24/03/2025

3.
AC Machines

3. AC Machines
3.1 AC Generators

• Called synchronous generators or alternators, they generate ac emf from mechanical power.

• Note: synchronous as they must run at constant (synchronous) speed to generate AC power of desired frequency.

• The main difference with dc generators is that in a dc generator, field is stationary, and the armature is rotating. In an
alternator, the field is rotating, and the armature is stationary.

• Also, there are no commutator or brushes in alternators.

3.1.1 Advantages of a rotating field

• As the armature is stationary, large space can be provided to accommodate large number of conductors and
insulation allowing for development of large emf.

• The armature gets protected from mechanical and electrical stresses.

• Easier to collect large current at very high voltages from stationary armature.

• The problem of sparking at the slip rings gets avoided.

2

1
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
• The field is a low inertia circuit hence easy to rotate.

• The construction is very simple.

• Only two slip rings are required for rotating field

• Due to stationary armature, the ventilation arrangement can be improved.

3.1.2 Construction

• In alternators, the stationary winding in called a stator while the rotating winding is called a rotor.

1. Stator:

• Consists of a core and slots to hold the armature winding.

• The core consists of laminated construction (to reduce eddy current losses) of special steel (to reduce hysteresis
losses) insulated from each other with varnish or paper.

• It has slots to house the armature conductors.

• Ventilation is provided by holes cast in the frame

3

3. AC Machines
2. Rotor

• There are two types:

1. Salient pole type: Also called projected pole type, all the poles are projected out of the surface of the motor.
These rotors have large diameters and small axial lengths. They are preferred for low speed (up to 500 rpm)
alternators due to less mechanical strength.

2. Smooth cylindrical type: Also called not-salient type or non-projected pole type rotor. This rotor consists of
smooth solid steel cylinder having a number of coils to accommodate the field coils. The poles are not
projecting out and hence the surface of the rotor is smooth which maintains uniform airgap between the rotor
and stator. They have small diameters and larger axial lengths. They are mechanically strong and hence used for
high-speed alternators (1500-3000 rpm).
4

2
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines

Assignment:
1) Describe the working principle of an alternator.
2) Read about the relationship between mechanical and electrical degrees

3.1.3 Speed and Frequency of Synchronous Generators

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑃 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑁 − 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑓 − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑧
5

3. AC Machines
• Note: A complete cycle of voltage is generated when a coil passes over a pair of field poles.

• In one revolution of the rotor, the armature coil is cut by 𝑃⁄2 north poles and 𝑃⁄2 south poles. So, the number of
cycles generated in one revolution of the rotor will be equal to the number of pole pairs. i.e.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑃⁄2
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑁⁄60
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
= 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛s per second
𝑃𝑁
∴𝑓=
120

• From the above equation,

120𝑓
𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑁 =
𝑃

3
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
3.1.4 AC armature windings

Recall:

• Conductor: Part of the wire under the influence of a magnetic field and responsible for the induced emf. Conductors
are placed in armature slots.

• Turn: Two connected conductors constitute a turn.

• Coil: Grouped turns form a coil

• Coil side: part of the coil in the slot is called coil side.

• Pole Pitch: Centre to centre distance between two adjacent poles.

Note
• 2 poles are responsible for 360o electrical of emf, 4 poles for 720o electrical etc. Hence, 1 pole is responsible for
180o electrical of induced emf. Hence, 180o is also called one pole pitch.

• Consider a 2 pole, 18 slots armature of the alternator. Under 1 pole will be = 9 slots. Therefore, the pole
pitch is 9 slots or 180o .
7

3. AC Machines
• That is, 9 slots are responsible to produce a phase difference of 180o between emfs induced in different
conductors. This number of slots per pole is denoted as ‘n’.

• Slot Angle (𝛽): the phase difference contributed by one slot in degrees electrical.

• As slots per pole contributes 180o electrical which is denoted as ‘n’,

∴ 1 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = =𝛽

3.1.5 Types of armature windings

1. Single layer and Double layer winding

• Single layer consists of one coil side, double layer consists of two coil sides per slot, one at the bottom and another
at the top.

4
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
2. Full pitch and Short Pitch winding

• When a coil side in one slot is connected to a coil side in another slot which is one pole pitch distance away
from first slot, the winding is said to be full pitch winding, and the coil is called full pitch coil.

• Coil span: distance between two coil sides of a coil. If the coil span is ‘n’ slots or 180o electrical, the coil is
called full pitch coil.
• If the coil span is slightly less that a pole pitch i.e. less than 180o electrical, the coils are called short pitched coils
or fractional pitched coils. Generally, coils are shorted by one or two slots

• Advantages of short pitch coils

• Inactive length of winding (end connections) is less, hence less copper is required and therefore, economical.

