CHAPTER- 3 LAWS OF MOTION__

Momentum

Linear momentum (p) = mass (m) x velocity (v)

S.I. unit of momentum is kgm/s

momentum is a vector quantity.

Second Low of motion –

∆𝑝
𝐹𝑎
∆𝑡
∆𝑝
𝐹=𝑘
∆𝑡
F =ma

impulse = 𝐹 ⤫ ∆𝑡
mv − mu
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = ∆𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
∆𝑡
= 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = ∆𝑝
The SI unit of impulse is kg ms-1 or Ns.

Recoil of a gun :

mv + MI =0
where m and M are masses of bullet and gun
respectively and v and V their respective velocities after firing.
m
 Recoil velocity of gun = 𝑉 = v
𝑀

Rocket propulsion :
Let M be the mass of rocket and m the mass of gas escaping per second
with a velocity v.
mv
The rocket moves with an acceleration 𝑎 = −
𝑀

Static friction : 𝑓𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = μs ⤫ FN

Where μs is called the co-efficiend of static friction.

Kinetic friction: 𝑓𝑘 < 𝑓𝑠

𝑓𝑘 = μk ⤫ FN
fk
Co-efficient of kinetic friction μk =
𝐹𝑛

μk < μs
fr
Co-efficient of rolling friction μr = 𝐹𝑁

CHAPTER_6 -Work , Energy and Power___

Work

Let a constant force F acting on an object results

In displacement d and f be acting at an angle 0 with respect to

displacement then

work done W = F cosθd.

𝑤 = F. d
Work done by gravity

𝑊 = (𝑚𝑔)(ℎ) cos 180֯ = −𝑚𝑔ℎ

Work done by the spring force Fs
1
𝑊 = − 𝑘𝑥2
2

total work done ∆W

Average power 𝑃 = =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ∆𝑡

Instantaneous power
∆𝑊 𝑑W
𝑃 = lim [ ]=
∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

1 kilowatt =1 kw=1000 W

1 megawatt = 1 MW = (10)6 w = (10)3 kw

1 horse power =1 hp = 746 W.

Dimensional formula of power is [ML 2T-3] power is a scalar quantity.

Kinetic energy,
1
𝐾= 𝑚𝑣2
2

kinetic energy is a scalar quantity.

work-energy theorem
1
𝑚𝑢2 = 𝑘1 = the initial
2
1
and 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑘2 = final value of kinetic energy
2

W=k2 -k1

Work done = change in kinetic energy

This is the statement of work-energy theorem.

Potential energy in gravitation field

P.E =mgh

Acceleration due to gravity g=9.8ms-2

Potential energy of springs

1
𝑊 = 𝑘𝑥2
2

Also known as Elastic potential energy .

CHAPTER-9____Prpperties of Fluids_________________________

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE .
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝐹
Pressure 𝑃 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

SI unit of pressure is Nm-2 and is also called a pascal (pa) .

Dimensions are [ML-1T-2]

Atmospheric pressure P atm =hpg=0.76x13.6x(10)3x9.8=1.01x(10)5 Pa

[here , density of mercury P=13.6 x (10)3 kgm-3]

𝐹1 𝐹2
Hydraulic press/balance 𝑃 = =
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝐹
Surface tension 𝑇 =
𝐿

SI unit of surface tension is Nm-1 and its dimensions are [MT-2]

Surface energy U= surface Tension (t) x surface area of liquid film (A)

Excess pressure on concave side a curved surface :

A spherical liquid drop

Let r be the redius of small spherical liquid drop and excess pressure
inside (on concave side of liquid surface ) be p.
2𝑇
𝑝=
𝑟

Air bubble in water/liquid : excess pressure inside air bubble.

2𝑇
𝑝=
𝑟

Soap bubble floating in air : the excess pressure inside a soap bubble
4𝑇
𝑝=
𝑟

Angle of contact

Let adhesive force F cohesive force F

(i) If Fa > Fc sin 𝜃 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 contact with the
solid will be concave
(ii) If F𝑎 < Fc sin 𝜃, the surface will be convex.
(iii) If Fa =F𝑐 sin 𝜃, the surface will be horizontal.

Rise of liquid in a capillary tube

Let T is the surface tension of water , P= density of water , r be the

radius of capillary tube and θ the angle of contact.

2𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ=
𝑟𝑝𝑔
Viscous Force

𝑑𝑣
𝐹 ∝ 𝐴 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = −ƞ𝐴
𝑑𝑥
Where ƞ co-efficient of viscosity
Equation of continuity
A tube cross- section at its two ends be A1 and A2 respectively .
Let a fluid is entering the tube at first cross – section with a
speed v1 and leaves the other cross-section with a speed v2.

𝐴1𝑣1 = 𝐴2𝑣2
Critical velocity
𝑅. ƞ
𝑉𝑐 =
ρ. 𝑑
Where ƞ =co-efficiend of viscosity of liquid, ρ density
of liquid, d =diameter of the tube .
R as ‘’Reynold ‘s number
if R < 1000, flow is laminar unsteady
if 1000 <R< 2000. >2000 the becomes turbulent.

Terminal velocity
A small spherical body or radius r and density ρ is falling
through a liquid of density σ .
 2 𝑟2
𝑣= (ρ − 𝜎)𝑔
9ƞ

Kinetic energy per unit volume of flowing liquid

𝐾=
1
2
ρ𝑣2

where p = density of liquid and v = velocity of fluid flow .

