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 Digital Control
Engineering
Analysis and Design
Second Edition

M. Sami Fadali

Antonio Visioli

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK
Copyright r 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
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such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our
website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or
medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein.
In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety
of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions,
or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Fadali, M. Sami.
Digital control engineering : analysis and design / M. Sami Fadali, Antonio Visioli.

Second edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-12-394391-0 (hardback)
1. Digital control systems. I. Visioli, Antonio. II. Title.
TJ223.M53F33 2013
629.80 9
dc23
2012021488
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

For information on all Academic Press publications

visit our website at http://store.elsevier.com

Printed in the United States of America

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Preface

Approach
Control systems are an integral part of everyday life in today’s society. They
control our appliances, our entertainment centers, our cars, and our office environ-
ments; they control our industrial processes and our transportation systems; they
control our exploration of land, sea, air, and space. Almost all of these applications
use digital controllers implemented with computers, microprocessors, or digital
electronics. Every electrical, chemical, or mechanical engineering senior or gradu-
ate student should therefore be familiar with the basic theory of digital
controllers.
This text is designed for a senior or combined senior/graduate-level course in
digital controls in departments of mechanical, electrical, or chemical engineering.
Although other texts are available on digital controls, most do not provide a satis-
factory format for a senior/graduate-level class. Some texts have very few exam-
ples to support the theory, and some were written before the wide availability of
computer-aided-design (CAD) packages. Others use CAD packages in certain
ways but do not fully exploit their capabilities. Most available texts are based on
the assumption that students must complete several courses in systems and control
theory before they can be exposed to digital control. We disagree with this
assumption, and we firmly believe that students can learn digital control after a
one-semester course covering the basics of analog control. As with other topics
that started at the graduate level—linear algebra and Fourier analysis to name a
few—the time has come for digital control to become an integral part of the
undergraduate curriculum.

Features
To meet the needs of the typical senior/graduate-level course, this text includes
the following features.

Numerous examples
The book includes a large number of examples. Typically, only one or two exam-
ples can be covered in the classroom because of time limitations. The student can
use the remaining examples for self-study. The experience of the authors is that
students need more examples to experiment with so as to gain a better under-
standing of the theory. The examples are varied to bring out subtleties of the
theory that students may overlook.

xi
xii Preface

Extensive use of CAD packages

The book makes extensive use of CAD packages. It goes beyond the occasional
reference to specific commands to the integration of these commands into the
modeling, design, and analysis of digital control systems. For example, root locus
design procedures given in most digital control texts are not CAD procedures and
instead emphasize paper-and-pencil design. The use of CAD packages, such as
MATLABs, frees students from the drudgery of mundane calculations and
allows them to ponder more subtle aspects of control system analysis and design.
The availability of a simulation tool like Simulinks allows the student to simu-
late closed-loop control systems, including aspects neglected in design such as
nonlinearities and disturbances.

Coverage of background material

The book itself contains review material from linear systems and classical control.
Some background material is included in the appendices that could either be
reviewed in class or consulted by the student as necessary. The review material,
which is often neglected in digital control texts, is essential for the understanding
of digital control system analysis and design. For example, the behavior of dis-
crete-time systems in the time domain and in the frequency domain is a standard
topic in linear systems texts but often receives brief coverage. Root locus design
is almost identical for analog systems in the s-domain and digital systems in the
z-domain. The topic is covered much more extensively in classical control texts
and inadequately in digital control texts. The digital control student is expected to
recall this material or rely on other sources. Often, instructors are obliged to com-
pile their own review materials, and the continuity of the course is adversely
affected.

Inclusion of advanced topics

In addition to the basic topics required for a one-semester senior/graduate class,
the text includes some advanced material to make it suitable for an introductory
graduate-level class or for two quarters at the senior/graduate level. We would
also hope that the students in a single-semester course would acquire enough
background and interest to read the additional chapters on their own. Examples of
optional topics are state
space methods, which may receive brief coverage in a
one-semester course, and nonlinear discrete-time systems, which may not be
covered.

Standard mathematics prerequisites

The mathematics background required for understanding most of the book
does not exceed what can be reasonably expected from the average electrical,
chemical, or mechanical engineering senior. This background includes three
 Preface xiii

semesters of calculus, differential equations, and basic linear algebra. Some

texts on digital control require more mathematical maturity and are therefore
beyond the reach of the typical senior. On the other hand, the text does include
optional topics for the more advanced student. The rest of the text does not
require knowledge of this optional material so that it can be easily skipped if
necessary.

Senior system theory prerequisites

The control and system theory background required for understanding the book
does not exceed material typically covered in one semester of linear systems and
one semester of control systems. Thus, students should be familiar with Laplace
transforms, the frequency domain, and the root locus. They need not be familiar
with the behavior of discrete-time systems in the frequency and time domain or
have extensive experience with compensator design in the s-domain. For an audi-
ence with an extensive background in these topics, some topics can be skipped
and the material can be covered at a faster rate.