• Eliminates high frequency harmonics which distort the sinusoidal nature of emf. Hence, induced emf is more
sinusoidal.
9

3. AC Machines
• Eddy current and hysteresis losses which depend on frequency also get minimised which increases efficiency

3. Concentrated and distributed windings

• In 3 phase alternators, there are three windings each for each phase. Hence, we have certain slots per phase
available under each pole. This is denoted as ‘m’

• m = slots per pole per phase = n/number of phases.

• Imagine we have ‘x’ number of conductors per phase to be placed under one pole, and we have 3 slots per pole
per phase available. If all ‘x’ conductors per phase are placed in one slot leaving the other 2 slots per pole per
phase empty, then it is a concentrated winding. Due to large number of conductors per slot, heat dissipation is
poor.

i.e. in concentrated winding, all conductors or coils belonging to a phase are placed in one slot under every pole
• Distributed winding, therefore, is where all the coils belonging to a phase are well distributed over ‘m’ slots per
phase. This makes the waveform of the induced emf more sinusoidal in nature.

Note: In practice, double layer, short pitched and distributed type armature windings are preferred for alternators.

10

10

5
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
3.1.6 Induced EMF of an Alternator

• Consider an alternator in which all coils used for the armature windings are full pitched and all conductors are placed
in a single slot i.e. concentrated winding.

• Let
𝜙 = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒, 𝑊𝑏
𝑁 = 𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑍 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
𝑃 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑧
𝑍
𝑍 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
3

• For one conductor in a slot, the average induced emf =

• For one revolution of the conductor,

𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜n𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 11

11

3. AC Machines
• Total flux cut in one revolution = 𝜙𝑥𝑃

• Time taken for one revolution is 60⁄𝑁 seconds

𝜙𝑃 𝑃𝑁
∴ 𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =𝜙
60 60
𝑁
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑓 = , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2𝑓
120 60
⟹𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 2𝑓 𝜙

• But 1 turn is made of 2 conductors, and these two emf will try to set up a current in the same direction
∴ 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 2 𝑥 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 4𝑓 𝜙

• Let 𝑇 = be the total number of turns per phase

∴ 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸 = 𝑇 𝑥 4𝑓 𝜙

• RMS value of 𝐸 = 1.11 x 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸

𝐸 = 4.4.4𝑓 𝜙𝑇
12

12

6
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
3.1.7 Pitch factor or coil span factor (𝑲𝒄)

• In short pitch coils, the actual coil span is less than 180o. The angle by which the coils is short pitched is called angle
of short pitch 𝛼.

• Since coils are shorted in terms of number of slots, and slot angle is 𝛽, then angle of short pitch is always a multiple
of the slot angle 𝛽.

• The factor by which induced emf is reduced due to short pitching is called pitch or coil span factor 𝐾 .

• It can be shown that

𝛼
𝐾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
2
3.1.8 Distribution factor [breadth factor or winding factor] (𝑲𝒅 )

• Factor by which emf is reduced due to distribution of the coils.

13

13

3. AC Machines
• It can be shown that
𝑚𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
𝐾 =
𝛽
𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛
2

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒, 𝛽 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = , 𝑛 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒

3.1.9 Generalized Expression for EMF Equation of an alternator.

• Considering full pitch, concentrated winding,

𝐸 = 4.4.4𝑓𝜙𝑇

• But in practice, short pitch, distributed windings are used, and hence emf is reduced by 𝐾 and 𝐾 . Hence,
𝐸 = 4.4.4𝐾 𝐾 𝑓𝜙𝑇

Note: for full pitch coil, 𝐾 = 1 and for concentrated winding, 𝐾 = 1. For short pitch and distributed winding, 𝐾 and
𝐾 are always less than unity.

14

14

7
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
Examples

1. Calculate the distribution factor for a 36 slots, 4 poles, single layer three phase winding. (0.9598)

2. Calculate the pitch factor for the given winding : 36 stator slots, 4 poles, coil span 1 to 8. (0.9848)

3. A 3 phase, 50Hz, 16 pole star connected alternator has a stator winding with 144 slots with 10 conductors per slot.
The magnetic flux per pole is 0.03 Wb and is sinusoidally distributed in space. The coil pitch is 8 slots. Estimate the
emf induced between the lines of the alternator. (2616.6V)

4. A 3 phase, 16 pole alternator has star connected winding with 144 slots and 10 conductors per slot. The flux per
pole is 0.04 Wb and is distributed sinusoidally. The speed is 375 rpm. Find the frequency, phase emf and line emf.
The coil span is 120o electrical.

