Journal of Applied Psychology

Race and Reactions to Women’s Expressions of Anger at Work: Examining

the Effects of the “Angry Black Woman” Stereotype
Daphna Motro, Jonathan B. Evans, Aleksander P. J. Ellis, and Lehman Benson, III
Online First Publication, April 1, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0000884

CITATION
Motro, D., Evans, J. B., Ellis, A. P. J., & Benson, L., III (2021, April 1). Race and Reactions to Women’s Expressions of Anger
at Work: Examining the Effects of the “Angry Black Woman” Stereotype. Journal of Applied Psychology. Advance online
publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0000884
 Journal of Applied Psychology
© 2021 American Psychological Association
ISSN: 0021-9010 https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000884

RESEARCH REPORT

Race and Reactions to Women’s Expressions of Anger at Work: Examining

the Effects of the “Angry Black Woman” Stereotype
Daphna Motro1, Jonathan B. Evans2, Aleksander P. J. Ellis2, and Lehman Benson III2
1
Frank G. Zarb School of Business, Hofstra University
2
Eller College of Management, University of Arizona
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Across two studies (n = 555), we examine the detrimental effects of the “angry black woman” stereotype in
the workplace. Drawing on parallel-constraint-satisfaction theory, we argue that observers will be
particularly sensitive to expressions of anger by black women due to widely held stereotypes. In Study
1, we examine a three-way interaction among anger, race, and gender, and find that observers are more likely
to make internal attributions for expressions of anger when an individual is a black woman, which then leads
to worse performance evaluations and assessments of leadership capability. In Study 2, we focus solely on
women and expand our initial model by examining stereotype activation as a mechanism linking the effects
of anger and race on internal attributions. We replicated findings from Study 1 and found support for
stereotype activation as an underlying mechanism. We believe our work contributes to research on race,
gender, and leadership, and highlights an overlooked stereotype in the management literature. Theoretical
and practical implications are discussed.

Keywords: anger, race, gender, stereotype, attribution

Supplemental materials: https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000884.supp

While black women constitute nearly 7% of the workforce (U.S. we argue that observers’ interpretations of expressions of anger by
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018), they continue to be underrepre- black women at work will activate the “angry black woman”
sented in leadership positions (Smith et al., 2019), with no black stereotype. Subsequently, observers will attribute the anger of
female CEOs in the Fortune 500 (Fortune, 2019). In an effort to black women to internal factors, which are then expected to
better understand potential causes of underrepresentation, research- negatively influence perceptions of her performance and leader-
ers have investigated whether there may be barriers preventing black ship capabilities. As anger is an emotion commonly expressed and
women from progressing up the corporate ladder, such as limited experienced at work (Geddes & Stickney, 2011), the angry black
access to social networking and fewer mentoring opportunities woman stereotype has the potential to negatively impact black
(Beckwith et al., 2016). However, the majority of research up to women’s employment status and career progress. Understanding
this point has focused on barriers common to both black men and the barriers that black women face in the workplace is a complex
black women (e.g., tokenism, Sackett et al., 1991). We know less issue, and we present the angry black woman stereotype as one
about potential barriers that are unique to the experiences of factor among many that can negatively impact their career. We
black women. focus specifically on internal attributions and stereotype activa-
In an effort to begin filling this gap within the literature, we tion as the mechanisms that explain the effects of the angry black
investigate the implications of the “angry black woman” stereo- woman stereotype on important downstream workplace outcomes
type, which depicts black females as aggressive and hostile in (e.g., performance evaluations).
their interactions with others (Walley-Jean, 2009). Using parallel- To more fully understand the role of the angry black woman
constraint-satisfaction theory (PCST; Kunda & Thagard, 1996), stereotype in the workplace, we draw on PCST, which asserts that
when forming an impression of an individual, people consider
(a) any common stereotypes, and (b) any individuating information,
such as observed behavior (Read et al., 1997). Both stereotypes and
individuating information are evaluated in parallel and constrain one
Daphna Motro https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8469-8279 another to affect impressions formed about others. According to
This research was funded in part by the University of Arizona Department PCST, stereotypes influence the interpretation of observed behavior
of Management and Organizations and presented at the 2019 Annual
so that it aligns with our expectations.
Meeting of the Academy of Management in Boston, MA. Jonathan B.
Evans can now be contacted at [email protected]
We believe our work makes several contributions. First, we
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Daphna contribute to research on emotion in the workplace by showing
Motro, Frank G. Zarb School of Business, Hofstra University, 134 Hofstra how expressions of emotion are evaluated differently depending on
University, Hempstead, NY 11549, United States. Email: daphna.motro@ demographics. Past research has shown that people react more
hofstra.edu negatively when women express anger compared to men, due to

