CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction
Today, computers are virtually everywhere in our society. People
encounter and use computers and computing technology many times during
the average day. Individuals use personal computers and mobile devices
both at home and on the go to perform a variety of important daily tasks,
such as to pay bills, manage investment, communicate with others, research
products, make travel arrangements, check current news and weather
information, and view maps location. Individuals also increasingly use these
devices for a growing number of entertainment purposes, such as playing
games, downloading and listening to music, and watching TV shows.

Business, schools, government agencies, and other organizations use

computers and related technologies to facilitate day-to-day transactions,
provide better services to customers, communicate with others, retrieve and
disseminate information. Because they are so embedded in our society
today, it is essential for everyone to know something about computers and
what they can do.

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1.1 Definition of Computer
A computer can be defined as a programmable, electronic device
that accepts data, performs operation on that data, presents the results, and
stores the data or results as needed. The fact that a computer is
programmable means that a computer will do whatever the instructions-
called the program- tell it to do. The programs used with a computer
determine the task the computer is able to perform.

The four operations described in this definition are more technically

referred to as input, processing, output, and storage. These four primary
operations of a computer can be defined as follows:

• Input: entering data into the computer.

• Processing: performing operations on the data.

• Output: presenting the results.

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 • Storage: saving data, programs, or output for future use.

For example, assume that you have a computer that has been programmed
to add two numbers in decimal. As shown in the figure below, input occurs
when data (in this example, the numbers 2 and 5) is entered into the
computer, processing takes place when the computer program adds those
two numbers, and output happens when the sum of 7 is displayed on the
computer screen. The storage operation occurs any time the data, a change
to a program, or some output is saved for future use.

Figure 1: Information Processing Cycle.

For additional example, look at a supermarket barcode reader to

see how it fits this definition of a computer. First, the grocery item being
purchased is passed over the barcode reader-input. Next, the description
and price of the item are looked up-processing. Finally, the item description
and price are displayed on the cash register and printed on the receipt-
output- and the inventory, ordering, and sales records are updated- storage.

Characteristics of Computers
Computers have certain definite characteristics that make them unique. These characteristics
include:
o Speed

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 o Accuracy
o Storage
o Consistency
o Repetitiveness
o Complexity
• Speed: The computers have the ability to execute or carry out instructions at very great
speed.
• Accuracy: Computers do not make errors i.e. there is accuracy of work. Any error is usually
caused by the human elements.
• Storage: Computers can store large volume of data/information on secondary storage, which
can be retrieved at a later time.
• Consistency: Computers have the ability to consistently follow instructions without getting
tired.
• Repetitiveness: Computers have the ability to continue processing over an extended period.
• Complexity: Computers have the ability to carry out very complex operations that beats the
best human ability.

Data and Information Scope

Data and information are two words often misunderstood because of their
capability of being used interchangeably depending on the context (how
they are used).

Definition of Data
Data are raw facts and figures about an event or activities, somebody,
something or some place. Data can also be defined as unprocessed
information. Data are all facts and figures that a computer processed by the
following set of instruction called program. Datum is the singular form of
data.

Types of Data
1. Numeric Data: These are figures or numbers. Examples are: 1, 2,3,4,5...
2. Alphabetic Data: These can be letters, names, places, or classification.
Examples are: Bamalli, Cephas, Dennis, Mercy and also A-Z letters.
Alphabetic data are also called Labels (String).

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3. Alphanumeric Data: These are combination of numbers and labels.
Home Address: No. 3 NTA Quarters, Hadejia Jigawa State.
Car plate Number: AA 553 KYW, GSE123 are all examples of alphanumeric
data.
4. Audio Data: These are voice data. They can be sent into the computer
through microphone. An example is when you record your voice in to the
computer or Handset.
5. Graphic Data: These can be pictures, images, diagram, etc. Graphic data
also called visual or video data.

Definition of Information
Information means processed data (or raw facts). Information refers to a
data that have been converted into a more meaningful form.
Information = Data + Process

In other word information is a data that is organized, has meaning and

is useful. For example a student report card, newspapers, memo, a receipt, a
student teaching practice report taken by the supervisor etc.

Differences between Data and information

Both data and information are facts, knowledge learned about an
object, person, or place.
The following are the major differences between data and information:

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 S/ DATA INFORMATION
N
1 Data by itself is not Information is significant by
significant itself.
2 Data is an input for Information is an output of
processing processed data.
3 Data is a raw and Information is the result of
unorganized analyzed data.
4 Experiments, Analysis is carried out on the
observation and recorded data to obtain
recordings are done to information.
obtain data
5 Data is made up Information is conclusion of
unorganized facts that organized data.
can be drawn to
conclusion
6 Data is the lowest level Information is the second level
of knowledge after data.

