar Triple Product
Given three vectors A, B, and C, we define the scalar triple
product as:
A . (B x C) = B . ( C x A) = C . (A x B)
If A = (Ax, Ay, Az), B = (Bx, BY, Bz), and C = (Cx, Cy, Cz), then

 then A · ( B X C) is the volume of a parallelogram having A, B, and C

as edges.
 and is easily obtained by finding the determinant of the 3 X 3 matrix
formed by A, B, and C.
 D. Vector Triple Product
For vectors A, B, and C, we define the vector triple
product as:
A x (B x C) = B (A . C) – C (A . B)

It should be noted that

(A· B) C # A (B · C)

But

(A · B) C = C (A · B)
Ex4: Given vectors A = 3ax + 4ay + az and B = 2ay - 5az,
find the angle between A and B.
Solution:
The angle ɵAB can be found by using either dot product or
cross product.
A·B = (3,4,1)·(0,2,-5) = 0+8-5 = 3
|A| = 3 2 + 4 2 + 1 2 = 26
|B| = 0 2 + 2 2 + −5 2 = 29

𝐴. 𝐵 3
cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = = = 0.1092
𝐴 𝐵 (26)(29)
𝜽𝑨𝑩 = cos−𝟏 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟐 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟕𝟑°
Ex5: Three field quantities are given by
p = 2ax – az
Q = 2ax - ay + 2az
R = 2ax - 3ay + az
Determine:
(a) (P + Q) X (P - Q)
(b) Q · (R X P)
(c) P · (Q X R)
(d) sinɵQR
(e) P X ( Q X R)
C:
𝑃. 𝑄 × 𝑅 = 𝑄. 𝑅 × 𝑃 = 14
or
𝑃. 𝑄 × 𝑅 = 2,0, −1 . 5,2, −4
= 10 + 0 + 4 = 14
d:
𝑄×𝑅 (5,2, −4)
sin 𝜃𝑄𝑅 = =
𝑄 𝑅 (2, −1,2) (2, −3,1)

45 5
= = = 0.5976
3 14 14
e) P X (Q X R) = (2,0, -1) X (5,2, -4)

= (2,3,4)

Alternatively,

P X ( Q X R) = Q (P · R) – R (P · Q)

= (2, - 1, 2) ( 4 + 0 - 1) - (2, - 3, 1) ( 4 + 0 – 2)

= (2, - 1, 2) ( 3 ) - (2, - 3, 1) ( 2 )

= (6, - 3, 6) - (4, - 6, 2)

= (2,3,4)
 Problems

1. Given vectors A = ax + 3az and B = 5ax + 2ay -

6az , determine:

(a)|A+ B|

(b) 5A - B

(c) The component of A along ay

2. Given vectors A = 4ax - 6ay + 3az and B = -ax + 8ay +

5az find

(a) A - 2B

(b) A·B

(c) AXB
3. Let A= 4ax + 2ay +az, B = 3ax + 5ay+ az and C = 3ay -

7az. Find :

A· (B X C)
4. Let A = ax – az , B = ax + ay + az, C = 3ay + 2az,
find:

(a) A· (B X C)

(b) (A X B) · C

(c) AX (BX C)

(d) (AX B) X C
5. Given points P(l, -3, 5), Q(2, 4, 6), and R(0, 3, 8),
find

(a) the position vectors of P and R,

(b) the distance vector rQR,

(c) the distance between Q and R.

6. If the position vectors of points T and S
are 3ax - 2ay + az and 4ax + 6ay + 2az ,
respectively, find

(a) coordinates of T and S

(b) the distance vector from T to S

(c) the distance between T and S.

7. If A = ax + 3az and B = 5ax + 2ay - 6az , find ɵAB

8. Given that P = 2ax - ay – 2az , Q = 4ax + 3ay + 2az ,

R = - ax + ay + 2az , find:
(a) |P+Q-R|
(b) P·(QXR)
(c) (Q X P)·R
(d) (PXQ)·(QXR)
(e) cosɵPR
(f) sinɵPQ
 Chapter 2: Coordinate Systems and
transformation

2.1. Cartesian Coordinates

2.2. Cylindrical Coordinates
2.3. Spherical Coordinates
2.4 Vector Calculus
2.5. Summary
2.6. Problems
 2.1.Cartesian Coordinates (x, y, z)

A vector A in Cartesian (otherwise known as

rectangular) coordinates can be written as:

(Ax, Ay, Az) or Axax + Ayay + Azaz

where ax, ay, and az are unit vectors along the

x-, y-, and z-directions
 2.2. Circular Cylindrical Coordinates (p, ɸ, z)
• The circular cylindrical coordinate system is very convenient
whenever we are dealing with problems having cylindrical
symmetry.
• A point P in cylindrical coordinates is
represented as: (ρ, ɸ, z).
ρ is the radius of the cylinder passing
through P or the radial distance from the
z-axis;

ɸ called the azimuthal angle, is measured

from the x-axis in the xy-plane;

and z is the same as in the Cartesian

system
A vector A in cylindrical coordinates can be
written as:
(𝑨𝝆 , 𝑨∅ , 𝑨𝒛 ) 𝐨𝐫 𝐀 = 𝑨𝝆 𝒂𝝆 + 𝑨∅ 𝒂∅ + 𝑨𝒛 𝒂𝒛

where aρ , aɸ and az are unit vectors in the ρ , ɸ,

and z-directions.
• The magnitude of A is:
• Thus,

aρ ·aρ = aɸ·aɸ =az·az = 1

aρ.aɸ = aɸ . az = az. aρ = 0

aρ x aɸ = az

aɸ x az = aρ

az x aρ = aɸ
• The relationships between the variables ( x, y, z) of the
Cartesian coordinate system and those of the
cylindrical system (ρ, ɸ, z) are:
• The relationships between (ax, ay, az) and (aρ , aɸ ,az ) are:

𝒂𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂𝝆 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂∅

𝒂𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂𝝆 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂∅

𝒂𝒛 = 𝒂𝒛
or
𝒂𝝆 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂𝒚

𝒂∅ = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂𝒚

𝒂𝒛 = 𝒂𝒛
Finally, the relationships between (Ax, Ay, Az)
and (Aρ, Aɸ , Az) are:
𝑨𝝆 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅ 𝟎 𝑨𝒙
𝑨∅ = − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅ 𝟎 𝑨𝒚
𝑨𝒛 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝑨𝒛

𝑨𝝆 = 𝑨𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝑨𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
𝑨∅ = −𝑨𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ + 𝑨𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
𝑨𝒛 = 𝑨𝒛

𝑨𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅ − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅ 𝟎 𝑨𝝆
𝑨𝒚 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅ 𝟎 𝑨∅
𝑨𝒛 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝑨𝒛

𝑨𝒙 = 𝑨𝝆 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ − 𝑨∅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
𝑨𝒚 = 𝑨∅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ + 𝑨∅ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
𝑨𝒛 = 𝑨𝒛
 2.3. Spherical Coordinates (r, ɵ, ɸ)
• The spherical coordinate system is most appropriate when one is
dealing with problems having a degree of spherical symmetry.
• A point P can be represented as

( r, ɵ , ɸ)
r is defined as the distance from the
origin to point P

ɵ (called the colatitude) is the angle

between the z-axis and the position
vector of P;

ɸ is measured from the x-axis (the same azimuthal angle in cylindrical

coordinates).
 A vector A in spherical coordinates may be written as:

𝑨𝒓 , 𝑨𝜽 , 𝑨∅ 𝒐𝒓 𝑨 = 𝑨𝒓 𝒂𝒓 + 𝑨𝜽 𝒂𝜽 + 𝑨∅ 𝒂∅

 The unit vectors ar, aɵ, and aɸ are mutually orthogonal,

 ar being directed along the radius or in the direction of increasing r,

 aɵ in the direction of increasing ɵ, and

 aɸ in the direction of increasing ɸ. Thus,

𝒂𝒓 . 𝒂𝒓 = 𝒂𝜽 . 𝒂𝜽 = 𝒂∅ . 𝒂∅ = 𝟏
𝒂𝒓 . 𝒂𝜽 = 𝒂𝜽 . 𝒂∅ = 𝒂∅ . 𝒂𝒓 = 𝟎
𝒂𝒓 × 𝒂𝜽 = 𝒂∅
𝒂𝜽 × 𝒂∅ = 𝒂𝒓
𝒂∅ × 𝒂𝒓 = 𝒂𝜽
 To convert from spherical to Cartesian and vise versa:
𝒙 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
𝒚 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
𝒛 = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

or

𝒓= 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐

𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐
𝜽 = tan−𝟏
𝒛
𝒚
∅= tan−𝟏
𝒙
 Table 1.2 Dot Products of Unit Vectors in the Spherical and Rectangular Coordinate Systems

 The unit vectors ax, ay, az and ar, aɵ, aɸ are related as follows:
𝒂𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂𝒓 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂∅
𝒂𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂𝒓 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂𝜽 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂∅
𝒂𝒛 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒂𝒓 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒂𝜽

or
𝒂𝒓 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂𝒚 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒂𝒛
𝒂𝜽 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂𝒚 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒂𝒛

𝒂∅ = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂𝒚
The components of vector A = (Ax, Ay, Az) and A = (Ar,
Aɵ,Aɸ) are related as:

𝑨𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅ sin 𝜽 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅ cos 𝜽 𝑨𝒙

𝑨𝜽 = cos 𝜽 cos ∅ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 sin ∅ − sin 𝜽 𝑨𝒚
𝑨∅ − sin ∅ cos ∅ 𝟎 𝑨𝒛

𝑨𝒓 = 𝑨𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝑨𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ + 𝑨𝒛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

𝑨𝜽 = 𝑨𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝑨𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ − 𝑨𝒛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝑨∅ = − 𝑨𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ + 𝑨𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
 𝑨𝒙 sin 𝜽 cos ∅ cos 𝜽 cos ∅ − sin ∅ 𝑨𝒓
𝑨𝒚 = sin 𝜽 sin ∅ cos 𝜽 sin ∅ cos ∅ 𝑨𝜽
𝑨𝒛 cos 𝜽 − sin 𝜽 𝟎 𝑨∅

𝑨𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝑨𝒓 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝑨𝜽 − sin ∅ 𝑨∅

𝑨𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝑨𝒓 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝑨𝜽 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝑨∅
𝑨𝒛 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝑨𝒓 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝑨𝜽
Ex: Give point P(-2,6,3) and vector A = y ax + (x+z) ay, express
P and A in Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical systems.

Solution:
At point P: x = -2, y = 6, z = 3. Hence,

𝝆= 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒 + 𝟑𝟔 = 𝟔. 𝟑𝟐

𝒚 𝟔
∅= 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 −𝟏
= 𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟒𝟑°
𝒙 −𝟐
𝒛=𝟑

𝒓= 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 = 𝟒 + 𝟑𝟔 + 𝟗 = 𝟕

𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 𝟒𝟎
𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 −𝟏 = 𝟔𝟒. 𝟔𝟐°
𝒛 𝟑
Thus,
𝑷 −𝟐, 𝟔, 𝟑 = 𝑷 𝟔. 𝟑𝟐, 𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟒𝟑°, 𝟑 = 𝑷 𝟕, 𝟔𝟒. 𝟔𝟐°, 𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟒𝟑°

In the Cartesian system, A at P is

𝑨 = 𝟔𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂𝒚

For vector A , 𝐀 𝐱 = 𝐲 , 𝐀 𝐲 = 𝐱 + 𝐳, 𝐀𝐳 = 𝟎

Hence in the Cylinderical system:

𝑨𝝆 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅ 𝟎 𝒚
𝑨∅ = − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅ 𝟎 𝒙+𝒛
𝑨𝒛 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
or

𝑨𝝆 = 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + (𝒙 + 𝒛) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
𝑨∅ = −𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ + (𝒙 + 𝒛) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
𝑨𝒛 = 𝟎
But 𝒙 = 𝝆 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ , 𝒚 = 𝝆 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ , and
substituting these yields:

𝑨 = 𝑨𝝆 , 𝑨∅ , 𝑨𝒛

= 𝝆 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ + 𝝆 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝒛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂𝝆

+ [ − 𝝆 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 ∅ + 𝝆 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝝆 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝒛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂∅

At P

𝟔
𝝆= 𝟒𝟎 , tan ∅ =
−𝟐
Hence,

−𝟐 𝟔
𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ = , 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ =
𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎

−𝟐 𝟔 −𝟐 𝟔
𝑨= 𝟒𝟎 . . + 𝟒𝟎 . +𝟑 . 𝒂𝝆
𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎

𝟑𝟔 −𝟐 −𝟐
+ − 𝟒𝟎 . + 𝟒𝟎 . +𝟑 . 𝒂∅
𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎

−𝟔 𝟑𝟖
= 𝒂𝝆 − 𝒂∅ = −𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝟖𝟕 𝒂𝝆 − 𝟔. 𝟎𝟎𝟖 𝒂∅
𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎
Similarly, in the spherical system

𝑨𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∅ sin 𝜽 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∅ cos 𝜽 𝒚

𝑨𝜽 = cos 𝜽 cos ∅ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 sin ∅ − sin 𝜽 𝒙+𝒛
𝑨∅ − sin ∅ cos ∅ 𝟎 𝟎

Or
𝑨𝒓 = 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + (𝒙 + 𝒛) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
𝑨𝜽 = 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + (𝒙 + 𝒛) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅
𝑨∅ = −𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ + (𝒙 + 𝒛) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
But 𝐱 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ , 𝒚 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛 = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Substituting these yields
𝑨 = 𝑨𝒓 , 𝑨𝜽 , 𝑨∅