Coverage of theory and applications

The book has two authors: the first is primarily interested in control theory and
the second is primarily interested in practical applications and hardware imple-
mentation. Even though some control theorists have sufficient familiarity with
practical issues such as hardware implementation and industrial applications to
touch on the subject in their texts, the material included is often deficient because
of the rapid advances in the area and the limited knowledge that theorists have of
the subject.

New to this edition

We made several important changes and added material to the second edition:
1. We added a brief introduction to Simulink simulation of discrete-time systems
to Chapter 3.
2. We moved the explanation of the bilinear transform to Chapter 4, where the
bilinear transform is first introduced, from Chapter 6.
3. We added closed-loop Ziegler-Nichols design to Chapter 5.
4. We added pole-zero matching to Chapter 6. This is a simple design approach
that was used in some examples but was not included in the first edition.
5. We have improved the explanation of the direct control design (Section 6.6)
and of the finite settling time design (Section 6.7).
6. We added the Hankel realization to Chapter 8 to provide a systematic method
for multi-input-multi-output system realization. Because this material is based
on the singular value decomposition, a section on the singular value
decomposition was added to Appendix III.
xiv Preface

7. In the first edition, the Hamiltonian system was included, but the significance
of its eigenstructure was not discussed. We added a section on the
eigenstructure of the Hamiltonian system to Chapter 10.
8. The first edition did not include a discussion of the stability of the response of
the system to an external input. We added input-output stability and the circle
criterion to Chapter 11.
9. We added 23 new problems, including several new computer exercises.
It became clear to the first author that to have a suitable text for his course
and similar courses, he needed to find a partner to satisfactorily complete the text.
He gradually collected material for the text and started looking for a qualified and
interested partner. Finally, he found a co-author who shared his interest in digital
control and the belief that it can be presented at a level amenable to the average
undergraduate engineering student.
For many years, Dr. Antonio Visioli has been teaching an introductory and a
laboratory course on automatic control, as well as a course on control systems
technology. Further, his research interests are in the fields of industrial regulators
and robotics. Although he contributed to the material presented throughout the
text, his major contribution was adding material related to the practical design
and implementation of digital control systems. This material is rarely covered in
control systems texts but is an essential prerequisite for applying digital control
theory in practice.
The text is written to be as self-contained as possible. However, the reader is
expected to have completed a semester of linear systems and classical control.
Throughout the text, extensive use is made of the numerical computation and
computer-aided-design package MATLAB. As with all computational tools, the
enormous capabilities of MATLAB are no substitute for a sound understanding
of the theory presented in the text. As an example of the inappropriate use of sup-
porting technology, we recall the story of the driver who followed the instructions
of his GPS system and drove into the path of an oncoming train!1 The reader
must use MATLAB as a tool to support the theory without blindly accepting its
computational results.

Organization of text
The text begins with an introduction to digital control and the reasons for its pop-
ularity. It also provides a few examples of applications of digital control from the
engineering literature.

1
The story was reported in the Chicago Sun-Times, on January 4, 2008. The driver, a computer
consultant, escaped just in time before the train slammed into his car at 60 mph in Bedford Hills,
New York.
 Preface xv

Chapter 2 considers discrete-time models and their analysis using the

z-transform. We review the z-transform, its properties, and its use to solve differ-
ence equations. The chapter also reviews the properties of the frequency
response of discrete-time systems. After a brief discussion of the sampling theo-
rem, we are able to provide rules of thumb for selecting the sampling rate for a
given signal or for given system dynamics. This material is often covered in lin-
ear systems courses, and much of it can be skipped or covered quickly in a digital
control course. However, the material is included because it serves as a founda-
tion for much of the material in the text.
Chapter 3 derives simple mathematical models for linear discrete-time sys-
tems. We derive models for the analog-to-digital converter (ADC), the digital-to-
analog converter (DAC), and an analog system with a DAC and an ADC. We
include systems with time delays that are not an integer multiple of the sampling
period. These transfer functions are particularly important because many applica-
tions include an analog plant with DAC and ADC. Nevertheless, there are situa-
tions where different configurations are used. We therefore include an analysis of
a variety of configurations with samplers. We also characterize the steady-state
tracking error of discrete-time systems and define error constants for the unity
feedback case. These error constants play an analogous role to the error constants
for analog systems. Using our analysis of more complex configurations, we are
able to obtain the error due to a disturbance input.
In Chapter 4, we present stability tests for input-output systems. We examine
the definitions of input-output stability and internal stability and derive condi-
tions for each. By transforming the characteristic polynomial of a discrete-time
system, we are able to test it using the standard Routh-Hurwitz criterion for
analog systems. We use the Jury criterion, which allows us to directly test the
stability of a discrete-time system. Finally, we present the Nyquist criterion for
the z-domain and use it to determine closed-loop stability of discrete-time
systems.
Chapter 5 introduces analog s-domain design of proportional (P), proportional-
plus-integral (PI), proportional-plus-derivative (PD), and proportional-plus-
integral-plus-derivative (PID) control using MATLAB. We use MATLAB as an
integral part of the design process, although many steps of the design can be com-
peted using a scientific calculator. It would seem that a chapter on analog design
does not belong in a text on digital control. This is false. Analog control can be
used as a first step toward obtaining a digital control. In addition, direct digital
control design in the z-domain is similar in many ways to s-domain design.
Digital controller design is topic of Chapter 6. It begins with proportional con-
trol design then examines digital controllers based on analog design. The direct
design of digital controllers is considered next. We consider root locus design in
the z-plane for PI and PID controllers. We also consider a synthesis approach due
to Ragazzini that allows us to specify the desired closed-loop transfer function.
As a special case, we consider the design of deadbeat controllers that allow us to
xvi Preface