Table 1.0 : Difference(s) between data and information.

1.2 Classification of Computers

Computers have been classified into five (5) different categories as follows:
 Classification by Generation;
 Classification by Size;
 Classification by Type or mode of processing;
 Classification by Function;
 Classification by Programmability.
Classification by Generation

There has been a lot of obvious improvements which have taken place
in the growth and development of computer over the years. These
tremendous improvements were on the processing, speed and storage
capacity. As a result, computers became cheaper and more affordable
to all. Below is classification of computers into different generations
based on the major electronic components upon which they are built.

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 1. First Generation Computers (Approximately: 1946-1957)
This generation started with vacuum tubes as the basic storage
(memory). These tubes like electric baths produce a lot of heat.

Example of First generation computer includes:

ENIAC- Electronic Numerical Integrator and computer.

EDVAC- Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer.
UNIVAC- Universal Automatic Computer.

Features of First Generation Computers:

 They used Vacuum tubes technology.

 They are bulk or huge in size.
 They consume more power with limited performance.
 They are very expansive.
 Instructions were coded in Machine Language.
 Their operating instructions were for only one machine.

2. Second Generation Computers ( Approximately: 1958-1963)

Instead of vacuum tubes, transistors were used in this
generation.

Example of Second generation computer includes:

IBM 1400 series- International Business Machine 7000.

NCR304- National Cash Register.
UNIVAC III.

Features of Second Generation Computers:

 Transistors were used in place of vacuum tubes.

 Smaller in size than First generation.
 Less expansive.
 They are faster than First generation.
 Assembly Language was used for programming.
 Generate less heat and much greater in their processing
capability.

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 3. Third Generation Computers ( Aprroximately:1964-1970)
The replacement of transistors with IC’s (Integrated Circuits) marked
the beginning of this generation.

Example of Third generation computer includes:

PDP-8 and PDP-11-Programmed data Processor.

ICL2900-Internation Computers Limited.
IBM370- International Business Machine.

Features of Second Generation Computers:

 ICs were used in place of transistors.

 Smaller in size than second generation.
 Less expansive.
 They were fast and more reliable.
 Keyboards and monitors were developed.
 They have OS which allow device to run different applications
at a time.

4. Fourth Generation Computers ( Aprroximately:1971-Present)

A technological breakthrough made it possible to increase the number
of transistors on a single chip. This led to the invention of
microprocessor.

Example of Fourth generation computer includes:

DEC 10-Digital Equipment Corporation.

STAR 100-Strings and Arrays.
PUP 111-Potentially Unwanted Program.

Features of Fourth Generation Computers:

 They have microprocessor based-system.

 They are the cheapest among all the computer generations.
 The speed, accuracy, and reliability of the computers were
improved.
 Many high-level Languages were developed in this generation
such as JAVA and C Language.

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 5. Fifth Generation Computers (Now and the Future)
This generation has no precise classification, since experts tend to
disagree about the definition for this generation of computers.
However, one common opinion is that fifth-generation computers will
be based on artificial intelligence, allowing them to think, reason,
and learn. Voice and touch are expected to be a primary means of
input, and computers may be constructed differently than they are
today.

Classification of Computers by Size

There are 3 types of computer in this category; they are:

1. Mainframe computers;
2. Mini-computers;
3. Micro-computer.

1. Mainframe Computers
These are very large computers that require extensive space, and they
are very expensive to buy and maintain. They are general purpose in
nature and have very large computing power, which enable them to be
capable of handling multiple simultaneous activities. Their main
memory is large and a lot of data and instructions can be stored there.
They can only be used in large organizations or institutions where very
large amount of information are being processed like banks, insurance
companies, manufacturing firms and universities. IBM 370 is one the
example of this category which is sometimes called Super Computer.

2. Mini Computers
These are smaller in size than the mainframe but bigger than Micro
computer. They are less expensive to mainframe computers; as a
result, they are affordable to medium size organizations. Their
processing speed is slower, their capability to support secondary
storage system are lower. They have the ability to handle complex
calculations.

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 3. Micro Computers
Micro Computers Are the smallest and cheapest when compared with
both Mainframe and Mini computers, they are otherwise known as
personal computer (PC) because they are designed as single user
systems. Their processing speed is the highest and their central
processing unit (CPU) consists of microprocessors placed on silicon
chips. Present day Micro computers are very complex, powerful, and
have very large storage capacity and some of them are portable.

