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GENERAL BIOLOGY I BIO101

LECTURE

CHROMOSOMES, GENES
REPRODUCTION
BY
DR. BINTA MUHAMMAD AMINU
 CHROMOSOME
• The term chromosome was coined by Wilhelm Waldeyer in 1888.
• It is a thread like structure made up of DNA and proteins found in the
nucleus of a cell.
• It carries genetic information in the form of genes, which are
segments of DNA that encodes specific traits.
• More specifically, a chromosome consists of a single, long DNA
double helix that is wrapped around proteins in a highly organized
manner.
• Chromosomes are the essential unit for cellular division and must be
replicated, divided and passed successfully from parents to daughter
cells so as to ensure the genetic diversity and survival of their progeny.
Types of Chromosomes
• Sex chromosomes (heterosomes/allosomes/gonosomes).
• The non-sex chromosomes( autosomes).
Prokaryotic Chromosome
• Chromosome is the most prominent structure in the
cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell.
• Most prokaryotic species have a single, circular, irregularly
folded compact mass that consists of a large DNA molecule
associated with a small number of proteins commonly known
as the bacterial chromosome.
• The DNA molecule contains the information, while the
proteins provide structural support for the DNA
• Depending on the species, prokaryotic cells may also contain
1-100 small, usually circular, supercoiled DNA molecules
called plasmids. Plasmids also contain genes but are
physically independent of the main, cellular chromosome
Prokaryotic Chromosome
 Eukaryotic Chromosome
• Eukaryotic Chromosomes are located within the nucleus
and do not float freely, instead each chromosome
occupies a distinct area and is attached to a fibrous
protein structure called nuclear lamina in at least one
location.
• The nuclear chromosomes are packaged by protein into
a condensed structure called chromatin. This allows the
very long DNA molecules to fit into the cell nucleus.
• Genetic or hereditary information are encoded in DNA
molecules which are components of the chromosomes.
• The nucleus also includes a distinctive region called the
nucleolus, where the RNA molecules found in
ribosomes are manufactured
Eukaryotic Chromosome
 CHROMOSOME (CONT)
• Cell biologists use the term karyotype to describe the number and
type of chromosomes present in an organism.
• Chromosome number varies within species, for example humans (46),
dog (78), fruit fly (8), butter fly (380), cat (38), etc.
 Most species have between 12 and 50 chromosomes per cell.
 Organism having two alleles of each gene, one on each of the
homologous pairs of chromosomes is called diploid, while organisms
that do not contain homologous chromosomes having just one allele of
each gene are called haploid.
 It is also common for certain species, especially land plants to contain
more than two of each type of chromosome.
 Species having three or more of each type of chromosome in each cell
and are called polyploid (‘many-form’). Depending on the number of
homologs present, such species are called triploid (3n), tetraploid (4n),
hexaploid (6n), and so on.
 Genes
• Genes are segments of DNA that contain the
instructions for making specific proteins, which
are essential for the structure, function and
regulation of organisms
• Each gene is located at a specific position on a
chromosome
• The genes on a chromosomes are like beads on a
string, with each gene representing a specific
segment of DNA that encodes a particular protein
or a set of proteins.
 REPRODUCTION
 Reproduction is a process of generating offspring.
• Reproduction is a biological process that occurs in all living
organisms.
• It involves the transmission of genetic material from one
generation to the next, ensuring that the species survives over
long periods of time, even though members of the species die;
thus, it serves to perpetuate or increase a species.
Importance of reproduction
1. Species survival
Without reproduction species will eventually become extinct
2. Genetic Diversity
Reproduction introduces genetic variation within a population,
which is essential for adaptation to changing environments. It
promotes
 REPRODUCTION
3. Evolutionary process
4.Health and Fitness
5. Social structure
TYPES / MODES OF REPRODUCTION
• Two modes of reproduction are recognized: Sexual and Asexual
Reproduction
1. Sexual Reproduction
• Sexual reproduction is defined as a biological process by which organisms
create descendants that have a combination of genetic material contributed
from two (usually) different members of the species.
• Each of the two parent organisms contributes half of the offspring's genetic
makeup of the species by creating haploid gametes which fuse/unite to
form a new diploid individual (i.e. the offspring).
• NB: Haploid - A term used to describe a nucleus, cell, or organism with a
single set of unpaired chromosomes. The haploid number is designated as n
• Diploid - A term describing a nucleus, cell, or organism with twice the
haploid number of chromosomes characteristic of the species. The diploid
number is designated as 2n. NB/ In animals, all the cells except the
reproductive cells are diploid.
 Reproduction
• These special reproductive cells contributed by each parent
are called gametes, germ cells or sex cells.
• The fused cell they form is called zygote.
• The zygote formed by this union receives genetic material
from both parents, and the combination of genes produces a
genetically unique individuals; still bearing characteristics of
the species but also bearing traits that make it different from
its parents. The zygote is the first stage in the life of an
individual as a distinct organism.
• In most species, one gamete is active and moves towards the
other - this is the male gamete.
• The passive gamete which receives is the female gamete. It is
usually larger than the male gamete and may contain food
reserves.
• The act of fusion between haploid male and female gamete is
called fertilization.
 Reproduction(cont)
• By repeated cell division, a zygote develops into an
embryo. This is a young organism in its earliest
stage of development before hatching or birth in
animals.
• Most animals have specialized reproductive organs
(or sex organs) in which the gametes are produced.
They are also called gonads.
• The male gonads i.e. testes (singular: testis)
produce sperm.
• The female gonads - ovaries produce eggs.
• Meiosis, the process by which sex cells are formed,
is an essential feature of the process of sexual
reproduction.
 Reproduction(cont.)
• Meiosis is the type of nuclear division that gives rise to
haploid gametes.
• Every diploid body cell contains two sets of homologous
chromosomes (i.e. chromosomes having the same structural
features) bearing genes for the same set of characteristics;
one member of each pair comes from the female
gamete/parent and the other from the male gamete/parent.
• During meiosis, the chromosome number is reduced by one-
half and thus, the gamete cells produced are said to contain
a haploid number (n) of chromosomes.