exactly track an input at the sampling points after a few sampling points. For
completeness, we also examine frequency response design in the w-plane. This
approach requires more experience because values of the stability margins must
be significantly larger than in the more familiar analog design. As with analog
design, MATLAB is an integral part of the design process for all digital control
approaches.
Chapter 7 covers state
space models and state
space realizations. First, we
discuss analog state
space equations and their solutions. We include nonlinear
analog equations and their linearization to obtain linear state
space equations.
We then show that the solution of the analog state equations over a sampling
period yields a discrete-time state
space model. Properties of the solution of the
analog state equation can thus be used to analyze the discrete-time state equation.
The discrete-time state equation is a recursion for which we obtain a solution by
induction. In Chapter 8, we consider important properties of state
space models:
stability, controllability, and observability. As in Chapter 4, we consider internal
stability and input-output stability, but the treatment is based on the properties of
the state
space model rather than those of the transfer function. Controllability is
a property that characterizes our ability to drive the system from an arbitrary
initial state to an arbitrary final state in finite time. Observability characterizes
our ability to calculate the initial state of the system using its input and output
measurements. Both are structural properties of the system that are independent
of its stability. Next, we consider realizations of discrete-time systems. These are
ways of implementing discrete-time systems through their state
space equations
using summers and delays.
Chapter 9 covers the design of controllers for state
space models. We show
that the system dynamics can be arbitrarily chosen using state feedback if the
system is controllable. If the state is not available for feedback, we can design a
state estimator or observer to estimate it from the output measurements. These
are dynamic systems that mimic the system but include corrective feedback to
account for errors that are inevitable in any implementation. We give two types
of observers. The first is a simpler but more computationally costly full-order
observer that estimates the entire state vector. The second is a reduced-order
observer with the order reduced by virtue of the fact that the measurements are
available and need not be estimated. Either observer can be used to provide an
estimate of the state for feedback control, or for other purposes. Control schemes
based on state estimates are said to use observer state feedback.
Chapter 10 deals with the optimal control of digital control systems. We
consider the problem of unconstrained optimization, followed by constrained opti-
mization, then generalize to dynamic optimization as constrained by the system
dynamics. We are particularly interested in the linear quadratic regulator where
optimization results are easy to interpret and the prerequisite mathematics back-
ground is minimal. We consider both the finite time and steady-state regulator
and discuss conditions for the existence of the steady-state solution. The first
10 chapters are mostly restricted to linear discrete-time systems. Chapter 11
 Preface xvii

examines the far more complex behavior of nonlinear discrete-time systems. It

begins with equilibrium points and their stability. It shows how equivalent dis-
crete-time models can be easily obtained for some forms of nonlinear analog sys-
tems using global or extended linearization. It provides stability theorems and
instability theorems using Lyapunov stability theory. The theory gives sufficient
conditions for nonlinear systems, and failure of either the stability or instability
tests is inconclusive. For linear systems, Lyapunov stability yields necessary and
sufficient conditions. Lyapunov stability theory also allows us to design control-
lers by selecting a control that yields a closed-loop system that meets the
Lyapunov stability conditions. For the classes of nonlinear systems for which
extended linearization is straightforward, linear design methodologies can yield
nonlinear controllers.
Chapter 12 deals with practical issues that must be addressed for the success-
ful implementation of digital controllers. In particular, the hardware and software
requirements for the correct implementation of a digital control system are
analyzed. We discuss the choice of the sampling frequency in the presence of
antialiasing filters and the effects of quantization, rounding, and truncation errors.
We also discuss bumpless switching from automatic to manual control, avoiding
discontinuities in the control input. Our discussion naturally leads to approaches for
the effective implementation of a PID controller. Finally, we consider nonuniform
sampling, where the sampling frequency is changed during control operation, and
multirate sampling, where samples of the process outputs are available at a slower
rate than the controller sampling rate.