Types of Micro Computers

a) Notebook Micro computers
b) Laptop Micro computers
c) Desktop Micro computers
d) Minitower Micro computers
e) Full tower Micro computers

Classification of Computers by Type

There are 3 types of computer in this category; they are:

1. Analog computer
2. Digital computer
3. Hybrid computer

1. Analog Computers
These computer measure continuous electrical states, for example,
pressure, temperature, voltage and volume. Example of this device is:
petrol pump, speedometer, thermometer, and volume control of TV
set.

2. Digital Computers
These are computers designed to process data in discrete numerical
form which are represented by discrete signals using binary code.
Numbers, letters, and symbols are represented by codes based on the
binary number system (0, 1). Examples: Digital watches, and
calculators.

3. Hybrid computers
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 These are computers that combine the features of Analog and Digital
computers for their functions. They are for counting and measuring. In
fact, they are very useful in the control of manufacturing and
processing.

Classification of Computers by Function/Purpose

There are 2 types of computer in this category; they are:

1. General purpose computers;

2. Special purpose computers.

1. General Purpose Computers

These are multi-purpose computers capable of solving a wide range of
problems. They can be used in and for various aspects like drawing,
calculating, designing, typing, multi-media functions, playing games,
etc. examples are the Desktop computers, Laptop, Mini Tower
computers, etc.

2. Special Purpose Computers

These are dedicated computers designed solely for solving a particular
problem. Examples are Road Traffic Light Control, Calculators, Robots,
and counting Machine, etc.

Classification of Computers by Programmability

There are 2 types of computer in this category; they are:

1. Programmable computers; and

2. Non-Programmable computers.

1. Programmable Computers
These are computers designed to accept different programs from
users to solve problems. Computers that are generally suited to
carry out such programming tasks are programmable computer.
Examples are the Micro and Mainframe computers.

2. Non-Programmable Computers
These are computers designed to tackle a particular set of task(s),
therefore cannot accept any other program from any user apart
from what it is meant for. They are similar to the special/Dedicated
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 purpose computers. Examples are the X-ray machine, Vehicle
Speedometer, and Wind Vane.

1.3 Application of Computer in Our Society

Computer is now being used in almost every area of societal
endeavors. As a problem solving tools, it has been used extensively in
business organization, in education sectors, medical and health care,
legal assistance and many other area of life. Some areas of computer
application are:
1. Computers in the Home
Home computing has increased dramatically over the last few years
as computers and internet access have become less expensive and
as an increasing number of computer-related consumer activities
have become available. Use of the Internet at home to look up
information, exchange e-mail, shop, watch TV and videos, download
music and movies, research products, pay bills and manage bank
accounts, check news and weather, store and organize digital
photos, play games, make vacation plans, and so forth is now the
norm for many individuals.
2. Computers in Education
Today’s youth can be definitely called the computing generation.
From handheld gaming devices to mobile phones to computers at
school and home, most children and teens have been exposed to
computers and related technology all their lives. Many schools
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 today also have wireless hotspot that allows students to use their
personal computers to connect wirelessly to the college network
and the internet from anywhere on campus. Today, students at all
levels are typically required to use computer to some extent as part
of their normal coursework such as for preparing papers, or
practicing skills.
Computers are also used to facilitate distance learning (an
alternative to traditional classroom learning) in which students
participate, typically at their own pace, from their current location
(via their computers and internet connection) instead of physically
going to class.
3. Computers in Engineering
Computer systems are used to carry out Engineering Research on
rocketing and space travels. For instance, computers are used to
simulate data from laboratory test in the modeling of machines and
equipment and the result is viewed on the monitor before actual
manufacturing. This automated technique avoids waste of
manufacturing and re-manufacturing.
4. Computers in Banks
Computer is used to keep records of customers’ accounts. Records
of customers which could include the Names, Address, Ages,
Nationalities, Account Numbers, etc would be supplied to program
in the computer system as data which is saved and can be retrieved
at customers demand as many times as possible for settlement of
account.
Other application areas of computer are:
 Weather forecasting;
 Statistics;
 Transportation/Navigation;
 Telecommunication and data communication;
 Crime control;
 Artificial intelligence and robotics;
 Education, science and research;
 Recreation activities.

1.4 Difference between Hardware and Software

Components of computer

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The computer system is made up of two (i. e if Human ware is excluded)
major components, which are the:
1. Hardware;
2. Software;
1. Hardware
The physical parts of a computer (the parts you can touch, seen and
moved from one place to another) are called hardware. Hardware
components can be internal (located inside the main box or system
unit of the computer) or external (located outside the system unit via a
wired or wireless connection). There is hardware device associated
with each of the four computer operations previously discussed (input,
processing, output, and storage).
Input Devices
An input device is any piece of equipment that is used for sending
(transferring) data, information, and commands into the computer.
Input devices are shown below.