1
 2 MOTRO, EVANS, ELLIS, AND BENSON

different role expectations for women (Hercus, 1999; Lewis, 2000). and submissive slave (White, 1999); an image that has subsequently
Our work shows that this may not be equally true for all women, and been reinforced in the media (Cheers, 2017; Childs, 2005). Televi-
people have heightened sensitivity to expressions of anger by black sion shows often include a token black woman who is expected to
women. Second, we add to the literature on race and its effects in entertain the audience with her irrational anger and hostility
organizations. Past work has mainly focused on how the experience (Tyree, 2011).
of black individuals differs from that of white individuals (e.g., There is also empirical evidence for the existence of this stereo-
Bertrand & Mullainathan, 2004). Our work suggests that it may not type. For instance, black female students at a predominantly white
always be appropriate to group all black employees together as the university reported experiencing “micro-aggressions,” or subtle
experiences of black women may be different from the experiences slights (e.g., insensitive comments) from other students, and were
of black men. In our study, we find that black men are not penalized cognizant of the existence of the angry black woman stereotype
for expressing anger at work, only black women. Third, we add to (Lewis et al., 2016). Rasinski and Czopp (2010) found that when
research examining the effects of gender on leadership emergence in viewing a debate on college scholarships, university students rated
organizations and a potential glass ceiling effect (Badura et al., black female speakers as ruder than white female speakers, even
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2018; Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016). While all women may face hurdles when the content of the message was the same. Donovan (2011)
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when trying to advance up the corporate ladder, our work suggests provided participants the opportunity to select 5 out of 92 traits
that there may be unique hurdles for black women as they try to that best characterized black women and white women. Some of the
navigate the corporate landscape. Finally, a common theme most frequently chosen traits for black women were those
throughout our contributions is the concept of intersectionality, associated with the angry black woman stereotype (e.g., “loud,”
which focuses on examining the effects of membership in two or “tough,” “strong”) compared to white women (e.g., “sensitive,”
more demographic categories, such as gender and race (Crenshaw, “independent,” “family-oriented”). In a qualitative study, Smith
1990; Hall et al., 2019). We shed light on the intersection between et al. (2019) interviewed 59 senior-level black female managers
being black and being female and show how stereotype activation and executives in a variety of different industries. The interviewees
and changes in internal attributions are unique to this specific frequently mentioned the angry black woman stereotype and some
category of women. explained how it negatively affected their job.
As PCST asserts that interpretations of behavior are largely
PCST and the Angry Black Woman Stereotype constrained by the stereotypes we hold (Kunda & Thagard,
1996), it follows that if a black woman expresses anger, observers
According to PCST, observed behavior that is open to ambiguous
are likely influenced by the angry black woman stereotype. They are
interpretation is likely to be affected by the presence of stereotypes,
likely to attribute the anger to internal causes, assuming that the
which constrain how we interpret an event until that interpretation is
anger is a reflection of her disposition. Because observers do not
consistent with our stereotypes (Kunda & Thagard, 1996). For
hold the same stereotype for white women or for men, expressions
example, an elbow nudge is an ambiguous behavior that can be
of anger are less likely to be attributed to internal causes for white
interpreted as a forceful shove or jovial push. Studies have shown that
women or men. As trait anger is not regarded as a desirable
an elbow nudge by a black man is more likely to be interpreted as a
characteristic in the workplace (Kant et al., 2013), we expect these
forceful shove, which aligns with the stereotype of an angry and
internal attributions to have detrimental consequences for black
physically aggressive black male, while an elbow nudge by a white
man is more likely to be interpreted as a jovial push (Blair et al., women. It is important to note that while the stereotype of the angry
2004; Sagar & Schofield, 1980). One important interpretation made black man does exist, it tends to portray angry black men as
by observers is the causal mechanisms of behavior, such as internal physically aggressive (Shapiro et al., 2009). The angry black
versus external (Martinko, 1995). Behavior that is interpreted as man stereotype does not include the sort of “sassiness” or
internally caused is attributed to something about the person, such as “emasculation” that is characteristic of the angry black woman
his/her personality. Observers could conclude that expressed anger at stereotype (Carpenter, 2012). The type of anger we examine is
work stems from heightened levels of trait anger. On the other hand, non-physical, which tends to be much more common than physical
behavior that is interpreted as externally caused is attributed to anger at work (e.g., hitting someone). As such, we believe that non-
something about the situation, such as the environment (Russell, physical expressions of anger will activate stereotypes specific to
1982). For instance, observers could conclude that anger expressed black women. Thus, we hypothesize the following:
by others at work is a result of being treated unjustly. In sum,
internally caused behavior is viewed as an indicator of disposition, Hypothesis 1. There will be a three-way interaction among
while externally caused behavior is viewed as an indicator of anger, race, and gender on perceptions of internal causality.
environmental factors (e.g., luck; Yew Wong & Acur, 2010). Stereo- Specifically, perceptions of internal causality will be highest
types are seen as dispositional characteristics that are attributed to when a black female employee expresses anger.
certain groups and prompt internal attributions (Wilder et al., 1996).
One stereotype is that of the angry black woman, which has also We then argue that when observers attribute the cause of anger to
been referred to as the “matriarch” or “sapphire” stereotype, and internal dispositions, subsequent evaluations of the employee are
depicts a verbally aggressive, unfeminine black female who contin- likely to be negative. Because trait anger is not particularly desir-
uously emasculates her black male partner (Salerno et al., 2017; able, in part because of its links to abusive leadership (Kant et al.,
Walley-Jean, 2009). The stereotype is rooted in the institution of 2013) and deviant behavior (Restubog et al., 2010), we consider two
slavery and oversimplifies the image of the black woman who important outcomes likely to be harmed. First, we examine perfor-
refused to conform to the era’s expectations of being a hard-working mance evaluations, which serve as a basis for personnel decisions in
 RACE AND ANGER 3