Supporting material
The following resources are available to instructors adopting this text for use in
their courses. Please visit textbooks.elsevier.com to register for access to these
materials:
Instructor Solutions Manual. Fully typeset solutions to the end-of-chapter
problems in the text.
PowerPoints Images. Electronic images of the figures and tables from the
book, useful for creating lectures.
Contents

Preface ......................................................................................................................xi

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Digital Control .............................................1

1.1 Why digital control?......................................................................2
1.2 The structure of a digital control system......................................2
1.3 Examples of digital control systems .............................................3
1.3.1 Closed-loop drug delivery system .......................................3
1.3.2 Computer control of an aircraft turbojet engine .................4
1.3.3 Control of a robotic manipulator .........................................4
Resources...............................................................................................6
Problems ................................................................................................7

CHAPTER 2 Discrete-Time Systems ..........................................................9

2.1 Analog systems with piecewise constant inputs...........................9
2.2 Difference equations ...................................................................11
2.3 The z-transform ...........................................................................12
2.3.1 z-Transforms of standard discrete-time signals.................13
2.3.2 Properties of the z-transform .............................................15
2.3.3 Inversion of the z-transform...............................................19
2.3.4 The final value theorem .....................................................28
2.4 Computer-aided design ...............................................................29
2.5 z-Transform solution of difference equations.............................31
2.6 The time response of a discrete-time system .............................32
2.6.1 Convolution summation.....................................................32
2.6.2 The convolution theorem ...................................................34
2.7 The modified z-transform............................................................37
2.8 Frequency response of discrete-time systems.............................39
2.8.1 Properties of the frequency response of
discrete-time systems .........................................................42
2.8.2 MATLAB commands for the discrete-time
frequency response.............................................................44
2.9 The sampling theorem.................................................................45
2.9.1 Selection of the sampling frequency .................................46
Resources.............................................................................................49
Problems ..............................................................................................49
Computer exercises .............................................................................52

iii
iv Contents

CHAPTER 3 Modeling of Digital Control Systems ..............................55

3.1 ADC model .................................................................................55
3.2 DAC model .................................................................................56
3.3 The transfer function of the ZOH ..............................................57
3.4 Effect of the sampler on the transfer function of a cascade......58
3.5 DAC, analog subsystem, and ADC combination
transfer function ..........................................................................61
3.6 Systems with transport lag..........................................................69
3.7 The closed-loop transfer function...............................................71
3.8 Analog disturbances in a digital system.....................................74
3.9 Steady-state error and error constants ........................................75
3.9.1 Sampled step input ............................................................77
3.9.2 Sampled ramp input ..........................................................77
3.10 MATLAB commands .................................................................79
3.10.1 MATLAB ........................................................................79
3.10.2 Simulink ..........................................................................80
Resources.............................................................................................85
Problems ..............................................................................................85
Computer exercises .............................................................................89

CHAPTER 4 Stability of Digital Control Systems ................................91

4.1 Definitions of stability ................................................................91
4.2 Stable z-domain pole locations...................................................93
4.3 Stability conditions .....................................................................94
4.3.1 Asymptotic stability ..........................................................94
4.3.2 BIBO stability ...................................................................95
4.3.3 Internal stability.................................................................98
4.4 Stability determination..............................................................101
4.4.1 MATLAB ........................................................................101
4.4.2 Routh-Hurwitz criterion ..................................................102
4.5 Jury test .....................................................................................104
4.6 Nyquist criterion .......................................................................109
4.6.1 Phase margin and gain margin........................................114
Resources...........................................................................................123
Problems ............................................................................................123
Computer exercises ...........................................................................125

CHAPTER 5 Analog Control System Design........................................127

5.1 Root locus .................................................................................127
5.2 Root locus using MATLAB .....................................................132
5.3 Design specifications and the effect of gain variation.............132
 Contents v

5.4 Root locus design ......................................................................135

5.4.1 Proportional control .........................................................137
5.4.2 PD control ........................................................................138
5.4.3 PI control..........................................................................147
5.4.4 PID control .......................................................................153
5.5 Empirical tuning of PID controllers .........................................156
Resources...........................................................................................161
Problems ............................................................................................161
Computer exercises ...........................................................................163

CHAPTER 6 Digital Control System Design .........................................165

6.1 z-Domain root locus ..................................................................165
6.2 z-Domain digital control system design ...................................168
6.2.1 z-Domain contours ...........................................................171
6.2.2 Proportional control design in the z-domain ...................175
6.3 Digital implementation of analog controller design.................180
6.3.1 Differencing methods.......................................................181
6.3.2 Pole-zero matching ..........................................................183
6.3.3 Bilinear transformation ....................................................186
6.3.4 Empirical digital PID controller tuning...........................199
6.4 Direct z-domain digital controller design .................................200
6.5 Frequency response design .......................................................205
6.6 Direct control design .................................................................213
6.7 Finite settling time design.........................................................218
Resources...........................................................................................230
Problems ............................................................................................230
Computer exercises ...........................................................................233