Figure 2: Input Devices

Other common input devices include digital cameras, digital pens and
styluses, touch pads and touch screens, and fingerprint readers.

Processing Devices
The main processing device for a computer is the central processing
unit (CPU). The CPU is a computer chip located inside the system unit
that performs the calculations and comparisons needed for processing;
it also controls the computer’s operations. For the reasons, the CPU is often
considered the brain of the computer.

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 Figure 3: Processing Device.

Output Devices
An output device accepts processed data from the computer and
presents the results to the user, most of the time on the computer
screen (monitor), on paper (via printer), or through a speaker.

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 Figure 4: Output Devices.

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 Storage Devices
Storage devices (such as CD/DVD drives and flash memory card
readers) are used to store data on or access data from storage media
(such as CD discs, DVD discs, or flash memory cards). Some storage
hardware (such as hard drive or a USB flash drive) includes both a
storage device and storage medium in a single piece of hardware.
Storage devices are used to save data, program settings, or output for
future use; they can be installed inside the computer, attached to the
computer as an external device, or accessed remotely through a
network or wireless connection.

Figure 5: Storage Devices.

2. Software
The term software refers to the programs or instruction used to tell the
computer hardware what to do. Software is traditionally purchased on
a CD or DVD, or is downloaded from the internet; in either case, the
software needs to be installed on a computer before it can be used.
Computers use two basic types of software: system software and
application software.
System Software
The programs that allow a computer to operate are collectively
referred to as system software. The main system software is the
operating system, which starts up the computer and controls its
operation. Common operating system tasks include setting up new
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 hardware, allowing users to run other software, and allowing users to
manage the documents stored on their computers. Without an
operating system, a computer cannot function. Common operating
system for computer is Windows, Mac OS, and Linux.
Application Software
Consists of programs designed to allow people to perform specific task
using a computer, such as creating letters, preparing budgets,
managing inventory and customer database, playing games, watching
videos, listening to music, scheduling appointments, editing digital
photographs, designing homes, viewing \Web pages, burning DVDs,
and exchanging email.

1.5 Storage device

Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer components, devices,
and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time.
Computer data storage provides one of the core functions of the modern computer, that of
information retention. It is one of the fundamental components of all modern computers, and
coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a processor), implements the basic computer model
used since the 1940s.
Alternatively referred to as digital storage, storage, storage media, or storage medium, a storage
device is any hardware capable of holding information either temporarily or permanently. There
are two types of computer storage: Primary storage and Secondary storage.
 Primary storage
Primary storage, presently known as memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The
CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them. Any data actively operated
on is also stored there in uniform manner. The two types of primary storage are RAM and ROM
 Random access memory (RAM)
RAM or Random Access Memory is the computer’s short-term storage space. It holds the
temporary data, such as open applications, files open, game data, etc. RAM chip is volatile,
which means it loses any information it is holding when the power is turned off.
 Read Only Memory (ROM)
ROM, or Read Only Memory is the permanent mass storage on a system. A ROM chip is a
non-volatile storage medium, which means it does not require a constant source of power to
retain the information stored on it.
Differences between RAM And ROM
RAM vs ROM RAM ROM

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difference
The data is not permanent
The data is permanent. It can be altered but only a
Data and it can be altered any
limited number of times that too at slow speed.
number of times.
Speed It is a high-speed memory. It is much slower than the RAM.
CPU The CPU can access the The CPU cannot access the data stored on it. In order
Interaction data stored on it. to do so, the data is first copied to the RAM.
Size and Large size with higher
Small size with less capacity.
Capacity capacity.
Firmware like BIOS or UEFI. RFID tags,
Primary memory (DRAM
microcontrollers, medical devices, and at places
Usage DIMM modules), CPU
where a small and permanent memory solution is
Cache (SRAM).
required.
Cost It doesn’t come cheap. Way cheaper than RAM.
Table 2: Difference(s) between RAM and ROM.

 Secondary storage
A secondary storage device refers to any non-volatile storage device that is internal or
external to the computer. It can be any storage device beyond the primary storage that
enables permanent data storage. A secondary storage device is also known as an auxiliary
storage device or external storage.