= 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂𝒓

+ 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂𝜽

+ 𝒓 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 ∅ + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂∅

At P

𝟔 𝟒𝟎
𝒓=𝟕 , tan ∅ = , tan 𝜽 =
−𝟐 𝟑
Hence,

−𝟐 𝟔 𝟑 𝟒𝟎
𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ = , 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ = , 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = , 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 =
𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟕 𝟕

𝟒𝟎 −𝟐 𝟔 𝟒𝟎 −𝟐 𝟑 𝟒𝟎 𝟔
𝑨=𝟕. . . + . + . . 𝒂𝒓
𝟒𝟗 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟕 𝟒𝟎 𝟕 𝟕 𝟒𝟎

𝟒𝟎 𝟑 𝟔 −𝟐 𝟒𝟎 −𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 𝟔
+ 𝟕. . . . + . + . . 𝒂𝜽
𝟕 𝟕 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟕 𝟒𝟎 𝟕 𝟕 𝟒𝟎

− 𝟒𝟎 𝟑𝟔 𝟒𝟎 −𝟐 𝟑 −𝟐
+ 𝟕. . + . + . 𝒂∅
𝟕 𝟒𝟎 𝟕 𝟒𝟎 𝟕 𝟒𝟎

−𝟔 𝟏𝟖 𝟑𝟖
= 𝒂𝒓 − 𝒂𝜽 − 𝒂∅
𝟕 𝟕 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎
 2.4 Vector Calculus
This section deals with integration and differentiation of
vectors.
2.4.1 Differential Length , Area , and Volume
2.4.2 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
2.4.3 DEL Operator
1. Gradient of a scalar field
2. Divergence of a vector
3. Curl of a vector and Stokes’s Theorem
4. Laplacian of a scalar
2.4.1 Differential Length , Area , and Volume
A. Cartesian Coordinate System:
1. The differential displacement dl at point S: is the vector
from point S (x, y, z) to point B (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz).

𝒅𝒍 = 𝒅𝒙 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒅𝒚 𝒂𝒚 + 𝒅𝒛 𝒂𝒛
 2. Differential normal surface area ds is given by:
𝒅𝒔 = 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝒂𝒙
= 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛 𝒂𝒚
= 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒂𝒛

3. Differential volume dv is given by:

𝒅𝒗 = 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛

Note that: 𝒅𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒔 → 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒗 → 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒓

B. Cylindrical Coordinate System:
1. The differential displacement is given by:
𝒅𝒍 = 𝒅𝝆 𝒂𝝆 + 𝝆 𝒅∅ 𝒂∅ + 𝒅𝒛 𝒂𝒛
2. Differential normal surface area is given by:
𝒅𝒔 = 𝝆 𝒅∅ 𝒅𝒛 𝒂𝝆
= 𝒅𝝆 𝒅𝒛 𝒂∅
= 𝝆 𝒅𝝆 𝒅∅ 𝒂𝒛
3. Differential volume is given by:
𝒅𝒗 = 𝝆 𝒅𝝆 𝒅∅ 𝒅𝒛
 C. Spherical Coordinate Systems:
1. The differential displacement is given by:
𝒅𝒍 = 𝒅𝒓 𝒂𝒓 + 𝒓 𝒅𝜽 𝒂𝜽 + 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒅∅ 𝒂∅

2. Differential normal surface area is given by:

𝒅𝒔 = 𝒓𝟐 sin 𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅ 𝒂𝒓
= 𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝒅𝒓 𝒅∅ 𝒂𝜽
= 𝒓 𝒅𝒓 𝒅𝜽 𝒂∅

3. Differential volume is given by:

𝒅𝒗 = 𝒓𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒅𝒓 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅
 2.4.2 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
1. Line Integrals
• The line integral 𝑳
A · dl is the integral of the tangential

component of A along curve L.

• If the path of integration is a closed curve such as abca becomes

a closed contour integral

𝑨 . 𝒅𝒍
𝑳

which is called the circulation of A

around L.
 2. Surface integrals
Given a vector field A, continuous in a region containing
the smooth surface S,
we define the surface integral or the flux of A through S
as:

Ψ= 𝐴. 𝑑𝑆
𝑠

For a closed surface defining a volume the integral becomes closed

surface integral and is denoted by:

𝜳= 𝑨 . 𝒅𝑺
𝑺
It represents the net outward flow of flux from surface S.
 3. Volume integrals
A closed path defines an open surface whereas a
closed surface defines a volume, we define the
integral :