CHAPTER 7 State
Space Representation ..........................................235

7.1 State variables ...........................................................................235
7.2 State
space representation .......................................................238
7.2.1 State
space representation in MATLAB........................240
7.2.2 Linear versus nonlinear state
space equations...............240
7.3 Linearization of nonlinear state equations................................243
7.4 The solution of linear state
space equations...........................246
7.4.1 The Leverrier algorithm...................................................251
7.4.2 Sylvester’s expansion.......................................................255
7.4.3 The state-transition matrix for a diagonal state matrix...257
7.4.4 Real form for complex conjugate eigenvalues................262
7.5 The transfer function matrix .....................................................264
7.5.1 MATLAB commands.......................................................265
vi Contents

7.6 Discrete-time state
space equations ........................................266

7.6.1 MATLAB commands for discrete-time
state
space equations ......................................................269
7.6.2 Complex conjugate eigenvalues .................................... 269
7.7 Solution of discrete-time state
space equations......................271
7.7.1 z-Transform solution of discrete-time state equations ...... 272
7.8 z-Transfer function from state
space equations ......................277
7.8.1 z-Transfer function in MATLAB.....................................279
7.9 Similarity Transformation .........................................................279
7.9.1 Invariance of transfer functions and
characteristic equations ....................................................282
Resources...........................................................................................283
Problems ............................................................................................283
Computer exercises ...........................................................................289

CHAPTER 8 Properties of State
Space Models ...............................293

8.1 Stability of state
space realizations.........................................294
8.1.1 Asymptotic stability.......................................................294
8.1.2 BIBO stability ..................................................................297
8.2 Controllability and stabilizability............................................301
8.2.1 MATLAB commands for controllability testing.............307
8.2.2 Controllability of systems in normal form ......................308
8.2.3 Stabilizability.................................................................309
8.3 Observability and detectability .................................................313
8.3.1 MATLAB commands.......................................................316
8.3.2 Observability of systems in normal form........................317
8.3.3 Detectability...................................................................317
8.4 Poles and zeros of multivariable systems.................................319
8.4.1 Poles and zeros from the transfer function matrix..........320
8.4.2 Zeros from state
space models ....................................323
8.5 State
space realizations ...........................................................325
8.5.1 Controllable canonical realization ...................................326
8.5.2 Controllable form in MATLAB .....................................330
8.5.3 Parallel realization .........................................................331
8.5.4 Observable form...............................................................336
8.6 Duality........................................................................................... 338
8.7 Hankel realization ..................................................................339
Resources...........................................................................................343
Problems ............................................................................................344
Computer exercises ...........................................................................349
 Contents vii

CHAPTER 9 State Feedback Control .....................................................351

9.1 State and output feedback .........................................................351
9.2 Pole placement...........................................................................353
9.2.1 Pole placement by transformation to
controllable form..............................................................356
9.2.2 Pole placement using a matrix polynomial .....................357
9.2.3 Choice of the closed-loop eigenvalues............................359
9.2.4 MATLAB commands for pole placement.......................364
9.2.5 Pole placement for multi-input systems ..........................364
9.2.6 Pole placement by output feedback.................................367
9.3 Servo problem............................................................................367
9.4 Invariance of system zeros ........................................................372
9.5 State estimation..........................................................................374
9.5.1 Full-order observer...........................................................374
9.5.2 Reduced-order observer ...................................................377
9.6 Observer state feedback.............................................................380
9.6.1 Choice of observer eigenvalues .......................................383
9.7 Pole assignment using transfer functions..................................389
Resources...........................................................................................393
Problems ............................................................................................393
Computer exercises ...........................................................................397

CHAPTER 10 Optimal Control .....................................................................399

10.1 Optimization ..............................................................................399
10.1.1 Unconstrained optimization...........................................400
10.1.2 Constrained optimization...............................................402
10.2 Optimal control..........................................................................404
10.3 The linear quadratic regulator ...................................................409
10.3.1 Free final state ...............................................................410
10.4 Steady-state quadratic regulator ................................................419
10.4.1 Output quadratic regulator .............................................420
10.4.2 MATLAB solution of the steady-state
regulator problem .........................................................421
10.4.3 Linear quadratic tracking controller ..............................423
10.5 Hamiltonian system ...................................................................426
10.5.1 Eigenstructure of the Hamiltonian matrix.....................429
Resources .............................................................................................433
Problems ..............................................................................................433
Computer exercises..............................................................................436
viii Contents