How Computer Memory Is Measured

• Basic Units of Data Storage: It is important to realize that the term digital computer refers to
the fact that ultimately the computer works in what is called binary. Humans work in tens
(because we have 10 fingers). To use the jargon humans work in base 10. A digital computer
uses the numbers 0 and 1 (or on and off if you prefer). When we talk about computer storage,
either the amount of memory (RAM) or the hard disk capacity we are talking about numbers that
are multiples of 0 or 1
• Bit: All computers work on a binary numbering system, i.e. they process data in ones or zeros.
This 1 or 0 level of storage is called a bit. Often hardware is specified as a 32-bit computer,
which means that the hardware can process 32 bits at a time. Software is also described as 16 bit,
32 bit or 64 bit software.
• Nibble: A nibble consists of 4 Bits
• Byte: A byte consists of eight bits i.e. 23 = 2 Nibbles = 1 Character
• Kilobyte: A kilobyte (KB) consists of 1024 bytes.
• Megabyte: A megabyte (MB) consists of 1024 kilobytes, approximately 1,000,000 bytes.
• Gigabyte: A gigabyte (GB) consists of 1024 megabytes, approximately 1,000,000,000 bytes.

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• Terabyte: A terabyte (TB) consists of approximately 1,000,000,000,000 bytes.
• Files: Data and programs are stored on your disk as files. There are different types of files,
such as the files that you store your data in, the files that contain your programs and also files
used to store your operating system (such as Microsoft Windows).

1.6 The Operating System

A computer’s operating system is a collection of programs that manage and coordinate the
activities taking place within the computer and it is the most critical piece of software installed
on the computer. The operating system boots the computer, launches application software, and
ensures that all actions required by a user are valid and processed in an orderly fashion.
The operating system serves as an intermediary between the user and the computer, as well as
between application programs and the computer system’s hardware. Most OS today use a
graphical user interface (GUI) while some version of the OS use a command line interface.

Types of Operating System

• Single Program OS: allow one user’s program at a time
• Simple Batch Systems: Provides multiprogramming of batch programs but have few
facilities for multi-access
• Multi-access and Time-sharing: Allows multiple access to system resources and therefore
share processors time to cope with numerous users
• Real-time system: Used in any real time data processing technique

Functions of an Operating System

Earlier it was stated that the function of an operating system is to manage the resources of
the computer system. Generally these resources managed by Operating System are CPU,
Memory, Input/ Output Devices, Backing Store and Files.
The above is by no means a full list of the functions of an operating system.
Other functions include:
 Interpretation of the command language by which operators can communicate
with the operating system;
 Error handling: For example, detecting and reporting inoperative or
malfunctioning peripherals; - protection of data files and programs from
corruption by other users;
 Security: Protection of data files and programs from unauthorized use;
 Accounting: Accounting and logging of the use of the computer resources.

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  Program Loading to the main memory for processing - Multiprogramming -
Interrupt handling - Job Sequencing - File Management
 Job Scheduling - Peripheral Control
 Recovery from System Failure

Operating Systems for Personal Computers and Servers

Many OS today are designed either for personal computers (such as desktop and notebook) or for
network servers. The most widely used personal and server operating systems are discussed next.

Disk Operating System (DOS)

During the 1980s and early 1990s, DOS (Disk Operating system) was the dominant operating
system for microcomputers. DOS traditionally used a command line interface, although newer
versions of DOS support a menu-driven interface. There are two primary forms of DOS:PC-DOS
and MS-DOS.

Windows
Microsoft Windows has been the predominant personal operating system for many years and still
holds about 90% of the market. There have been many different versions of Windows over the
years: Windows 1.0 through Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7.

UNIX
Was originally developed in the late 1960s at AT and T Bell laboratories as an OS for midrange
servers. Computer system, ranging from microcomputers to mainframes can run UNIX, and it
can support a variety of devices from different manufactures.

LINUX
The OS resembles UNIX but was developed independently from it. An open source OS that is
available without charge over the internet and is increasingly being used with mobile devices,
personal computers, servers, mainframe and supercomputers.

Utility Programs
A utility program is a software program that performs a specific task, usually related to
managing or maintaining the computer system. Many utility programs such as programs for
finding files, diagnosing and repairing system problems, cleaning up a hard drive, viewing
images, playing multimedia files, and backing up files are built into the operating systems. There

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are also stand-alone utility programs available as an alternative to the operating system’s utility
programs (such as a search or a backup program) or to provide additional utility features not
usually built into operating systems (such as an antivirus or a file compression program). Some
of the most commonly used integrated and stand-alone utility programs are:
 File Management Programs
 Search Tools
 Diagnostic and Disk Management Programs
 Uninstall and Cleanup utilities
 File Compression Programs
 Backup and Recovery Utilities
 Antivirus, Antispyware, Firewalls, and Other Security programs

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