organizations (Greenhaus et al., 1990) and determine career pro- evaluation process. After offering Jordan the chance to judge his/her
gression (Cianci et al., 2010). Second, we examine assessments of own performance, the direct supervisor told Jordan that his/her
leadership capability, which researchers argue is a vital ingredient performance as general manager has been “unsatisfactory” and
for succeeding and progressing within an organization (Pierce & stressed that he/she had “not achieved the goals that upper manage-
Newstrom, 2000). We expect that internal attributions ascribed to a ment had set for him/her.” In the anger display conditions, Jordan’s
black woman’s expressions of anger will lead to these negative tone began to increase, and he/she shouted and yelled at the
reactions. supervisor. Nonverbal behavior changed as well. Jordan would
furrow his/her brow, bang fists down on the table, throw hands
Hypothesis 2. Expressions of anger will negatively affect (a) up in outrage, and shift frequently in the seat. In the neutral
performance evaluations and (b) assessments of leadership conditions, Jordan made the exact same statements but kept
capability through perceptions of internal causality when an his/her tone even and gestures minimal.1
employee is female and black.
Manipulation Checks
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To verify that participants watched the video, they answered a set

Study 1 Method
of four questions: “Was Jordan male or female?” (99.7% answered
Participants and Procedure correctly), “What race was Jordan?” (possible answers included
African-American/Black, White Non-Hispanic, Hispanic, Asian, or
We conducted an experiment using a sample of 302 undergradu-
other; 96% answered correctly), “Was the direct supervisor male or
ate business students enrolled in business management courses at a
female?” (99.7% answered correctly), and “How intense was
large university in the southwestern United States. The study
Jordan’s anger?” on a scale from (1) not intense at all to (7) very
received institutional review board approval under protocol
intense. The average response in the anger conditions (M = 6.12,
#DM2015 (“Crying in the Organization”) from the University of
SD = .82) was significantly higher than the average response in the
Arizona. They participated in the study in exchange for course
neutral conditions (M = 4.34, SD = 1.00), F(1, 283) = 273.39,
credit. The average age was 21.25 years (SE = .18) and 47% were
p < .001, η2 = .491.
female. The sample was 56.6% White Non-Hispanic, 21.5% His-
panic, 12.3% Asian, 4% African-American/Black, and 5.6% other.
Participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 8 conditions in a 2 Perceptions of Internal Causality
(employee display of anger: yes, no) × 2 (employee race: black, Participants completed a three-item locus of causality scale from
white) × 2 (employee gender: male, female) between-subjects fac- Russell (1982). Participants were asked to think about the degree to
torial design. The “no anger display” conditions are also referred to which Jordan’s reaction to the performance feedback was internal.
as “neutral.” Participants watched a video recording of a perfor- Scale reliability (α = .68) was consistent with previous research
mance feedback session. They were instructed to imagine that they (Donovan & Williams, 2003; Ellis et al., 2006).
were the direct supervisor and that afterwards they would be asked
questions about the employee who received the feedback. Before
Performance Evaluation
watching the video, participants read a copy of the CV for a grocery
store manager named Jordan. Jordan was described as a “resourceful Participants completed a three-item evaluation scale regarding the
grocery store manager with great experience in directing and degree to which Jordan’s performance was positive (α = .77;
managing store staff.” Participants were then asked to watch a Heilman & Chen, 2005).
video of Jordan receiving performance feedback from his/her direct
supervisor, who was always a white male (see also Motro & Assessment of Leadership Capability
Ellis, 2017).
Participants completed a four-item scale used in Rosette et al.
(2008) based on capabilities required for effective leadership (i.e.,
Manipulations and Measures
intelligence, competence, confidence, competitiveness; α = .74).
Anger, Race, Gender
Study 1 Results
Four actors/actresses, all university students in their early twen-
ties, auditioned and were selected to play the role of an employee See Tables 1 and 2 for means, SDs, and correlations. Confirma-
named Jordan. There was one black female actress, one white female tory factor analyses (CFA) supported a three-factor solution. The
actress, one black male actor, and one white male actor. Each actor/ model wherein items loaded separately on perceptions of internal
actress played the role for both the anger display and neutral display causality, performance evaluation, and leadership capability fit the
videos. The eight videos, each approximately 5 min long, were data well, χ2(32) = 53.81, p = .009, CFI = .97, SRMR = .04, and
filmed and edited by a professional videographer (participants were provided the best fit to the data (see Table 3).
only allowed to watch the clip once). The direct supervisor, a white Hypothesis 1 stated that there would be a three-way interaction
male, sat across the table from Jordan. Only a small part of the back among anger, race, and gender on perceptions of internal causality,
of the supervisor’s head was visible so that participants never saw such that perceptions of internal causality would be highest when a
his face. black female employee expresses anger. To test Hypothesis 1, we
The script in all eight videos was identical and began with a short
introduction in which the supervisor explained the performance 1
Videos are available upon request from the first author.
 4 MOTRO, EVANS, ELLIS, AND BENSON