CHAPTER 11 Elements of Nonlinear Digital Control Systems ........439

11.1 Discretization of nonlinear systems ..........................................439
11.1.1 Extended linearization by input redefinition ................440
11.1.2 Extended linearization by input and
state redefinition ............................................................442
11.1.3 Extended linearization by output differentiation ..........443
11.1.4 Extended linearization using matching conditions .......445
11.2 Nonlinear difference equations .................................................447
11.2.1 Logarithmic transformation...........................................448
11.3 Equilibrium of nonlinear discrete-time systems .......................448
11.4 Lyapunov stability theory..........................................................450
11.4.1 Lyapunov functions .......................................................450
11.4.2 Stability theorems ..........................................................452
11.4.3 Rate of convergence ......................................................454
11.4.4 Lyapunov stability of linear systems ............................454
11.4.5 MATLAB.......................................................................457
11.4.6 Lyapunov’s linearization method..................................458
11.4.7 Instability theorems .......................................................459
11.4.8 Estimation of the domain of attraction .........................461
11.5 Stability of analog systems with digital control .......................463
11.6 State plane analysis ...................................................................465
11.7 Discrete-time nonlinear controller design.................................470
11.7.1 Controller design using extended linearization.............470
11.7.2 Controller design based on Lyapunov
stability theory ...............................................................473
11.8 Input-output stability and the small gain theorem....................474
11.8.1 Absolute stability ...........................................................481
Resources .............................................................................................485
Problems ..............................................................................................485
Computer exercises..............................................................................489

CHAPTER 12 Practical Issues ...................................................................491

12.1 Design of the hardware and software architecture ...................491
12.1.1 Software requirements ...................................................491
12.1.2 Selection of ADC and DAC..........................................494
12.2 Choice of the sampling period ..................................................495
12.2.1 Antialiasing filters .........................................................495
12.2.2 Effects of quantization errors ........................................498
12.2.3 Phase delay introduced by the ZOH .............................503
 Contents ix

12.3 Controller structure....................................................................504

12.4 PID control.................................................................................507
12.4.1 Filtering the derivative action........................................507
12.4.2 Integrator windup ...........................................................509
12.4.3 Bumpless transfer between manual
and automatic mode .......................................................512
12.4.4 Incremental form............................................................515
12.5 Sampling period switching ........................................................516
12.5.1 MATLAB commands.....................................................519
12.5.2 Dual-rate control ............................................................526
Resources .............................................................................................528
Problems ..............................................................................................529
Computer exercises..............................................................................530

APPENDIX I Table of Laplace and z-transforms ...............................533

APPENDIX II Properties of the z-transform ..........................................535

APPENDIX III Review of Linear Algebra .................................................537

Index ......................................................................................................................565
 CHAPTER

Introduction to Digital Control

1
OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, the reader will be able to do the following:
1. Explain the reasons for the popularity of digital control systems.
2. Draw a block diagram for digital control of a given analog control system.
3. Explain the structure and components of a typical digital control system.
In most modern engineering systems, it is necessary to control the evolution
with time of one or more of the system variables. Controllers are required to
ensure satisfactory transient and steady-state behavior for these engineering sys-
tems. To guarantee satisfactory performance in the presence of disturbances and
model uncertainty, most controllers in use today employ some form of negative
feedback. A sensor is needed to measure the controlled variable and compare its
behavior to a reference signal. Control action is based on an error signal defined
as the difference between the reference and the actual values.
The controller that manipulates the error signal to determine the desired
control action has classically been an analog system, which includes electrical,
fluid, pneumatic, or mechanical components. These systems all have analog
inputs and outputs (i.e., their input and output signals are defined over a contin-
uous time interval and have values that are defined over a continuous range
of amplitudes). In the past few decades, analog controllers have often been
replaced by digital controllers whose inputs and outputs are defined at discrete
time instances. The digital controllers are in the form of digital circuits, digital
computers, or microprocessors.
Intuitively, one would think that controllers that continuously monitor the
output of a system would be superior to those that base their control on sampled
values of the output. It would seem that control variables (controller outputs) that
change continuously would achieve better control than those that change period-
ically. This is in fact true! Had all other factors been identical for digital and
analog control, analog control would be superior to digital control. What, then,
is the reason behind the change from analog to digital that has occurred over the
past few decades?