5. A three phase, star connected 16 pole alternator has 192 slots with 8 conductors per slot, coil span = 160 electrical
degrees, speed of alternator = 375 rpm, flux per pole = 55mWb. Calculate the phase and line voltages. (Eline = 5kV)

15

15

3. AC Machines
3.1.5 Power developed by a cylindrical synchronous generators

• The simplified equivalent circuit of a cylindrical rotor synchronous generator is shown below

𝑉 = 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝐼 = 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡,

𝐸 = 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝛿 = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸, 𝜙 = 𝑝𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 (𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔)

• Synchronous impedance,
𝒁 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 = 𝑍 ∠𝜃

Note: 𝑋 = 𝑋 + 𝑋 ; 𝑋 = 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑋 = 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑅 = 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

16

16

8
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
• Taking V as the reference vector,
𝑽 = 𝑉∠0, 𝑬 = 𝐸∠𝛿
𝑬 = 𝑽 + 𝑰𝒁
𝑬−𝑽
𝑰=
𝒁𝒔
• Power output per phase of an ac generator
𝑺 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑽𝑰∗
∗ ∗ ∗
𝑬−𝑽 𝐸∠𝛿 − 𝑉∠0 𝐸 𝑉 𝐸 𝑉
=𝑽 = 𝑉∠𝑂 =𝑉 ∠ 𝛿−𝜃 − ∠−𝜃 =𝑉 ∠ 𝜃 − 𝛿 − ∠𝜃
𝒁𝒔 𝑍 ∠𝜃 𝑍 𝑍 𝑍 𝑍
𝑉𝐸 𝑉
𝑺𝒐 = ∠ 𝜃 −𝛿 − ∠𝜃
𝑍 𝑍
• Similarly, power input of an ac generator
∗
𝑬−𝑽 𝐸 𝑉𝐸
𝑺 =𝑬 = ∠𝜃 − ∠ 𝜃 +𝛿
𝒁𝒔 𝑍 𝑍
• When armature resistance is neglected. i.e 𝑅 = 0, 𝑍 = 𝑋 , 𝜃 = 90 (Valid for big machine as R is too small cf to 𝑍 )
𝑉𝐸 𝑉𝐸 𝑉
𝑃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 −
𝑋 𝑋 𝑋
17

17

3. AC Machines
𝑉𝐸 𝐸 𝑉𝐸
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
𝑍 𝑋 𝑋
3.1.6 Power developed by a salient pole synchronous machine
3.1.6.1. Two reactance concept for salient pole synchronous machines
• A Cylindrical rotor machine has uniform airgap, and hence its reactance remains almost the same.
• The effect of the armature reaction reactance, flux and induced voltages can be treated in a simple way.
• Since 𝑋 = 𝑋 + 𝑋 , the synchronous reactance depends on the flux linkage between the stator and the rotor.
• This is uniform for cylindrical rotor but with the salient pole rotor having with non-uniform airgap, the reactance
varies with the position of the rotor.
• The cylindrical rotor machine has one axis: the pole or direct axis, but a salient pole machine has two, the field pole
axis (or direct axis)and quadrature axis.

• The flux linkages along these two axis are different

18

18

9
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
• So, we need reactances along the direct axis and quadrature axis. Hence, 𝑋 = 𝑋 + 𝑋 is not true for salient pole
machines. 𝑋 is resolved into components, 𝑋 and 𝑋 .
• The armature current 𝐼 will also be resolved into two components along the axes, 𝐼 and 𝐼 perpendicular to and
pallarel to 𝐸 respectively.
• Adding the armature leakage reactance 𝑋 which is similar in both cases, we get
𝑋 = 𝑋 + 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋 = 𝑋 + 𝑋
And
𝑽 = 𝑬 − 𝑰𝑅 − 𝑰𝒅 𝑋 − 𝑰𝒒 𝑋
Note: 𝑋 and 𝑋 can be determined using the low voltage slip test.

• Power developed by a salient pole synchronous machine per phase can be derived from the phasor diagram, (or
otherwise).
19

19

3. AC Machines
𝐸 𝑉 𝑉 1 1 𝑉𝐸 𝑉
𝑃= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛿, 𝑄 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 − 𝑋 +𝑋 − 𝑋 − 𝑋 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛿
𝑋 2 𝑋 𝑋 𝑋 2𝑋 𝑋

Note: 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 is the synchronous or excitation power, and − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛿 is the reluctance power. (due to
saliency effects. [Assignment: Explain the importance of the low voltage slip test and how it is carried out.]

3.1.7 Parallel Operation of alternators

• The process of connecting one machine with another machine or busbar is called synchronising.