𝝆𝒗 𝒅𝒗
𝒗

as the volume integral of the

scalar 𝝆𝒗 over the volume v.
 2.4.3 DEL Operator (also called Nabla operator)
The del operator , written 𝜵 , is the vector differential
operator.
In Cartesian Coordinates:

𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
𝜵 = 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂𝒚 + 𝒂𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

In Cylindrical Coordinates:

𝝏 𝟏 𝝏 𝝏
𝛁= 𝒂 + 𝒂 + 𝒂
𝝏𝝆 𝝆 𝝆 𝝏∅ ∅ 𝝏𝒛 𝒛

In Spherical Coordinates:

𝝏 𝟏 𝝏 𝟏 𝝏
𝛁= 𝒂𝒓 + 𝒂𝜽 + 𝒂∅
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝝏∅
• The del operator is useful in defining:
1. The gradient of a scalar V, written as 𝛁𝑽
2. The divergence of a vector A, written as 𝜵 . 𝐀
3. The curl of a vector A, written as 𝜵 × 𝑨
4. The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as 𝜵2V

Each of these will be defined in detail in the subsequent sections.

 1. Gradient of a scalar field
The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that represents both the
magnitude and the direction of the maximum space rate of increase
of V.
For Cartesian Coordinates:

𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽
𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝑽 = 𝛁𝑽 = 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂𝒚 + 𝒂𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

For Cylindrical Coordinates:

𝝏𝑽 𝟏 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽
𝛁𝑽 = 𝒂 + 𝒂 + 𝒂
𝝏𝝆 𝝆 𝝆 𝝏∅ ∅ 𝝏𝒛 𝒛

For Spherical Coordinates:

𝝏𝑽 𝟏 𝝏𝑽 𝟏 𝝏𝑽
𝛁𝑽 = 𝒂𝒓 + 𝒂𝜽 + 𝒂∅
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝝏∅
The following computation formulas on
gradient, which are easily proved, should be
noted:
I. 𝛁 𝑽 + 𝑼 = 𝛁𝑽 + 𝛁𝑼
II. 𝛁 𝑽𝑼 = 𝑽 𝛁𝑼 + 𝑼 𝛁𝑽
𝑽 𝑼 𝛁𝑽 −𝑽 𝛁𝑼
III. 𝛁 𝑼
=
𝑼𝟐
IV. 𝛁 𝑽𝒏 = 𝒏 𝑽𝒏−𝟏 𝛁𝑽

where U and V are scalars and n is an integer.

Ex: Find the gradient of the following scalar
fields:
(a) 𝑽 = 𝒆−𝒛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒚
(b) 𝑼 = 𝝆𝟐 𝒛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐∅
(c) 𝑾 = 𝟏𝟎𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅

Solution:
𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽
(a) 𝜵𝑽 = 𝝏𝒙
𝒂𝒙 +
𝝏𝒚
𝒂𝒚 +
𝝏𝒛
𝒂𝒛

= 𝟐𝒆−𝒛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒚 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒚 𝒂𝒚

− 𝒆−𝒛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒚 𝒂𝒛
 𝝏𝑼 𝟏 𝝏𝑼 𝝏𝑼
(b) 𝛻𝑈 = 𝝏𝝆
𝒂𝝆 +
𝝆 𝝏∅
𝒂∅ +
𝝏𝒛
𝒂𝒛

= 2𝜌𝑧 cos 2∅ 𝑎𝜌 − 2𝜌𝑧 sin 2∅ 𝑎∅ + 𝜌2 cos 2∅ 𝑎𝑧

𝝏𝑾 𝟏 𝝏𝑾 𝟏 𝝏𝑾
(c) 𝛻𝑊 = 𝒂𝒓 + 𝒂𝜽 + 𝒂∅
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝝏∅

= 10 sin2 𝜃 cos ∅ 𝑎𝑟 + 10 sin 2𝜃 cos ∅ 𝑎𝜃

− 10 sin 𝜃 sin ∅ 𝑎∅
EX: Given 𝑊 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 , compute 𝛻𝑊

Solution:

𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊
𝛻𝑊 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 2𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑧 𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 𝑎𝑧
 Practical exercise:

Determine the gradient of the following scalar fields:

(a) 𝑼 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 + 𝒙𝒚𝒛

(b) 𝑽 = 𝝆𝒛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ + 𝒁𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 ∅ + 𝝆𝟐

(c) 𝒇 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝐥𝐧 𝒓 + 𝒓𝟐 ∅

 2. Divergence of a vector
In Cartesian Coordinates:

𝝏𝑨𝒙 𝝏𝑨𝒚 𝝏𝑨𝒛

𝛁. 𝑨 = + +
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

In Cylindrical Coordinates:

𝟏 𝝏 𝟏 𝝏𝑨∅ 𝝏𝑨𝒛
𝛁. 𝑨 = 𝝆𝑨𝝆 + +
𝝆 𝝏𝝆 𝝆 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒛

In Spherical Coordinates:

𝟏 𝝏 𝟐 𝟏 𝝏 𝟏 𝝏𝑨∅
𝛁 .𝑨 = 𝟐 𝒓 𝑨𝒓 + 𝑨𝜽 sin 𝜽 +
𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝝏𝜽 𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝝏∅
Note the following properties of the
divergence of a vector field:

1. It produces a scalar field (because scalar

product is involved).

2. 𝜵 . 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝜵 . 𝑨 + 𝜵 . 𝑩
3. 𝜵 . 𝑽𝑨 = 𝑽 𝜵. 𝑨 + 𝑨 . 𝜵𝑽
 Gauss’s Divergence theorem

The divergence theorem states that the total

outward flux of a vector field A through the
closed surface S is the same as the volume
integral of the divergence of A.

𝑨 . 𝒅𝑺 = 𝛁 . 𝑨 𝒅𝒗
𝑺 𝒗
EX: Determine the divergence of these vector fields:
(a) 𝑷 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝒛 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒙𝒛 𝒂𝒛
(b) 𝑸 = 𝝆 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂𝝆 + 𝝆𝟐 𝒛 𝒂∅ + 𝒛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂𝒛
𝟏
(c) 𝑻 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒂𝒓 + 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂𝜽 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒂∅
𝒓𝟐

Solution:
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
(a) 𝛁 .𝑷 = 𝑷𝒙 + 𝑷𝒚 + 𝑷𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

𝝏 𝟐
𝝏 𝝏
= 𝒙 𝒚𝒛 + 𝟎 + 𝒙𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
= 𝟐𝒙𝒚𝒛 + 𝒙
 𝟏 𝝏 𝟏 𝝏 𝝏
(b) 𝜵 . 𝑸 = 𝝆𝑸𝝆 + 𝑸∅ + 𝑸𝒛
𝝆 𝝏𝝆 𝝆 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒛

𝟏 𝝏 𝟐
𝟏 𝝏 𝟐
𝝏
= 𝝆 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ + 𝝆 𝒛 + 𝒛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
𝝆 𝝏𝝆 𝝆 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒛

= 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅

𝟏 𝝏 𝟏 𝝏 𝟏 𝝏
(c) 𝜵 . 𝑻 = 𝒓𝟐 𝑻𝒓 + 𝑻𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝑻∅
𝒓𝟐 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝝏𝜽 𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝝏∅

𝟏 𝝏 𝟏 𝝏 𝟐
𝟏 𝝏
= 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝝏𝜽 𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 𝝏∅

𝟏
=𝟎+ 𝟐𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝟎
𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
= 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
 Practical exercise
Determine the divergence of the following vector
fields.

(a) 𝑨 = 𝒚𝒛 𝒂𝒙 + 𝟒𝒙𝒚 𝒂𝒚 + 𝒚 𝒂𝒛

(b) 𝑩 = 𝝆𝒛 sin ∅ 𝒂𝝆 + 𝟑𝝆𝒛𝟐 cos ∅

(c) 𝒄 = 𝟐𝒓 cos 𝜽 cos ∅ 𝒂𝒓 + 𝒓𝟏/𝟐 𝒂∅

2.9. Curl of a vector and Stokes’s Theorem
The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose magnitude is
the maximum circulation of A per unit area as the area tends to zero
and whose direction is the normal direction of the area when the area
is oriented to make the circulation maximum.
In Cartesian Coordinates:

𝒂𝒙 𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
𝛁 ×𝑨=
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛
or

𝝏𝑨𝒛 𝝏𝑨𝒚 𝝏𝑨𝒙 𝝏𝑨𝒛 𝝏𝑨𝒚 𝝏𝑨𝒙

𝛁 ×𝑨= − 𝒂𝒙 + − 𝒂𝒚 + − 𝒂𝒛
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
In Cylindrical Coordinates:

𝒂𝝆 𝝆𝒂∅ 𝒂𝒛
𝟏 𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
𝛁 ×𝑨=
𝝆 𝝏𝝆 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒛
𝑨𝝆 𝝆𝑨∅ 𝑨𝒛
or