• The union/fusion of two different haploid gametes (i.e.

fertilization) results in the formation of a single-celled
diploid zygote, with '2n' chromosomes (i.e. the full set of
chromosomes); thus, restoring the normal (diploid) number.
Meiosis, therefore, allow sexual reproduction to take place.)
• Many species, including vertebrates are
unisexual i.e. an individual has either male or
female reproductive organs but not both.
• In some species each individual develops both
male and female reproductive organs and is
said to be bisexual or hermaphrodite. E.g.
Tapeworms and earthworms.
 Forms of Sexual Reproduction
1. Allogamy
• Allogamy (cross-fertilization) is a term used in the field of biological
reproduction describing the fertilization of an ovum from one individual
with the spermatozoa of another. In humans, the fertilization event is an
example of allogamy.
2. Autogamy
• Autogamy is the term used for self-fertilization. It occurs in hermaphroditic
organisms where the two gametes that fused in fertilization comes from the
same individual. They are bound and all the cells merge to form one new
gamete.
3. Isogamy
• This is the type of sexual reproduction in which the gametes are similar or
are identical in form (isogametes), but may have separable properties and
then may be given other different names. Example A few types of
organisms, such as ciliates, Paramecium aurelia, have more than two types
of "sex", called syngens.
4. Anisogamy
• This is the type of sexual reproduction where gamates are of different sizes
or shape or other characteristics example male (producing sperm or
microspores) and female (producing ova or megaspores).
 CONJUGATION
 Conjugation: in lower algae and fungi, the pairing
gametes are essentially similar, i.e. not differentiated
into male and female.
 The union of such similar gametes (isogametes) is
known as conjugation. The zygote formed is called
zygospore. This grows into a new plant.
Primitive sexual reproduction
 Asexual Reproduction
• In asexual reproduction, one or more cells separate from a single organism
to form a new individual; only one parent is involved and no gametes are
formed. In other words, an individual/organism simply produces an offspring
by itself.