• The need for parallel operation of alternators is driven by:

i. Need for larger power stations. Building a single unit of the required capacity is difficult

ii. Reliability or continuity of service

iii. Repair and maintenance. More convenient and economical for smaller units

iv. Size and cost of standby unit.

v. Operating efficiency. Smaller machines can easily be run close to their rated capacity increasing their efficiency.
20

20

10
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
• To connect machines in parallel, the following conditions must be met:-

i. Phase sequence must be the same

ii. Busbar voltage and incoming machines voltage must be in phase

iii. Terminal voltage must be the same

iv. Frequency must be the same

• Synchronising of single-phase alternators are done using the dark lamp and bright lamp method. For three phase
alternators, two methods lamp method and synchroscope are used.(Write short notes on the methods giving
limitations of each)

3.1.7.1 Shifting of load

• When the synchronising switch is closed, the incoming alternator is said to be connected in parallel with the existing
alternators.

• At this instant, the connected alternator is not delivering any power to the busbar. Delivery of power happens by
simultaneously increasing the mechanical power to the prime mover of the incoming alternator and reducing it in the
existing alternator. Note: The load is shifted as per their respective ratings.
21

21

3. AC Machines
3.1.7.2 Load Sharing Between Two Alternators

• Consider two alternators with identical speed/load characteristics connected in parallel with a common terminal
voltage V and delivering power to a load.

• Let 𝐄 , 𝐙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐈 and 𝐄 , 𝐙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐈 be the per phase parameters of the two machines, and 𝒁 be the per phase load
impedance.

• Now
𝑽 = 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑰𝟏 𝒁𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 − 𝑰𝟐 𝒁𝟐
𝑬𝟏 − 𝑽 𝑬𝟐 − 𝑽
⇒ 𝑰𝟏 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝟐 =
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝑬𝟏 − 𝑽 𝑬𝟐 − 𝑽 𝑽
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟏 = + =
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐 𝒁
22

22

11
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝑬𝟐
𝑽 + + = +
𝒁 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐

• The circulating current on no-load

𝐸 −𝐸
𝐼 =
𝑍 +𝑍

This current does not supply any load, but flows internally, causing heating and possibly instability.

Assignment: How can circulating current be controlled

Assignment: (MSc)

• Effect of change in input power, excitation, reactance on one of the alternators

• Effect of the governor’s characteristics on load sharing.

23

23

3. AC Machines

24

24

12
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
3.8 Hunting

• Oscillation of the rotor about its equilibrium is called hunting.

• It creates heavy mechanical stresses in the machine parts particularly on the bearings.

• Can be prevented by providing damper winding on the rotor pole faces in case of salient pole alternators.

• When hunting takes place, there is relative motion between the rotor with respect to the stator field, which
sets up eddy currents in the winding which flow in such a way that it suppresses the oscillations.

• It can also be suppressed by placing heavy flywheels in the shaft and putting dashpots on the engine governors.

Assignment:

What is hunting in alternators. Describe the causes, effects and mitigation techniques of hunting.

25

25

3. AC Machines
3.9 Effect of Governors’ Characteristics on Load Sharing

• The speed characteristics of the prime-movers of the alternators are drooping curves as shown below.

• As seen, the frequency of an alternator decreases with the increase in load.

• Governors are usually employed with the generator prime-movers. The moment there is a drop in speed, the valve
mechanism operates and brings the speed back to its rated value.

• Assume the alternators in the fig. above are of the same rating (e.g. 5MVA). Machines I and II have identical speed-
load characteristics but III has a different characteristic.

Case 1: Assume I and II are connected in parallel to supply their full rated load of 4MW (assume pf = 0.8 lag)

• If the load decreases (e.g. from 8 to 6MW), the frequency of both increases momentarily but load is shared
equally
26

26

13
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
Case II: If instead I and III are operated in parallel and both supplying full load (4MW at 0.8 pf lag)

• If the load decreases, say from 8 to 6MW, the frequency of both will increase momentarily, but will not share
the load equally.

• Governors, therefore, must be sensitive enough to bring the alternators to operate at their rated frequency and
share the load per their rating.

27

27

3. AC Machines

28

28

14
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
3.2. AC Motors

• AC motors are generally divided into Single phase and 3 phase motors.

• For most domestic use, single phase motors are used. They can be divided into single phase induction motors and
single-phase synchronous motors

3.2.1 Single phase induction Motors

• These are used in most domestic appliances and small industrial operations.

3.2.1.1 Construction

• Single phase induction motors have two parts, the stator and the rotor.

• The stator has laminated construction, with stampings to carry windings (stator or main winding). The laminated
nature keeps the iron losses to the minimum.
• The number of poles for which the stator is wound decides the synchronous speed of the motor.

Recall: 𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑁 =

29

29

3. AC Machines
• Note: Induction motor never rotates at synchronous speed, but a speed slightly less than synchronous speed.

• The rotor construction is of squirrel cage type. i.e. the rotor consists of uninsulated copper or aluminium bars placed
in slots.
• The bars are permanently shorted at both ends with conducting rings. Hence, the structure looks like a squirrel
cage.