Potential energy per unit volume U= ρ gh

where liquid is at a height h from the reference level.

Bernoulli’s equation

𝑃+
1
2
ρ𝑣2 + ρ𝑔ℎ = constant
The sum of pressure energy, kinetic anergy and gravitational potential
energy of a fluid per unit volume remains constant in streamline flow.

CHAPTER-11 Thermodynamics_________ _______

1 K cal=1000 calorie = (10)3 cal

In SI system , heat energy is measured in joule where.

1 cal=4.186 J (or approx..4.2 J)

Work done by the system ∆𝑊 = 𝑃 ⤫ ∆𝑉

In an isothermal process

∆𝑈 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∆𝑄 = ∆𝑊
First law of thermodynamics

If ∆𝑄 be the amount of heat given to a system and ∆𝑊 work done on

the system , then increase in internal energy ∆𝑈

∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊
Work done during a carnot cycle is equal to the different between the
amount of heat absorbed and rejected by the gas.

W=H1-H2

Efficiency of carnot’s engine

𝐻2 𝑇1 𝑇2
For carnot.s engine = 𝑛 = 1−
𝐻1 𝑇2 𝑇1

CHAPTER _ 14 ---Wave Phenomena

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝜆
Wave velocity v= =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑇
1
V = 𝜆𝑥 = 𝜆𝑥𝑣
𝑇
1
Where 𝑣 = is the frequency of wave .
𝑇

Wave velocity (v)=frequency (v) x Wavelength (𝜆)

the phase change per unit distance will

2𝜋
=𝑘
𝜆
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
Wave velocity V =
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
K=
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑐𝑒

Initial phase Ф, then the wave equation

 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑎 sin[(𝑤𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 ) + Ф]
Phase difference
2𝜋
∆Ф = 𝑘 ⤫ ∆𝑥 = ∆𝑥
𝜆

2𝑥
∆Ф = − (𝑥2 − 𝑥1)
𝜆

∆𝑥 is the path difference between the two given points.

Velocity of a transverse wave in a stretched string is

√F
𝑣=
√m
Where F is the tension in the string and m the mass per unit length of
the string .

The velocity of longitudinal waves in an elastic medium is given by

√E
v=
√ρ

Where 𝐸 is the coefficient of elasticity of given medium and ρ is its

density.

Speed of longitudinal waves (sound waves)

V solid >V liquid>V gases

Newton’s formula for velocity of sound in a gas

Under isothermal condition E = P
√P
V=
√ρ

Laplace’s correction

ϒ is the ratio of two principal specific heats of given gas

Cp
[ϒ = ]
Cv
√ϒp
𝑣=
√ρ

For an ideal gas PV = nRT, where n is the number of moles in mass M of

the gas , hence we have

√ϒnRT √ϒRT
𝑣= =
√M √Mo
Where Mo = Molar mass
v1 √ ρ2 √(Mo)2
= =
v2 √ ρ1 √(Mo)1

Principle of superposition

Y=y1+y2

Amplitudes a1 and a2 phase angle Ф then

(A)2=(a1)2+(a2)2+2a1a2 cos Ф
 a1 sinФ
tan α =
a1 + a2 cosФ

Constructive interference

A max=a1+a2

In Constructive interference , intensity of a wave is directly proportional

to the square of its amplitude hence

I max α (a1+a2)2

Destructive interference

A min = a1-a2

I min α (a1-a2)2

Loudness level β of a sound Wave

I
β (in decibels) = 10 log
Io

Here , I is the intensity of given sound in W m-2 and Io is the intensity of

faintest sound that can be heard.

For a normal person the threshold audibility limit at 1 k Hz frequency is

Io = (10) -12 Wm-2

(i) Intensity is directly proportional to square of its amplitude

(I α A2)
(ii) Intensity of sound is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance from the given point source of sound to the observer ,
1
𝐼𝛼 .
r2
 (iii) Intensity is directly proportional to the square of the frequency
of wave i.e, 𝐼 𝛼 𝑣2.
(iv) The intensity is directly proportional to the density of the
intervening medium, i.e 𝐼 𝛼 ρ.

n 1 :n2 : n3 = n 1 :2n1 : 3n1

=1;2;3

Harmonics (even odd both ) are produced from an open pipe.

n 1 : n2 : n3 = n 1 : 3n1 : 5n1
=1 : 3 : 5
Only odd harmonics are produced in a closed pipe.
Light waves are also electromagnetic waves of wavelengths
ranging from 4000 A to 7500 A.

Doppler Effect

If the source is moving away from the observer will be negative

and hence

V
𝑛′ = 𝑛
V + Vs
Where 𝑛′= apparent frequency and n = true frequency of sound
emitted by the source .
If the observer is moving away from the source will be negative and
hence
V − Vo
𝑛′ = n [ ]
V
If source and observer are moving towards each other Vs will be
positive and Vo negative
V − (−Vo)
𝑛" = 𝑛
V + Vs
V − Vo
= 𝑛
V + Vs
If source and observer are moving away from each other v will be
negative and v positive
V − Vo
𝑛" = 𝑛
V − (Vs)
V − Vo
= 𝑛
V + Vs

If c be the speed of light then due to relative motion of the source

towards the observer, observed wavelength λ
c−v
λ'=
n

where n is frequency of light

−vλ
𝜆′ − 𝜆 = ∆𝜆 =
c
 vλ
𝜆′ − 𝜆 = ∆𝜆 =
c

Red shift
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