Table 1
Means and Standard Deviations for Study 1 Variables by Condition

Employee anger Anger Neutral

Employee race Black White Black White
Employee gender Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male

Perceptions of internal causality 7.44 (1.29) 6.24 (1.53) 6.87 (1.43) 6.86 (2.02) 6.84 (1.43) 6.45 (1.98) 7.24 (1.55) 6.61 (1.58)
Performance evaluations 2.05 (0.90) 2.67 (1.20) 2.12 (0.77) 2.31 (0.92) 2.28 (0.87) 2.61 (0.95) 2.17 (0.93) 2.24 (0.77)
Leadership capabilities 3.82 (1.31) 4.18 (1.19) 3.57 (1.20) 3.15 (1.29) 3.99 (1.23) 4.19 (1.14) 3.90 (1.43) 3.80 (1.04)
Note. N = 302. Standard deviations are in parentheses. Perceptions of internal causality were measured on a scale from 1–9. All other variables were measured
on a scale from 1–7.
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Table 2
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Correlations Among Study 1 Variables and Experimental Conditions

Variable M SD 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

1. Employee anger 0.50 0.50 —

2. Employee race 0.51 0.50 .00 —
3. Employee gender 0.62 0.49 .01 .00 —
4. Perceptions of causality 6.89 1.60 .03 −.03 .17** —
5. Performance evaluations 2.27 0.92 −.04 .08 −.16** −.38** —
6. Leadership capabilities 3.83 1.27 −.11 .15* .00 −.26** .44** —
7. Participant gender 0.47 0.50 −.05 .01 .06 .07 −.01 .06 —
8. Participant race 0.29 0.45 −.02 −.56** −.06 −.02 −.05 −.14* −.09 —
Note. N = 302. Employee anger was coded as 0 = neutral, 1 = anger. Employee race was coded as 0 = white, 1 = black. Employee gender was coded as
0 = male, 1 = female. Participant gender was coded as 0 = male, 1 = female. Participant race was coded as 0 = not the same race as the employee in the video,
1 = the same race as the employee in the video. Perceptions of internal causality were measured on a scale from 1 to 9. All other variables were measured on a
scale from 1 to 7.
* p < .05. ** p < .01.

performed a 2 × 2 × 2 between-subjects analysis of variance variables (performance evaluations and assessments of leadership
(ANOVA) on perceptions of internal causality. The three-way inter- capability). The indices of moderated mediation and conditional
action approached significance, F(1, 294) = 3.72, p = .055, indirect effects were significant (see Table 4). For both outcome
η2 = .01.2 See Figure. 1 for a graph of the interaction. To further variables, the index of moderated mediation was significant when the
explore the interaction, we conducted a set of pairwise comparisons. employee was female, but not when the employee was male. Further
When the employee expressed anger, perceptions of internal causality examination among female employees indicated that the indirect
were marginally higher when the employee was a black female effects of anger were not significant when she was white, but were
compared to when she was a white female, F(1, 294) = 3.15, significant when she was black. These results support Hypotheses 2a
p = .077, η2 = .01. When the employee was black, perceptions of and 2b and indicate that anger negatively affects performance
internal causality were significantly higher when she was an angry evaluations and assessments of leadership capability due to height-
female compared to when she was an angry male, F(1, 294) = 10.61, ened internal attributions when expressed by a black woman.4
p < .001, η2 = .04. When the employee was female, perceptions of
internal causality were marginally higher when she was angry and 2
Based on social identity theory (Ashforth & Mael, 1989), it is possible
black compared to when she was neutral and black, F(1, 294) = 3.55, that black participants evaluate angry black women differently than non-
p = .060, η2 = .01. Taken together, these results provide partial black participants (e.g., white, Hispanic). To examine this possibility, we
support for Hypothesis 1.3 performed a three-way ANOVA among employee display of anger (yes vs.
Hypothesis 2 proposed moderated mediation (see Bauer et al., no), employee race (black vs. white), and participant race (black vs. not
black). The interaction was not significant, F(1, 294) = .34, ns. However, it
2006; Hayes, 2009, 2015, 2018) and stated that expressions of anger is also important to note that only 4% of our sample identified as black. We
will negatively affect (a) performance evaluations and (b) assessments also analyzed the three-way interaction while controlling for participants’
of leadership capability through perceptions of internal causality perceptions of Jordan’s attractiveness, participant gender, and whether the
when the employee was female and black. To test Hypothesis 2, participant’s race matched the race of the actor/actress in the video to account
for potential in-group gender and race biases (Ashforth & Mael, 1989;
we used Mplus Version 8 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2017). We Wharton, 1992). When controlling for these variables, the three-way inter-
employed a Monte Carlo approach using 10,000 bootstrap samples to action term was significant, F(1, 291) = 3.94, p = .048, η2 = .01.
3
create 95% confidence intervals (CIs) in estimating the effects. We note that although angry white men were perceived as higher in
In our model, we entered expressions of anger as the independent internal causality than angry black men, the difference was not statistically
significant, MD (mean difference) = .62, SE = .42, p = .139.
variable, with employee race as the primary moderator, and employee 4
We also ran the analysis while controlling for participants’ perceptions of
gender as the secondary moderator. We entered perceptions of Jordan’s attractiveness, participant gender, and whether the participant’s race
internal causality as the mediator and each outcome as dependent matched the race of the actor/actress in the video. The results remained the same.
 RACE AND ANGER 5