• Since the bars are permanently shorted, the resistance of the rotor is very small. The airgap between the stator
and the rotor is kept uniform and very small.

• Fig c shows a schematic of a two-pole single phase induction motor.

30

30

15
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
3.2.1.2 Working Principle

• For motoring action, there exists two fluxes that interact with each other to produce the torque.

• A single-phase ac supply is connected to the stator winding. This supply carries an alternating current which
produces an alternating flux called main flux.

• This flux links with the rotor conductors and due to induction, an emf is induced in the rotor.

• The induced emf drives a current through the rotor, which produces another flux called rotor flux required for
motoring action. (Note: Single phase induction motors are not self starting)

• As the second flux is due to induction, the motor is hence called induction motor.

3.2.1.3 Double Revolving Field Theory

• According to this theory, any alternating quantity can be resolved into two rotating components rotating in opposite
directions and each having half of the maximum magnitude of the alternating quantity.

• In single phase induction motors, the stator winding produces an alternating magnetic field having maximum
magnitude of 𝜙 .
31

31

3. AC Machines
• Using the double revolving field theory, the stator flux will have two components each of magnitude 𝜙 ⁄2. Both are
rotating at synchronous speed in opposite directions.

• Let 𝜙 be the forward component rotating in the anticlockwise direction and 𝜙 be the backward component
rotating the in clockwise direction. The resultant of these two gives the instantaneous value of the stator flux at that
instant.

• At the start, the components are opposite each other, hence the resultant 𝜙 = 0. After 90o, the two components
are rotated in such a way that both are pointing in the same direction. Hence,
𝜙 =𝜙 ⁄2 + 𝜙 ⁄2 = 𝜙

• This shows that continuous rotation of the two components gives the original alternating stator flux as shown in (c).

• Since both components are rotating, they get cut by the rotor conductors, which induces emf in the rotor and hence
flux. 32

32

16
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
• The forward component will produce an anticlockwise torque while the backward component will produce the
clockwise component. If we assume that the anticlockwise torque is positive, then the clockwise torque is negative.

• At the start, these two components are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Hence, each torque tries to
rotate in its own direction. Hence, single phase induction motors are not self-starting.

3.2.1.4 Types of Single-phase Induction Motors

• In practice, some arrangement is provided so that the stator flux produced is of rotating type, and not alternating
type. This leads to a unidirectional torque; hence the motor becomes self-starting.

• The motor will rotate in the same direction as that of the rotating magnetic field.

• Depending on the methods of producing rotating stator magnetic flux, single phase induction motors are classified as
Split phase induction motors, capacitor start induction motor, capacitor start capacitor run induction motor and
shaded pole induction motor.

• To produce a rotating magnetic field, there must be at least two alternating fluxes having a phase difference between
them. The interaction of these fluxes produce a resultant flux which is a rotating magnetic flux, rotating in one
direction.

33

33

3. AC Machines
• The more the phase angle difference, the more the starting torque produced. This makes the induction motors self-
starting. After starting, the second flux must be removed so that the motor can continue to rotate under the
influence of the main flux alone.

1. Split phase Induction Motor

• In addition to the main winding (stator winding), the stator carries one more winding called auxiliary or starting
winding. The auxiliary winding carries a series resistance such that its impendence is highly resistive in nature.
The main winding is inductive in nature.

• If Im is the current through the main winding, and Ist is the current through the auxiliary winding, Then, Im lags
voltage V by angle 𝜙 while Ist is almost in phase with V.

• Therefore, there exists a phase difference 𝛼 between the two currents and hence between the two fluxes
produced by the fluxes.

• The resultant of these two fluxes is a rotating magnetic field. Due to this, the starting torque which acts in one
direction is produced.

34

34

17
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
• The centrifugal switch is switched off once the motor is running at about 75-80% of the synchronous speed.

• Since Im and Ist are split from each other by angle 𝛼 at the start, the motor is commonly called split phase motor.

2. Capacitor start motor

• The current Im lags the voltage by angle 𝜙 . Due to the capacitor, Ist leads the voltage by angle 𝜙 .

• Hence, there exists a large phase angle between the currents which is almost 90o, which is the ideal case.

• When the speed reaches 75 – 80% of the synchronous speed, the starting winding is disconnected. Hence, the
capacitor remains in the circuit only at the start, hence the name, capacitor start motors.

35

35

3. AC Machines
3. Capacitor start capacitor run motor

• In this case, there is no centrifugal switch and hence the capacitor remains permanently in the circuit. This improves
the power factor.

4. Shaded pole Induction motor

• Consists of a squirrel cage rotor and stator consisting of salient poles (projected poles). The poles are shaded i.e.
each pole carries a copper band on one of its unequally divided part called shading.

36

36

18
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
• The shaded poles act as secondary winding.