1
2 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Digital Control

1.1 Why digital control?

Digital control offers distinct advantages over analog control that explain its pop-
ularity. Here are some of its many advantages:
Accuracy. Digital signals are represented in terms of zeros and ones with
typically 12 bits or more to represent a single number. This involves a very
small error as compared to analog signals, where noise and power supply drift
are always present.
Implementation errors. Digital processing of control signals involves
addition and multiplication by stored numerical values. The errors that result
from digital representation and arithmetic are negligible. By contrast, the
processing of analog signals is performed using components such as resistors
and capacitors with actual values that vary significantly from the nominal
design values.
Flexibility. An analog controller is difficult to modify or redesign once
implemented in hardware. A digital controller is implemented in firmware or
software and its modification is possible without a complete replacement of
the original controller. Furthermore, the structure of the digital controller need
not follow one of the simple forms that are typically used in analog control.
More complex controller structures involve a few extra arithmetic operations
and are easily realizable.
Speed. The speed of computer hardware has increased exponentially since the
1980s. This increase in processing speed has made it possible to sample and
process control signals at very high speeds. Because the interval between
samples, the sampling period, can be made very small, digital controllers
achieve performance that is essentially the same as that based on continuous
monitoring of the controlled variable.
Cost. Although the prices of most goods and services have steadily increased,
the cost of digital circuitry continues to decrease. Advances in very large-scale
integration (VLSI) technology have made it possible to manufacture better,
faster, and more reliable integrated circuits and to offer them to the consumer
at a lower price. This has made the use of digital controllers more economical
even for small, low-cost applications.

1.2 The structure of a digital control system

To control a physical system or process using a digital controller, the controller
must receive measurements from the system, process them, and then send control
signals to the actuator that effects the control action. In almost all applications,
both the plant and the actuator are analog systems. This is a situation where the
controller and the controlled do not “speak the same language,” and some form
of translation is required. The translation from controller language (digital) to
 1.3 Examples of digital control systems 3

Reference Controlled
Input Actuator Variable
Computer DAC
and Process

ADC Sensor

FIGURE 1.1
Configuration of a digital control system.

physical process language (analog) is performed by a digital-to-analog converter,

or DAC. The translation from process language to digital controller language
is performed by an analog-to-digital converter, or ADC. A sensor is needed to
monitor the controlled variable for feedback control. The combination of the
elements discussed here in a control loop is shown in Figure 1.1. Variations on
this control configuration are possible. For example, the system could have
several reference inputs and controlled variables, each with a loop similar to
that of Figure 1.1. The system could also include an inner loop with digital
or analog control.

1.3 Examples of digital control systems

In this section, we briefly discuss examples of control systems where digital
implementation is now the norm. There are many other examples of industrial
processes that are digitally controlled, and the reader is encouraged to seek other
examples from the literature.

1.3.1 Closed-loop drug delivery system

Several chronic diseases require the regulation of the patient’s blood levels of a
specific drug or hormone. For example, some diseases involve the failure of the
body’s natural closed-loop control of blood levels of nutrients. Most prominent
among these is the disease diabetes, where the production of the hormone insulin
that controls blood glucose levels is impaired.
To design a closed-loop drug delivery system, a sensor is utilized to measure
the levels of the regulated drug or nutrient in the blood. This measurement is con-
verted to digital form and fed to the control computer, which drives a pump that
injects the drug into the patient’s blood. A block diagram of the drug delivery
system is shown in Figure 1.2. See Carson and Deutsch (1992) for a more detailed
example of a drug delivery system.
4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Digital Control

Drug Tank

Computer
Regulated
Drug Drug
Pump or Nutrient

Blood
Sensor

(a)

Reference Regulated
Blood Drug
Level Drug or Nutrient
Computer DAC Patient
Pump

Blood
ADC
Sensor
(b)
FIGURE 1.2
Drug delivery digital control system. (a) Schematic of a drug delivery system.
(b) Block diagram of a drug delivery system.

1.3.2 Computer control of an aircraft turbojet engine

To achieve the high performance required for today’s aircraft, turbojet engines
employ sophisticated computer control strategies. A simplified block diagram for
turbojet computer control is shown in Figure 1.3. The control requires feedback
of the engine state (speed, temperature, and pressure), measurements of the aircraft
state (speed and direction), and pilot command.