Table 3 the observed behavior and prompt internal attributions (Wilder et al.,
Fit Statistics for Nested Models for Study 1 1996). As a result, we argue that stereotype activation drives the
effects of race and anger on internal attributions and subsequent
Model χ2 Δχ2 CFI SRMR evaluations:
3 factor χ (32) = 53.81*
2
.97 .04
2 factor χ2 (34) = 162.92** Δχ2 (2) = 109.11** .84 .07 Hypothesis 3. Expressions of anger will negatively affect (a)
1 factor χ2 (35) = 251.54** Δχ2 (3) = 197.73** .73 .10 performance evaluations and (b) assessments of leadership
Note. N = 302. 3 factor = all items loaded onto separate perceptions of capability sequentially through stereotype activation and per-
internal causality, performance evaluation, and leadership capability ceptions of internal causality when a female employee is black.
assessment factors. 2 factor = items for performance evaluation and
leadership capability assessment were combined into one factor.
CFI = comparative fit index. SRMR = standardized root mean squared
residual.
* p < .01. ** p < .001. Study 2 Method
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Participants and Procedure

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Study 2 was conducted using a sample of 253 participants recruited

Study 1 Discussion from Amazon Mechanical Turk. The study received institutional
review board approval under protocol #DM2015 (“Crying in the
The results from Study 1 provide initial support for the proposed Organization”) from the University of Arizona. The average age was
effects of race and gender on the interpretation of expressed anger in 36.16 years (SE = .67) and 45% female. The sample was 68.8%
the workplace. However, there are certain limitations that we sought White Non-Hispanic, 7.5% Hispanic, 11.5% Asian, 9.5% African-
to address with a second study. First, we wanted to replicate our American/Black, and 2.7% other. With regard to employment status,
findings in a different context, with stimulus materials that avoid 73.1% of participants were full-time employees, 7.1% were part-time
visual confounds between conditions (e.g., attractiveness). Second, employees, 12.3% were self-employed, and 7.5% were not employed
we wanted to test our model using a sample of working adults. at the time. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four
Third, we wanted to expand our understanding of the mediating conditions in a 2 (employee display of anger: yes, no) × 2 (employee
mechanisms by including stereotype activation. Finally, we note race: black, white) between-subjects factorial design. As in Study 1,
that because we did not find any stereotype effects for men in the “no anger display” conditions are referred to as “neutral.”
Study 1, we focus solely on women in Study 2. We told participants that we were interested in the topic of
leadership, and that they should imagine they were a sales repre-
sentative at a marketing company called “Insight Marketing.” The
Study 2
participants were told to imagine that one day on the job another
According to our previous arguments, when forming an impres- employee at Insight Marketing came to their desk to speak with
sion of an individual, people consider whether the behavior aligns them, and that they would be listening to an audio recording of this
with stereotypical expectations. In the context of expressing anger at other employee. Participants were not told in advance what the topic
work, the angry black woman stereotype is likely to influence of the conversation would be. Participants were then provided more
impression formation because when a specific behavior conforms detail about the employee, including name, gender, and race. Before
to a well-known societal stereotype, the stereotype becomes listening to the audio clip, participants read through the employee’s
“activated” (i.e., becomes more accessible in the mind; Wheeler & CV. Following the audio clip, participants completed manipulation
Petty, 2001). This activation will likely constrain the interpretation of check questions and measures of stereotype activation and internal

Figure 1
Interaction Among Expressions of Anger, Employee Gender, and Employee Race on Perceptions of Internal Causality in
Study 1
 6 MOTRO, EVANS, ELLIS, AND BENSON

Table 4
Moderated Mediation Analysis: Effects of Anger, Race, and Gender Through Perceptions of Internal Causality Among Study 1 Variables

DV = Performance evaluation DV = Leadership capability

Coefficient CI Coefficient CI

Index of moderated mediation

Male .10 (.15) [−.20, .39] .09 (.14) [−.18, .39]
Female −.21* (.10) [−.43, −.04] −.20* (.09) [−.42, −.04]
Conditional indirect effects
White male −.06 (.11) [−.26, .17] −.05 (.10) [−.26, .15]
Black male .05 (.10) [−.16, .25] .04 (.10) [−.14, .24]
White female .08 (.07) [−.05, .22] .07 (.06) [−.04, .21]
Black female −.13* (.07) [−.27, −.02] −.12† (.06) [−.27, −.02]
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Note. N = 302. Coefficients presented are unstandardized estimates. SEs are in parentheses. CI = 95% confidence interval.
†
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p < .10. * p < .05. ** p < .01.

causality. Participants also provided (a) performance evaluations anger conditions (M = 5.79, SD = 1.03) was significantly higher
and (b) assessments of leadership capability (outcomes were than the average response in the neutral conditions (M = 3.82,
counterbalanced). SD = 1.58), F(1, 251) = 146.98, p < .001, η2 = .360.