Assignment: Write short notes on shaded pole induction motors.

Examples:

1. The main and auxiliary winding impedances of a 50Hz, capacity start single phase induction motor are (3+j2.7)Ω and (7+j3)Ω
respectively. Determine the value of the capacitor to be connected in series with the auxiliary winding to achieve a phase
difference of 90o between the currents of the two windings at start. (295.43µF)

2. The equivalent impedances of the main and auxiliary windings in a capacitor motor are (15+j120)Ω and (50+j120)Ω respectively,
while the capacitance of the capacitor is 12µF. Determine the line current at the starting on 230V, 50Hz supply. (7.69A)

Assignment

1. The resistance and inductive reactance of each winding of a 50Hz single phase capacitor induction motor are 80Ω and 237.5Ω.
Additional resistance R and capacitance C are in series with the winding in order to achieve a phase difference of 90o while both
windings carry equal current. Calculate R and C ( R= 157.5Ω, C= 10µF)

2. A 250W, 230V, 50Hz single phase capacitor start induction motor has main winding impedance of 4.5 +j3.7 and auxiliary winding
of 9.5 +j3.5. Determine the value of the capacitor that will place the main and auxiliary winding currents in quadrature at starting
(211.4µF)
37

37

3. AC Machines
3.2.3 Equivalent Circuit of Single-Phase Induction Motor

• Using the two resolving field theory, a single-phase induction motor may be imagined to have a common stator but
two rotors revolving in opposite direction. Each rotor is considered to have half the resistance and reactance of the
actual rotor.

• Let
𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑋 = 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑅 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑋 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑋 = 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟

3.2.3.1 At standstill condition

• At standstill, an induction motor is considered as a transformer with the secondary short-circuited, with the only
difference being that we are considering a two fields revolving in opposite directions.
38

38

19
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
• Hence, for each rotor, resistance and reactance single-phase half the total value. Similarly, each rotor will be
associated with half the total magnetising reactance and resistance.

• Fig a shows the equivalent circuit of a single-phase induction motor at standstill, and b shows when the core loss
component has been neglected.

• Here
𝐸 = 4.44𝑓𝑁𝜙
𝐸 = 4.44𝑓𝑁𝜙

• At standstill, 𝜙 = 𝜙 , hence 𝐸 = 𝐸

• From the circuit, 39

39

3. AC Machines
𝑉 = 𝐸 +𝐸 = 𝐼 𝑍 +𝐼 𝑍
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑍 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑍 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦

3.2.3.2 At Running Condition

• If the rotor is running in the direction of the forward revolving field with slip S, the rotor current produced by the
forward field will have a frequency Sf.

• The rotor current produced by the backward field will have a frequency of (2-S)f.

• The equivalent circuit at running condition is as below.

40

40

20
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
• Total circuit impedance

𝑋 𝑅 𝑋
𝑋 𝑅 𝑋 𝑗 +𝑗
2 2𝑆 2
𝑍 = // +𝑗 =
2 2𝑆 2 𝑅 𝑋 𝑋
+𝑗 +
2𝑆 2 2

𝑋 𝑅 𝑋
𝑋 𝑅 𝑋 𝑗 +𝑗
2 2(2 − 𝑆) 2
𝑍 = // +𝑗 =
2 2(2 − 𝑆) 2 𝑅 𝑋 𝑋
+𝑗 +
2(2 − 𝑆) 2 2

• And
𝑉
𝐼 =
𝑍

Examples

41

41

3. AC Machines
Example

1. A 600W, 230V, 50Hx, 6 pole single phase induction motor has the following parameters. Resistance and reactance
of the main stator winding are 3Ω and 4.15 3Ω respectively, reactance of the magnetizing branch referred to the
stator is 107 Ω, rotor resistance and reactance referred to the stator at standstill are 6.2 Ω and 2.2 Ω respectively.
The core losses are 75W while the mechanical losses are 25W. The motor is operating with 5% slip. Calculate (i)
input current, (ii) Power factor (iii) Gross power (iv) Shaft power (iv) efficiency (4.88A, 0.65 lagging,533.7W, 62.4%)

2. A 2 pole, 50Hz single phase induction motor has an effective rotor resistance and leakage reactance of 0.5Ω each. If
it is running at 2600 rpm, find (i) The frequencies of the rotor current components (ii) relative magnitudes of
forward and backward fluxes. Neglect magnetizing current and stator impedance. (6.67Hz, 93.3Hz,6.67)

Revision exercises

42

42

21
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
3.3 Three Phase Motors

3.3.1 Three Phase Induction Motors

• Induction machines never run at synchronous speed, hence, they are sometimes called asynchronous machines.

