Chapter 1

Introduction To
Biostatistics

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Introduction
Some Basic concepts

Statistics is a field of study concerned with

1- collection, organization, summarization and
analysis of data.
2- drawing of inferences about a body of data when
only a part of the data is observed.
Statisticians try to interpret and communicate the
results to others.

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 Biostatistics:
The tools of statistics are employed in
many fields:
business, education, psychology,
agriculture, economics, … etc.
When the data analyzed are derived from
the biological science and medicine,
We use the term biostatistics to
distinguish this particular application of
statistical tools and concepts.

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Data
 The raw material of Statistics is data.
 We may define data as figures. Figures
result from the process of counting or
from taking a measurement.
For example:
 When a hospital administrator counts the
number of patients (counting).
 When a nurse weighs a patient
(measurement)

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Sources of Data:
We search for suitable data to serve as the
raw material for our investigation.
Such data are available from one or more of
the following sources:
1- Routinely kept records.
- Hospital medical records contain
immense amounts of information on
patients.
- Hospital accounting records contain a
wealth of data on the facility’s business
activities.

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 2- External sources.

The data needed to answer a question

may already exist in the form of
published reports, commercially available
data banks, or the research literature, i.e.
someone else has already asked the
same question.

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3- Survey
The source may be a survey, if the data
needed is about answering certain questions.
For example:
If the administrator of a clinic wishes to
obtain information regarding the mode of
transportation used by patients to visit the
clinic,
then a survey may be conducted among
patients to obtain this information.

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 4- Experiments

Frequently the data needed to answer a

question are available only as the result of
an experiment.
For example:
If a nurse wishes to know which of several
strategies is best for maximizing patient
compliance,
she might conduct an experiment in which
the different strategies of motivating
compliance are tried with different patients.

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 A variable:

It is a characteristic that takes on different

value in different persons, places, or things.
For example:
- heart rate,
- the heights of adult males,
- the weights of preschool children,
- the ages of patients seen in a dental clinic.

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 Types of variables
Quantitative Qualitative
Quantitative Variables Qualitative Variables
It can be measured in the Many characteristics are
usual sense.
Measurements convey not capable of being
information regarding measured. Some of them
amount. can be ordered or ranked.
Measurements convey
For example: information regarding
- The heights of adult attribute.
males, For example:
- The weights of
preschool children, - Classification of people into
- The ages of patients socio-economic groups, social
seen in a dental clinic. classes based on income,
education, etc.

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 Types of quantitative variables
Discrete Continuous
A discrete variable A continuous variable
is characterized by gaps can assume any value within a
or interruptions in the specified relevant interval of
values that it can values assumed by the variable.
assume.
For example:
For example: - Height,
- The number of daily - weight,
admissions to a - skull circumference.
general hospital,
- The number of
No matter how close together the
decayed, missing or observed heights of two people,
filled teeth per child in we can find another person
an elementary whose height falls somewhere in
school. between.

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 Dichotomous Variable
 A dichotomous variable: a discrete variabe
has only two possible categories or
scores such as:
◦ Married or divorced
◦ Pass or Fail
◦ Yes or no
◦ Correct or incorrect

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A population:

It is the largest collection of values of a

random variable for which we have an
interest at a particular time.
For example:
The weights of all the children enrolled in a
certain elementary school.
Populations may be finite or infinite.

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A sample:
It is a part of a population.
For example:
The weights of only a fraction of
these children.

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 Measurement Scales
 There are four types of measurement
scales:
◦ Nominal
◦ Ordinal
◦ Interval
◦ Ratio

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 Nominal Scale
• A nominal scale does not indicate an
amount; rather, it is used for identification,
as a name.
• Examples:
– Hair Color
– Political Party

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 Ordinal Scale
• An ordinal scale indicates rank order.
There is not an equal amount separating
every pair of adjacent scores.
• Examples:
– Election Results
– Class Ranking

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 Interval Scale
• An interval scale indicates an actual
quantity and an equal amount separates
adjacent scores. Interval scales do not
have a “true” 0.
• Examples:
–Temperature
–IQ

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 Ratio Scale
• A ratio scale reflects the true amount of
the variable that is present because the
scores measure an actual amount, there is
an equal unit of measurement, and 0 truly
means that none of the variable is
present.
• Examples:
–Income
–Height
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Statistical Inference
 It is the procedure by which we reach a
conclusion about a population on the
basis of the information contained in a
sample from that population.
◦ Use simple random sample of size n from
population of size N

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Data Collection and Sampling
Techniques
Some Sampling Techniques
• Random – random number generator
• Systematic – every kth subject
• Stratified – divide population into “layers”
• Cluster – use intact groups
• Sampling error – Sample vs. population

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 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
A process by which scientific information is
collected, analyzed, and reported in order to produce
unbiased and replicable results to provide an
accurate representation of observable phenomena.

• Making an observation
• Formulating a hypothesis
• Designing an experiment
• Conclusion
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Making an Observation
 An observation is made of a phenomenon that
leads to the formulation of questions that can be
answered in a scientific way.
 Regular exercise reduces body weight in many people.
 Changing diet may have a similar effect.
 Two observable phenomena, regular exercise and diet
change, that have the same endpoint.
 The nature of this endpoint can be determined by
use of the scientific method.

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Formulating a Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is formulated to explain the
observation and to make quantitative predictions
of new observations.
• They are generated as a result of extensive
background research and literature reviews.
o Example: The average loss of body weight of people
who exercise is greater than the average loss of body
weight of people who do not exercise

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Experimental Design
• In an observational study, the researcher
merely observes and tries to draw conclusions
based on the observations.
• The researcher manipulates the independent
(explanatory) variable and tries to determine
how the manipulation influences the dependent
(outcome) variable in an experimental study.

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Conclusion
• In the execution of a research study or experiment, one would hope
to have collected the data necessary to draw conclusions, with some
degree of confidence, about the hypotheses that were posed as part
of the design.
• It is often the case that hypotheses need to be modified and retested
with new data and a different design.
• Whatever the conclusions of the scientific process, however, results
are rarely considered to be conclusive.
• That is results need to be replicated, often a large number of times,
before scientific acceptance is granted them.

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