Manipulations and Measures5 Stereotype Activation

Race We assessed stereotype activation with a modified version of the
Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ; Spence et al., 1974). We
To manipulate race, the employee was given either a traditionally identified four traits stereotypically associated with black indivi-
black or white name. The black employee’s name was “Lakeisha duals as a whole: “loud,” “aggressive,” “hostile,” “violent” (Smith,
Wilson,” while the white employee’s name was “Claire Wilson” 1991; Wheeler & Fiske, 2005). To measure stereotype activation,
(Pharr, 1993). The voice recording in the white race condition was a participants rated the extent to which black women exhibit these
white, non-Hispanic female, and the voice recording in the black four traits (α = .89).
race condition was a black female.

Perceptions of Internal Causality

Anger
Participants completed the same three-item locus of causality
Each audio recording lasted less than 1 min (participants listened
scale described in Study 1 (α = .89).
to the clip once). The script was identical across all conditions. In the
script, Claire/Lakeisha told participants that she had seen them come
into work late and that she had spoken many times about them being Performance Evaluation
paid to come into work at a certain time and to leave at a certain
Participants answered the three-item performance evaluation
time. She emphasized that it was not professional to come in late.
measure described in Study 1 (α = .94).
Furthermore, she stated that she did not care what the excuse was
(e.g., traffic, bad weather) and that the next time this happened there
would need to be a serious discussion about their future. In the anger Assessment of Leadership Capability
condition, Lakeisha/Claire’s tone was stern and hostile. She raised
her voice throughout the clip and sounded both annoyed and Participants completed a seven-item measure used in Agle et al.
indignant about the participant’s tardiness. In the neutral condition, (2006) capturing important leadership skills (e.g., being worthy of
Lakeisha/Claire’s tone was calm and did not decrease or increase.6 trust and respect; α = .94).7

Manipulation Checks Study 2 Results

Following the audio recording, participants answered a set of See Tables 5 and 6 for means, SDs, and correlations for Study 2.
questions, including “Was Lakeisha/Claire male or female?” (99.6% A CFA supported a four-factor solution. The model wherein items
answered correctly), “What race was Lakeisha/Claire?” (possible loaded separately on stereotype activation, perceptions of internal
answers included African-American/Black or White Non-Hispanic; causality, performance evaluation, and leadership capability fit the
97.6% answered correctly), and “What did Lakeisha/Claire talk
about?” (possible answers included “football game last night,” 5
See the Supplemental Materials for all scale items.
“showing up on time,” “cell phone usage at work,” “sales perfor-
6
Audio clips are available upon request from the first author.
7
We also ran a condition that manipulated employee status in the
mance from last quarter”; 100% answered correctly). Participants organization (high status employee vs. low status employee). There were
were then asked how angry Lakeisha/Claire got on a scale from (1) no significant effects. Methods and results are available in the supplemental
not at all angry to (7) extremely angry. The average response in the materials.
 RACE AND ANGER 7

Table 5
Means and Standard Deviations for Study 2 Variables by Condition

Employee anger Anger Neutral

Employee race Black White Black White

Perceptions of internal causality 4.94 (2.36) 4.32 (2.42) 2.71 (1.82) 4.04 (2.18)
Stereotype activation 4.62 (1.25) 3.77 (1.48) 3.51 (1.48) 3.76 (1.40)
Performance evaluations 4.75 (1.62) 5.36 (1.52) 5.74 (1.16) 5.67 (1.10)
Leadership capabilities 3.84 (1.90) 4.49 (1.87) 5.36 (1.47) 5.13 (1.66)
Note. N = 253. Standard deviations are in parentheses. Perceptions of internal causality were measured on a
scale from 1–9. All other variables were measured on a scale from 1–7.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