• Three phase motors are the most used AC motors (approx. 90% of all AC motors) because of their simple and
rugged construction, high efficiency, reasonably good power factor, self-starting and low maintenance cost.

• However, their speed decreases as load is increased and starting torque is less compared to DC motors.

3.3.1.1 Slip

• In an induction motor, the speed of the rotor is always less than synchronous speed.

• The difference between the speed of revolving field and the rotor speed is called slip.
𝑁 −𝑁
𝑆=
𝑁

• Slip speed is the difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed. i.e.
𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑁 − 𝑁 43

43

3. AC Machines
Importance of slip: Slip determines the rate at which the flux is cut by the rotor conductors and hence the
magnitude of induced emf. i.e. 𝑒 ∝ 𝑁 − 𝑁.

Rotor current, 𝑖 ∝ 𝑒 and torque, 𝑇 ∝ 𝑖

𝑁 −𝑁
𝑇 = 𝐾 𝑁 − 𝑁 = 𝐾𝑁 =𝐾 𝑆
𝑁

• Hence 𝑇 ∝ S

• The slip in an induction motor adjusts itself to such a value so as to meet the required driving torque under normal
operation.

3.3.1.2 Frequency of Rotor Currents

• The frequency of the rotor depends on the relative speed between the rotor and stator field.

• When the rotor is stationary (𝑁 = 0), the frequency of the rotor currents is the same as that of the supply
frequency.

• Once the rotor starts rotating, the frequency of the rotor currents decreases depending on the slip speed 𝑁 − 𝑁 .
44

44

22
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
• Let the frequency 𝑓 , then,
𝑁 −𝑁 𝑃 𝑁 −𝑁 𝑁 𝑃
𝑓 = = . = 𝑆𝑓
120 𝑁 120

Assignment: Describe the production of revolving field in 3 phase induction Motors

45

45

3. AC Machines
3.3.1.3 Speed of the Rotor field or mmf

• When three phase currents are supplied to the stator winding of a polyphase induction motor, a resultant field is set
up which rotates at synchronous speed (𝑁 = 120𝑓⁄𝑃)

• This field induces polyphase emfs in the rotor winding. If the winding is closed, polyphase currents circulate in it.
These setup a revolving field in the rotor which rotate at a speed
120𝑓𝑆
𝑁 = 120𝑓 ⁄𝑃 = = 𝑆𝑁 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑃
• When the rotor itself is rotating at a speed N rpm in space.
∴ 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑁 + 𝑁 = 1 − 𝑆 𝑁 + 𝑆𝑁 = 𝑁

3.3.1.4 Rotor emf

• The stator induced emf per phase is given by

𝐸 = 4.44𝑘 𝑘 𝑇 𝜙 𝑓

• The rotor induced emf per phase

𝐸 = 4.44𝑘 𝑘 𝑇 𝜙 𝑓 46

46

23
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
• At the start, 𝑓 = 𝑓. Hence, the induced emf per phase at standstill or start 𝐸 = 4.44𝑘 𝑘 𝑇 𝜙 𝑓

• Hence
𝐸 𝑇
= = 𝐾 (𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜)
𝐸 𝑇

• Induced emf in the rotor under running condition,

𝐸 = 4.44𝑘 𝑘 𝑇 𝜙 𝑆𝑓 = 𝑆𝐸

• The induced emf in the rotor is maximum at the start and varies with slip under running condition.

3.3.1.5 Rotor Resistance, Reactance and Impedance

• The rotor resistance remains constant, and is denoted 𝑅 .

• Not all flux produced by the rotor currents link with the stator. The part that links the rotor conductors but not
with the stator winding is called leakage flux, hence develops leakage inductance 𝐿 .
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑋 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑆𝑓𝐿 = 𝑆(2𝜋𝑓𝐿 )

• When the rotor is at standstill, 𝑆 = 1, the value of rotor reactance 𝑋 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿

47

47

3. AC Machines
• Hence, under normal running, rotor reactance 𝑋 = 𝑆𝑋

• Rotor impedance
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑆𝑋

3.3.1.6 Rotor Current and Power factor

• Consider the rotor equivalent circuit diagram below

• Under running condition, the rotor induced emf 𝐸 = 𝑆𝐸

• Rotor impedance 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑆𝑋

• Rotor current
𝐸 𝐸 𝑆𝐸
𝐼 = = =
𝑍
𝑅 + 𝑆𝑋 𝑅 + 𝑆𝑋 48

48

24
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
• Rotor power factor,
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 ⁄𝑆
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = = =
𝑍
𝑅 + 𝑆𝑋 (𝑅 ⁄𝑆) +𝑋

3.3.1.7 Simplified Equivalent Circuit of Rotor

• From 𝐼 = , dividing through by S

𝐸
𝐼 =
𝑅 ⁄𝑆 + 𝑋

• This expression gives the convenient form shown in fig 9.14.