𝟏 𝝏𝑨𝒛 𝝏𝑨∅ 𝝏𝑨𝝆 𝝏𝑨𝒛 𝟏 𝝏(𝝆𝑨∅ ) 𝝏𝑨𝝆

𝛁 ×𝑨= − 𝒂𝝆 + − 𝒂∅ + − 𝒂𝒛
𝝆 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝝆 𝝆 𝝏𝝆 𝝏∅
In Spherical Coordinates:

𝒂𝒓 𝒓𝒂𝜽 𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝒂∅
𝟏 𝝏 𝝏 𝝏
𝛁 ×𝑨 = 𝟐
𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝝏∅
𝑨𝒓 𝒓𝑨𝜽 𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝑨∅
or

𝟏 𝝏(𝑨∅ sin 𝜽) 𝝏𝑨𝜽 𝟏 𝟏 𝝏𝑨𝒓 𝝏(𝒓𝑨∅ )

𝛁 ×𝑨= − 𝒂𝒓 + − 𝒂𝜽
𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝝏𝜽 𝝏∅ 𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒓

𝟏 𝝏(𝒓𝑨𝜽 ) 𝝏𝑨𝒓
+ − 𝒂∅
𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝜽
 Note the following properties of the curl:
1. The curl of a vector field is another vector field.
2. 𝛻 × 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝛻 × 𝐴 + 𝛻 × 𝐵
3. 𝛻 × 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐴 𝛻. 𝐵 − 𝐵 𝛻. 𝐴 − 𝐵. 𝛻 𝐴
− 𝐴. 𝛻 𝐵
4. 𝛻 × 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝛻 × 𝐴 + 𝛻𝑉 × 𝐴
5. The divergence of the curl of a vector field vanished ; that
is, 𝛻 . 𝛻 × 𝐴 = 0
6. The curl of the gradient of a scalar field vanishes; that is,
𝛻 × 𝛻𝑉 = 0 𝒐𝒓 𝛻 × 𝛻 = 0
 Stokes’s theorem
Stokes’s theorem states that the circulation of a vector field
A around a (closed) path L is equal to the surface integral of
the curl A over the open surface S bounded by L , provided
A and 𝛻 × 𝐴 are continuous on S.
EX: Determine the curl of these vector fields:
(a) 𝑷 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝒛 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒙𝒛 𝒂𝒛

(b) 𝑸 = 𝝆 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ 𝒂𝝆 + 𝝆𝟐 𝒛 𝒂∅ + 𝒛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂𝒛

𝟏
(c) 𝑻 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒂𝒓 + 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ 𝒂𝜽 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒂∅
𝒓𝟐

Solution:

𝜕𝑃𝑦 𝜕𝑃𝑦 𝜕𝑃𝑥 𝜕𝑃𝑧

(a) 𝛻 × 𝑃 = 𝜕𝑦
−
𝜕𝑧
𝑎𝑥 +
𝜕𝑧
−
𝜕𝑥
𝑎𝑦

𝜕𝑃𝑦 𝜕𝑃𝑥
+ − 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

= 0 − 0 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑧 𝑎𝑦 + 0 − 𝑥 2 𝑧 𝑎𝑧
= 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑧 𝑎𝑦 − 𝑥 2 𝑧 𝑎𝑧
 1 𝜕𝑄𝑧 𝜕𝑄∅ 𝜕𝑄𝜌 𝜕𝑄𝑧 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑄𝜌
(b) 𝛻 × 𝑄 = − 𝑎𝜌 + − 𝑎∅ + (𝜌𝑄∅ ) − 𝑎𝑧
𝜌 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕∅

−𝑧 2
1
= sin ∅ − 𝜌 𝑎𝜌 + 0 − 0 𝑎∅ + 3𝜌2 𝑧 − 𝜌 cos ∅ 𝑎𝑧
𝜌 𝜌

1
=− 𝑧 sin ∅ + 𝜌3 𝑎𝜌 + 3𝜌𝑧 − cos ∅ 𝑎𝑧
𝜌

(c)
𝛻 ×𝑇
1 𝜕 𝜕 1 1 𝜕 𝜕
= 𝑇∅ sin 𝜃 − 𝑇𝜃 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑇𝑟 − (𝑟 𝑇𝜃 ) 𝑎𝜃
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕∅ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝑟

1 𝜕 𝜕
+ 𝑟𝑇𝜃 − 𝑇 𝑎∅
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟
 1 𝜕 𝜕
= cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − ( 𝑟 sin 𝜃 cos ∅) 𝑎𝑟
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕∅

1 1 𝜕 cos 𝜃 𝜕
+ − (𝑟 cos 𝜃) 𝑎𝜃
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕∅ 𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟

1 𝜕 𝜕 cos 𝜃
+ 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 cos ∅ − 𝑎∅
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 2