data well, χ2(71) = 119.07, p < .001, CFI = .98, SRMR = .05, attributions, stereotypes make it more likely that black women
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and provided the best fit to the data (see Table 7). will elicit internal attributions for expressions of anger, which
Hypothesis 3 proposed moderated sequential mediation and can then prompt more negative reactions from observers. As a
stated that expressions of anger will negatively affect (a) perfor- result, while the strategic expression of anger can be valuable in
mance evaluations and (b) assessments of leadership capability certain contexts such as negotiations (Gibson & Schroeder, 2002),
sequentially through stereotype activation and perceptions of inter- this may not be the case for black women.
nal causality when the female employee is black. Similar to Study 1, Second, our work contributes to research on race in organizations.
we followed recommended procedures to employ a Monte Carlo Being black in the workplace often leads to bias in one form of
approach and created 95% confidence intervals (CIs) by using another (see Jones et al., 2016). For example, black job seekers are
10,000 bootstrap samples to estimate effects (Bauer et al., 2006). expected to negotiate less than white job seekers and receive lower
To test our model, we entered expressions of anger as the starting salaries if this expectation is violated (Hernandez et al.,
independent variable, with employee race as the moderator. We 2019). However, our work suggests that black women may experi-
entered stereotype activation as the first mediator, perceptions of ence unique hurdles that black men do not face because they carry
internal causality as the second mediator and each of the outcomes with them unique stereotypes that affect how they are treated in the
as dependent variables (performance evaluations and assessments of workplace. When expressing anger, black men receive similar
leadership capability). The indices of moderated mediation were reactions to white men. Black women, on the other hand, receive
significant (see Table 8). Further examination indicated that the markedly different reactions from white women. In sum, merely
indirect effects were not significant when the employee was white examining differences based on race hinders our understanding of
but were significant for each outcome variable when she was black, the experiences of black employees in organizations and future
as indicated by the fact that the 95% confidence intervals did not research should consider how and why being black and female
include zero. This supports Hypotheses 3a and 3b.8 matters.
Third, we add to research examining the effects of gender on
General Discussion leadership emergence in organizations. Considerable attention has
been given to understanding barriers preventing women from being
Given the particularly glaring underrepresentation of black given leadership roles (e.g., Badura et al., 2018; Diehl & Dzubinski,
women in leadership positions (e.g., Holder et al., 2015), it is 2016). Leadership emergence tends to depend upon the degree to
important to determine whether their experiences at work expose which an individual is perceived by others as a capable leader (Judge
them to unique barriers that limit career progression. We examined et al., 2002), and research examining gender and leadership emer-
the angry black woman stereotype and argued that it can affect how gence has most commonly considered how gender role expectations
others react to expressions of anger by black women at work. Across play an important role is understanding barriers women face (Eagly &
two studies, we found support for our hypotheses that participants Karau, 2002; Koenig et al., 2011). This work provides important
will attribute a black woman’s anger to internal factors due to insights into barriers that women face in general, but it is also critical
stereotype activation, which then leads to lower performance eva- to understand difficulties faced by specific categories of women
luations and poorer assessments of leadership capabilities. (i.e., not all women are treated the same). We highlight a distinct
First, we add to research on emotion in the workplace. Past studies challenge black women face because of one widely held stereotype
have shown that we interpret expressions of emotion differently and suggest that going beyond broad categorizations (such as gender)
based on demographic characteristics. For example, males who cry is an important consideration when forming a comprehensive under-
are punished by observers for engaging in role incongruous behav- standing of barriers to leadership emergence.
ior, while females who cry elicit no such response (Motro & Ellis, Fourth, our results add to previous work on intersectionality,
2017). These differences extend to expressions of anger, as studies which suggests that membership in two or more demographic
have shown that people react more negatively when women express categories can have markedly different effects than membership
anger compared to men, due to different role expectations for in one category (Crenshaw, 1990). Our work shows that we can also
women (Hercus, 1999; Lewis, 2000). Our work is significant in
that it additionally shows that not all women are treated the same 8
Similar to Study 1, we also ran all Study 2 analyses while controlling for
when it comes to expressions of anger. While white women may participant gender and whether the participant’s race matched the race of the
have their expressions of anger excused through external actress. The results remained the same.
 8 MOTRO, EVANS, ELLIS, AND BENSON

Table 6
Correlations Among Study 2 Variables and Experimental Conditions

Variable M SD 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

1. Employee anger 0.52 0.50 —

2. Employee race 0.50 0.50 −.01 —
3. Internal causality 4.03 2.35 .27** −.07 —
4. Stereotype activation 3.92 1.46 .19** .11 .32** —
5. Performance evaluations 5.37 1.42 −.23** −.10 −.45** −.21** —
6. Leadership capabilities 5.16 1.42 −.20** −.09 −.57** −.20** .76** —
7. Participant gender 0.45 0.50 .06 .09 −.06 .02 .03 .08 —
8. Participant race 0.42 0.49 .04 −.59** .12 −.07 .02 .02 −.02 —
Note. N = 253. Employee anger was coded as 0 = neutral, 1 = anger. Employee race was coded as 0 = white, 1 = black. Participant gender was coded as
0 = male, 1 = female. Participant race was coded as 0 = not the same race as the employee in the audio clip, 1 = the same race as the employee in the audio
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

clip. Perceptions of internal causality were measured on a scale from 1–9. All other variables were measured on a scale from 1–7.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

* p < .05. ** p < .01.