1.3.3 Control of a robotic manipulator

Robotic manipulators are capable of performing repetitive tasks at speeds and
accuracies that far exceed those of human operators. They are now widely used
in manufacturing processes such as spot welding and painting. To perform their
tasks accurately and reliably, manipulator hand (or end-effector) positions and
velocities are controlled digitally. Each motion or degree of freedom (D.O.F.)
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annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise;
the state remaining in the mean time exposed to all the danger of
invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these states;
for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners,
refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and
raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands.
He has “suffered” [obstructed] the administration of justice
“totally to cease in some of these states,” [by] refusing his assent to
laws for establishing judiciary powers.
He has made “our” judges dependent on his will alone for the
tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their
salaries.
He has erected a multitude of new offices, “by a self-assumed
power,” and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people and
eat out their substance.
He has kept among us in times of peace standing armies, “and
ships of war,” without the consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the military independent of and
superior to the civil power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction
foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving
his assent to their acts of pretended legislation.
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
 For protecting them, by mock trial, from punishment for any
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these
states:
For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing taxes on us without our consent:
For depriving us, [in many cases,] of the benefits of trial by jury:
For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended
offences:
For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighbouring
province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and
enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and
fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these
“states” [colonies:]
For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws,
and altering fundamentally the forms of our governments:
For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves
invested with power to legislate for us, in all cases whatever:
He has abdicated government here “withdrawing his governors,
and” [by] declaring us out of his [allegiance] protection, [and
waging war against us:]
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns,
and destroyed the lives of our people:
He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign
mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and
tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy,
[scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and] totally
unworthy the head of a civilized nation.
The three next paragraphs in the original draught, were as
follows:
 “He has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers
the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an
undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions of
existence.
“He has incited treasonable insurrections of our fellow-citizens,
with the allurements of forfeiture and confiscation of our property.
“He has constrained others, taken captives on the high seas, to
bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their
friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands.”
In place of the three paragraphs erased, the two following were
introduced:
[He has constrained our fellow-citizens taken captive on the high
seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners
of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands.]
[He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has
endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the
merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an
undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.]
The next paragraph, which related to the slave trade, was
entirely erased. It was as follows:
“He has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating
its most sacred rights of life and liberty in the persons of a distant
people, who never offended him, captivating and carrying them into
slavery, in another hemisphere, or to incur miserable death in their
transportation thither. This piratical warfare, the opprobrium of
infidel powers, is the warfare of a Christian king of Great Britain.
Determined to keep open a market where MEN should be bought
and sold, he has prostituted his negative for suppressing every
legislative attempt to prohibit or restrain this execrable commerce;
and that this assemblage of horrors might want no fact of
distinguished dye, he is now exciting those very people to rise in
arms among us, and to purchase that liberty of which he has
deprived them, by murdering the people upon whom he also
obtruded them; thus paying off former crimes committed against the
liberties of one people, with crimes which he urges them to commit
against the lives of another.”
In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for
redress in the most humble terms: our repeated petitions have been
answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus
marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the
ruler of a [free] people “who mean to be free. Future ages will
scarce believe that the hardiness of one man adventured within the
short compass of twelve years only, to build a foundation so broad
and undisguised, for tyranny over a people fostered and fixed in
principles of freedom.”
Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren.
We have warned them from time to time, of attempts by their
legislature “to extend a jurisdiction over these our states,” [to extend
an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us.] We have reminded them of
the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here, “no one of
which could warrant so strange a pretension: that these were
effected at the expense of our own blood and treasure, unassisted
by the wealth or the strength of Great Britain: that in constituting
indeed our several forms of government, we had adopted one
common king, thereby laying a foundation for perpetual league and
amity with them: but that submission to their parliament was no part
of our constitution, nor ever in idea, if history may be credited; and”
we [have] appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, “as well
as to” [and we have assured them by] the ties of our common
kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which “were likely to” [would
inevitably] interrupt our connexions and correspondence. They too,
have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity; “and
when occasions have been given them by the regular course of their
laws, of removing from their councils, the disturbers of our harmony,
they have by their free election re-established them in power. At this
very time too, they are permitting their chief magistrate to send over
not only soldiers of our common blood, but [Scotch and] foreign
mercenaries to invade and destroy us. These facts have given the
last stab to agonizing affection; and manly spirit bids us to renounce
forever these unfeeling brethren. We must endeavour to forget our
former love for them, and to hold them as we hold the rest of
mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. We might have been a
free and a great people together; but a communication of grandeur
and of freedom it seems, is below their dignity. Be it so, since they
will have it. The road to happiness and to glory is open to us too: we
will climb it apart from them, and acquiesce in the necessity which
denounces our eternal separation.” [We must therefore acquiesce in
the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we
hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends.]
We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of
America, in General Congress assembled, [appealing to the supreme
judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions] do, in the
name, and by authority of the good people of these “states
[colonies,] reject and renounce all allegiance and subjection to the
kings of Great Britain, and all others, who may hereafter claim by,
through, or under them; we utterly dissolve all political connexion
which may heretofore have subsisted between us and the parliament
of Great Britain; and finally we do assert” [solemnly publish and
declare] That these United Colonies are, [and of right ought to be,]
free and independent states; [that they are absolved from all
allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connexion
between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be,
totally dissolved,] and that as free and independent states, they
have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances,
establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which
independent states may of right do. And for the support of this
Declaration, [with a firm reliance on Divine Providence,] we mutually
pledge to each other, our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honour.

THE END.
 Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made
consistent when a predominant preference was found in
this book; otherwise they were not changed; spelling
variants were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected;
occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained.
Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were
retained.
Page 185: the dates “1663” and “1773” must refer to
two different people.
Page 330: “IN CONGRESS, JULY 8, “1778” was
misprinted as 1788”; corrected here. Some apparently
incorrect dates on other pages of the original book have
not been noted or corrected.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BIOGRAPHY OF
THE SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, AND OF
WASHINGTON AND PATRICK HENRY ***

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