• This type of reproduction appears in bacteria, unicellular eukaryotes and in

many invertebrate phyla such as annelids and echinoderms.

Forms of Asexual Reproduction

• Asexual reproduction takes different forms in different species. The common
methods include:

1. Binary Fission
• The parent organism divides into two equal halves which separate and
develop as new individuals, identical to the parent. Binary fission is the
simplest type of asexual reproduction and is common among unicellular
organisms like the protozoans e.g. Paramecium and Euglena.
•
 BINARY FISSION

2. Budding
This is an un-equal division of an organism in which the parent organism forms an out-
growth or bud which breaks off and then develops as a separate organism e.g. as found in
Coelenterates like Hydra.
 3. Fragmentation
 This is the breaking of a multicellular organism into
two or more parts/ fragments, each of which grow
to form a new complete individual.
 Strong powers of regeneration are needed so that
the missing parts of the fragment are replaced.
 Many invertebrates' e.g. marine worms and
sponges, can reproduce asexually by simply
breaking into small pieces each of which can
regenerate a new individual.
 Starfish and crabs can also regenerate if accidental
fragmentation occurs.
 fragmentation

4. Cloning
 Cloning is the production of many genetically identical copies of an individual
by asexual reproduction. It does not occur naturally in vertebrates.
 The first successful cloning of a vertebrate was carried out in the late 1960s by
Dr. J. Gurdon at Oxford University.
 The process is banned for human embryo on ethical grounds. It is however
useful for other animal species, and is becoming increasingly important in
animal breeding.
 CLONING
• It has been used in cattle, sheep and goats to speed up the
selective breeding of animals from desirable parents.
• Cells can also be cloned for special purposes. This is called
Tissue Culture.
 It allows to study action of chemicals like hormones, drugs,
cosmetics etc, on cells.
 This serves as a useful substitute for laboratory animals like
rats, cats and dogs.
5. Spore Formation:
spores are asexual reproductive units which can grow
independently (i.e. without fusion with another unit), and are
always unicellular and microscopic in size. They may be motile
or non-motile.
 Spore formation(cont)
• Ciliate motile spores are called zoospores, produced by many
fungi and algae, swim about in water for sometimes with the
help of their cilia. Zoospores are commonly formed in large
number.
• Non-ciliate, non-motile spores of various kinds are most
common among terrestrial fungi. Such spores are light, dry
and provided with a tough coat as well as adapted to dispersal
by wind. They are resistant to unfavorable atmospheric
conditions.

• True spores are always borne by sporophyte. Thus, the

sporophyte of moss reproduces asexually by spores. Similarly,
ferns, Lycopodium and Equisetum bear spores and reproduce
asexually. It should be noted that plants can be homosporous
(bearing the same types of spores) or heterosporous (bearing
different types of spores).
Spore formation
 Vegetative reproduction
• Vegetative Reproduction (vegetative propagation,
vegetative multiplication, vegetative cloning):
• It is a form of asexual reproduction in plants. It is a process
by which new individuals arise without production of seeds
or spores.
• It can occur naturally or induced by horticulturists. It is
divided into two methods; natural and artificial method.
• Natural Methods: A portion gets detached from the body of
the mother plant and embarks on a new life under suitable
condition. E.g Budding, Gammae, leaf tips, underground
stem.
• Artificial Methods: here a portion can be separated out by
special method from the body of the mother cell and grow
independently e.g layering, grafting and cutting
 Comparison of Sexual and Asexual Rep.
S/N Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

1 Only One parent involved Usually two parents are involved

2 No gametes are produced Gametes are produced. These are haploid and
nuclei of two gametes fuse (fertilization) to
form a diploid zygote

3 Depends on mitosis Depends on meiosis being present at some

stage in life cycle to prevent chromosome
doubling in every generation

4 Offspring identical to parent Offspring are not identical parents. They show