49

49

3. AC Machines
• The resistance is a function of slip and can be split into two parts
𝑅 1−𝑆
= 𝑅 +𝑅
𝑆 𝑆

Where 𝑅 represents electrical load on the rotor, say 𝑅

• 𝑅 is rotor resistance and 𝑋 is standstill leakage reactance. The resistance 𝑅 is a fictitious resistance
representing electrical load (𝑅 ).

• The power consumed by this fictitious resistance, 𝐼 𝑅 is the electrical power which is converted into
mechanical power available at the shaft.

• Thus, the electrical power converted into mechanical power = 𝐼 𝑅

50

50

25
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
• From the phasor diagram, rotor current 𝐼 lags the rotor standstill induced emf 𝐸 by 𝜙 .

• The voltage drop across 𝑅 and 𝑅 are in phase with current 𝐼 , whereas the voltage drop in 𝑋 leads the
current 𝐼 by 90.

• The vector sum of all three drops is equal to 𝐸 . i.e

𝐸 =𝐼 𝑅 ⁄𝑆 + 𝑋

Power factor of the rotor circuit

𝑅 ⁄𝑆
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
𝑅 ⁄𝑆 + 𝑋

51

51

3. AC Machines

52

52

26
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
3.3.1.8 Stator Parameters

• Like the rotor, the stator winding also has has a resistance 𝑅 and leakage reactance 𝑋 .

• The self-induced emf 𝐸 is given by

𝐸 =𝑉 −𝐼 𝑅 −𝐼 𝑋

Induction Motor on No-Load (Rotor circuit open)

• In a slip ring induction motor, rotor circuit can be opened.

• Under this condition, the stator draws a very small current 𝐼 known as a no-load current.

• This current has two components, the working current 𝐼 and magnetising component 𝐼 .

• The equivalent circuit an phasor diagram under this condition is shown below

53

53

3. AC Machines

Induction Motor on Load

• When a load is applied on the induction motor, its speed decreases slightly and slip increases, hence the rotor
current 𝐼 increases.

• Simultaneously, to meet this load, the current draws extra current from the supply mains similar to that of a
transformer.

• The complete circuit and phasor diagram of a loaded induction motor is shown below
54

54

27
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines

• Hence
𝑉 𝑉
𝑋 = ,𝑅 =
𝐼 𝐼

• Note that the mechanical load has been replaced by an equivalent electrical resistance 𝑅 given as
1−𝑆
𝑅 =𝑅
𝑆 55

55

3. AC Machines
• The equivalent circuit above is similar to the equivalent circuit of a transformer with the secondary load equal to 𝑅 .
The rotor emf only depends on the transformation ratio 𝐾 = .
• Hence, an induction motor can be represented as an equivalent transformer connected to a variable load 𝑅 .
Assignment:
i. Describe the similarities and differences between an induction motor and a transformer.
ii. Describe the moan loses in an induction motor.
Relationship between Rotor copper loss, Slip and Rotor Input
• The electrical power developed in the rotor is converted into mechanical power.
1−𝑆
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐼 𝑅
𝑆
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑅
𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ. 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 + 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
1−𝑆 𝐼 𝑅
=𝐼 𝑅 +𝐼 𝑅 =
𝑆 𝑆
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐼 𝑅 𝑆
∴ = =
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 1 − 𝑆 1−𝑆
𝐼 𝑅
𝑆

56

56

28
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐼 𝑅
= =𝑆
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼 𝑅 /𝑆

Note: All values are the phase values.

Rotor Efficiency
1−𝑆
𝐼 𝑅
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑆
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = = = 1−𝑆
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼 𝑅 /𝑆

57

57

3. AC Machines

58

58

29
 24/03/2025

3. AC Machines
Torque Developed by an Induction Motor
• Electrical Power of a 3-phase induction motor converted into mechanical power
1−𝑆
𝑃 =𝐼 𝑅
𝑆

Also
𝑃 = 𝜔𝑇, 𝑇 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐼 𝑅 1 − 𝑆 3𝐼 𝑅
⟹𝑇=3 . =
𝑆 𝜔 𝜔𝑆
𝜔 = 𝜔 1 − 𝑆 , 𝜔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
Since
𝐸 𝑆𝐸
𝐼 = =
𝑅 ⁄𝑆 + 𝑋
𝑅 + 𝑆𝑋
3 𝑆𝐸 𝑅 3𝑆𝐸 𝑅 3𝑆𝐸 𝑅
∴𝑇= = =
𝜔 𝑆 𝜔 𝑅 + 𝑆𝑋 2𝜋𝑁 𝑅 + 𝑆𝑋
𝑅 + 𝑆𝑋

59

59

3. AC Machines

60

60

30