better understand the effects of being black in organizations if we the angry black woman stereotype affects our impressions, particu-
also consider whether the individual is female or male. Recent larly internal attributions, which then affects our evaluations of them
research on intersectionality has demonstrated how discrimination as an employee.
can emerge from simple stereotypes using a threshold model Finally, the results of our research suggest a few practical
approach (Hester et al., 2020). In line with Hester et al. (2020)’s implications. Prior research has indicated that once individuals
argument, our results suggest that even though two individuals are are made aware of different biases and stereotypes, they are
similar in many respects, stereotypes can make one individual less more likely to recognize them and less likely to succumb to their
likely to reach the threshold for success compared to another influence (Ashburn-Nardo et al., 2001; Costa et al., 2015). As most
individual. Thus, even though a black female and white female people want to hold a positive view of themselves (Mazar et al.,
share similar characteristics, certain stereotypes (e.g., angry black 2008), making individuals aware of any potential stereotypes they
woman stereotype) can make it more challenging for the black hold (e.g., through training) could curb discrimination. Thus, it
female to reach the threshold for high competence, therefore could be fruitful for managers conducting discrimination training
potentially triggering poor performance evaluations and assess- to bring attention to the angry black woman stereotype and its
ments of leadership capabilities. harmful consequences.
Fifth, while past research suggests that PCST may serve as a It is also important for managers to communicate that despite
conceptual backdrop for research on social stereotypes in the evidence indicating the existence of the stereotype, there is little
workplace (e.g., Evans et al., 2019), our work enhances PCST evidence suggesting that black women actually are angrier than
by incorporating attributions into the existing framework. PCST white women. Indeed, Walley-Jean (2009) found that trait anger
currently focuses on how stereotypes and individuating information was not significantly different between 76 black female study
combine to form different impressions. However, “impression” is a participants and a normative sample of 977 women (which
broad term, defined as “a cognitive representation of a person” included both students and full-time employees). In a study on
(González-Vallejo et al., 2008, p. 288). Our work identifies attribu- minority female populations in the United States, Consedine et al.
tions as one specific aspect of an impression. In line with PCST, we (2012) found that self-reported trait anger was actually lower
find that the expression of anger by a black female combined with among African-American females compared to U.S.-born
European American females.

Table 7
Fit Statistics for Nested Models for Study 2 Limitations and Directions for Future Research
Model χ 2
Δχ 2
CFI SRMR Despite these implications, we have identified certain limitations
associated with our work. First, the results from our first study only
4 factor χ2 (71) = 119.07* .98 .05 showed significant indirect effects. Evidence supporting the influ-
3 factor χ2 (74) = 370.93* Δχ2 (3) = 251.86* .89 .08
2 factor χ2 (76) = 803.52* Δχ2 (5) = 684.45* .73 .19 ence of race and gender on internal attributions, which in turn
1 factor χ2 (77) = 1,295.56* Δχ2 (6) = 1,176.50* .56 .18 significantly affects performance evaluations and leadership capa-
bilities is one key piece to understanding underrepresentation of
Note. N = 253. 4 factor = all items loaded onto separate perceptions of
internal causality, stereotype activation, performance evaluation, and black women in leadership positions. However, these results suggest
leadership capability assessment factors. 3 factor = items for perceptions that additional variables should be investigated in future research.
of internal causality and stereotype activation were combined into one factor. For example, the results showed significant differences in attrac-
2 factor = items for perceptions of internal causality and stereotype tiveness, such that participants found the black actor and actress
activation were combined into one factor; items for performance
significantly more attractive than the white actor and actress. While
evaluation and leadership capability assessment were combined into one
factor. CFI = comparative fit index. SRMR = standardized root mean we found support for Hypothesis 1 even when controlling for
squared residual. attractiveness, future work should investigate the effect of attrac-
* p < .001. tiveness in understanding observer perceptions during performance
 RACE AND ANGER 9

Table 8
Sequential Moderated Mediation Analysis: Effects of Anger and Race Through Stereotype Activation
and Perceptions of Internal Causality Among Study 2 Variables

DV = Performance evaluation DV = Leadership capability

Coefficient CI Coefficient CI

Index of moderated mediation −.12* (.06) [−.29, −.04] −.17* (.08) [−.38, −.06]
Conditional indirect effects
White female −.00 (.03) [−.06, .06] −.00 (.04) [−.08, .08]
Black female −.12* (.05) [−.25, −.05] −.17** (.06) [−.32, −.07]
Note. N = 253. Coefficients presented are unstandardized estimates. SEs are in parentheses. CI = 95%
confidence interval.
* p < .05. ** p < .01.
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evaluations. For instance, there could be a “halo effect,” where there identifying biases at work. Anger is an emotion that employees
is a tendency for a perceiver’s evaluations of the employee in one may display in a variety of contexts, often stemming from a
domain (e.g., attractiveness) to influence ratings of the employee’s perceived injustice. Bolstered by cultural reinforcement, our studies
qualities in other important domains (e.g., performance evalua- suggest that the angry black woman stereotype can affect how
tions), even when the domains are fundamentally unrelated individuals view displays of anger at work. The angry black woman
(Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). stereotype represents another hurdle for black women, and we urge
Second, while we did provide participants with the employee’s future research to expand upon our understanding of the effects of
resume to increase psychological realism, the videos that we used to perceptions on black women at work.
manipulate anger were only 5 min long and the audio clips were less
than 1 min long. We know that assessments of current behavior are
largely determined by our experiences in the past (e.g., Hausknecht
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