1 1
= cos 2𝜃 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 sin ∅ 𝑎𝑟 + 0 − cos 𝜃 𝑎𝜃
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑟

1 sin 𝜃
+ 2𝑟 sin 𝜃 cos ∅ + 2 𝑎∅
𝑟 𝑟

cos 2𝜃 cos 𝜃 1
= + sin ∅ 𝑎𝑟 − 𝑎𝜃 + 2 cos ∅ + 3 sin 𝜃 𝑎∅
𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑟 𝑟
 Practical exercise
5. Determine the curl of each of the vector fields:
(a) 𝑨 = 𝒚𝒛 𝒂𝒙 + 𝟒𝒙𝒚 𝒂𝒚 + 𝒚 𝒂𝒛

(b) 𝑩 = 𝝆𝒛 sin ∅ 𝒂𝝆 + 𝟑𝝆𝒛𝟐 cos ∅ 𝒂∅

 2.10. Laplacian of a scalar
The Laplacian of a scalar field V, written as 𝛻 2 𝑉, is the
divergence of the gradient of V.
Thus, in Cartesian coordinates,
𝑳𝒂𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒏 𝑽 = 𝜵 . 𝜵𝑽 = 𝜵𝟐 𝑽

𝝏 𝝏 𝝏 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽
= 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂𝒚 + 𝒂𝒛 . 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂𝒚 + 𝒂𝒛
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛

That is,
A scalar field is said to be harmonic in a given region if its
Laplacian vanishes in that region. In other words, if
𝛁𝟐 𝑽 = 𝟎 → 𝑳𝒂𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆′ 𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
In Cylindrical Coordinates:

In Spherical Coordinates:
Laplacian of vector A denoted as 𝜵𝟐 𝑨

𝜵𝟐 𝑨 is defined as the gradient of the divergence

of A minus the curl of the curl of A. That is,
Ex: Find the Laplacian of the scalar fields:
(a) 𝑽 = 𝒆−𝒛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒚
(b) 𝑼 = 𝝆𝟐 𝒛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐∅
(c) 𝑾 = 𝟏𝟎𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅

Solution:
 Practical exercise
Determine the Laplacian of the scalar fields of:

(a) U = x2y + xyz

(b) f = cosɵ sinɸ ln r + r2ɸ

 summary
1) The three common coordinate systems we shall use throughout the
text are the Cartesian (or rectangular), the circular cylindrical, and
the spherical.

2) A point P is represented as P(x, y, z), P(p, ɸ, z), and P(r, ɵ, ɸ) in the

Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical systems, respectively.

3) A vector field A is represented as

(Ax, Ay, Az) or Axax + Ayay + Azaz in the Cartesian system,
(Aρ, Aɸ, Az) or Aρaρ + Aɸaɸ + Azaz in the cylindrical system,
(Ar, Aɵ, Aɸ) or Arar + Aɵaɵ + Aɸ aɸ in the spherical system.
4) The differential displacements in the Cartesian, cylindrical,
and spherical systems are, respectively,

dl = dx ax + dy ay + dz az

dl = dρ aρ +ρ dɸ aɸ +dz az

dl = dr ar + rdɵ aɵ + r sinɵ dɸ aɸ

Note that dl is always taken to be in the positive direction; the

direction of the displacement is taken care of by the limits of
integration.
5) The differential normal areas in the three systems are, respectively,
𝒅𝒔 = 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 𝒂𝒙
= 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛 𝒂𝒚
= 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒂𝒛
𝒅𝒔 = 𝝆 𝒅∅ 𝒅𝒛 𝒂𝝆

= 𝒅𝝆 𝒅𝒛 𝒂∅

= 𝝆 𝒅𝝆 𝒅∅ 𝒂𝒛

𝒅𝒔 = 𝒓𝟐 sin 𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅∅ 𝒂𝒓
= 𝒓 sin 𝜽 𝒅𝒓 𝒅∅ 𝒂𝜽
= 𝒓 𝒅𝒓 𝒅𝜽 𝒂∅

Note that dS can be in the positive or negative direction depending on the

surface under consideration.
6) The differential volumes in the three systems are

dv = dx dy dz

dv = ρ dρ dɸ dz

dv = r2sinɵ dr dɵ dɸ

 Note that dS can be in the positive or negative direction

depending on the surface under consideration.

7)
8)

9)

10) Vector differentiation is performed by using the vector

differential operator V. The gradient of a scalar field V is
denoted by 𝜵 V, the divergence of a vector field A by 𝜵 ·A,
the curl of A by 𝜵 X A, and the Laplacian of V by 𝜵2V.
11)

12)

13)