DIFFRACTION

INTRODUCTION
Diffraction is bending of light due to presence of an obstacle in the path of light. A
diffraction pattern results from the interference of waves, diffracted by an obstacle,
coming from the same source of light.
For visible diffraction pattern,
 The size of obstacle should be comparable to the wavelength of light.
 The source of light must be a point source.
Diffraction is also defined as the encroachment of light in the region of geometrical
shadow.
According to Huygen's wave theory, each progressive wave produces secondary
waves, the envelope of which produces the secondary wavefront.
OR
Every point of a wavefront may be considered as a source of secondary wavelets
that spread out in all directions with a speed equal to the speed of propagation of
waves.
CLASSES OF DIFFRACTION
The diffraction involves a source, an obstacle and a screen. Depending upon the
distances between source to obstacle and obstacle to the screen, diffraction is
classified into two classes :
 Fraunhofer's diffraction.
 Fresnel's diffraction.
Fraunhofer's Diffraction Fresnel's Diffraction
1. It is also called far field diffraction. 1. It is also called near field
diffraction.
2. The source and screen are at large 2. The source and/or screen are at
distance (infinite) from the small distance (finite) from the
obstacle. obstacle.
3. The wavefronts incident on the 3. The wavefronts incident on the
obstacle and screen is a plane obstacle are spherical or
wavefront i.e. the rays are cylindrical i.e. rays are diverging.
parallel.
4. The diffraction pattern is not 4. The diffraction pattern is sensitive
sensitive to the distance. to the distance. (If distance is
increased to large value it will be
converted to Fraunhofer's
diffraction.)
5. A pair of convex lenses are used 5. The wavefront is directly allowed to
for making the rays parallel. fall on an obstacle or the screen.
6. 6.
 7. The maximums and minimums are 7. The maximums and minimums are
well defined. not well defined.

8. Mathematical treatment is simple. 8. Mathematical treatment is

complicated.

FRAUNHOFER'S DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT

GEOMETRICAL METHOD
For obtaining a Fraunhofer's diffraction pattern, the incident wavefront must be
plane. Thus, the source of light should either be at a large distance from the
slit or a collimating lens must be used.

In the Fig., 'S' is a narrow slit perpendicular to the plane of the paper and illuminated
by a monochromatic light to act as a source of light. The wave coming from source S
is made parallel by the collimating lens L1. A plane wavefront is incident on the slit
AB and each point on this wavefront is a source of the secondary wavefront. The
secondary waves from points equidistant from O and situated in the upper and lower
halves OA and OB of the wavefront, travel the same distance to reach P and hence
the path difference is zero. The secondary waves interfere with one another and P
will be a point of maximum intensity.
Now, consider that the secondary waves are travelling in the direction AR, inclined at
an angle q to the direction OP. All the secondary waves travelling in this direction
reach the point P' on the screen. The point P' will be of maximum or minimum
intensity depending on the path difference between the secondary waves
originating from the corresponding points of the wavefront.
Phasor Method :
The diffraction pattern for a single slit can be found out by the phasor method. Our
approach is as follows.
We divide the slit into a large number of narrow pseudoslits N of equal width, ∆x
= , where 'a' is the width of the slit. The contribution of each pseudoslit will be
represented by a phasor. To find the resultant wave amplitude, we add the N
phasors.
For convenience in drawing, the slit of width 'a' in the Fig. (a) has been split into six
pseudoslits. If we call the phase difference between the first and the last phasor as f,
it will be the angle labelled as f in the Fig. (b).
 (a) Diffraction from singe slit (b) Phasor diagram
The path difference between first and last wave is
D = AC
D = a sin q [From Fig. 8.6 (a)] … (1)
\ Phase difference, f = k · D, where k =
\ f = ·D = ... (2)
For simplicity we will define angle a, such that,
a =  (3)
The phase difference between the waves reaching at the point from adjacent slit is
∆f = ... (4)
At point P, N wave vectors with the same amplitude, the same wavelength and the
same phase difference between adjacent members combine to produce a resultant
disturbance. Such wave vectors are called phasors. Thus, finding the resultant
amplitude at P is equivalent to finding the vector sum of N phasors. The phasor
diagram at any point P, away from the centre of the diffraction pattern is as shown in
the Fig. (b).
The amplitude an contributed at a point on the screen by any one of the pseudoslit
will be the same, since they are of equal width. But the phases of these amplitudes
will be different at different points. Let d be the phase difference between two
adjacent amplitudes which is constant. So each amplitude is inclined at an angle d
with the preceding one and their vector sum E q is the resultant amplitude. If the
wavefront is divided into large or infinite number of equal elements, the vector a n will
become shorter and d will decrease by the same proportion. In this way, the vector
diagram will approach an arc of a circle. The resultant amplitude Eq is still the same
and equal to the length of the chord of arc. The length of arc is just the
amplitude Em obtained when all of the amplitudes are in phase i.e. slit is not there
and diffraction is absent. The radius of arc is R and a perpendicular has been
dropped from the centre on the chord E m. This will divide the apex angle and chord
into two equal halves (Eq/2 and Eq/2)
In the Fig. (b), from the right triangle with apex angle f/2, we see that
= R sin f/2 ... (5)
\ Eq = 2R sin a
Also, f = =
This gives Em = R f or Em = 2Ra ... (6)
Dividing (5) by (6)
=
\ Eq = Em ... (7)
Equation (7) gives the amplitude for the single slit diffraction pattern at any angle q.
The intensity Iq is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
\ Iq = Im ... (8)
where Im = Eis the maximum amplitude.

CONDITIONS FOR MAXIMA AND MINIMA

(a) Principal Maximum
The resultant amplitude in diffraction pattern of a single slit is given by,
Eq = E m =
when sin a is written in ascending powers of a, where a = a sin q.
\ Eq = E m
For Eq to be maximum, the negative terms in the bracket must vanish. This is
possible only when a = 0 i.e. a = a sin q = 0 or sin q = 0 or q = 0.
Thus, the maximum value of Eq is Em and the principal maximum is formed at q = 0.
The condition q = 0 simply means that this maximum is formed by parts of the
secondary wavelets which travel normally to the slit. The position of principal
maximum is directly opposite to the slit and it is bordered symmetrically by dark and
bright bands.
(b) Minimum Intensity Positions (Minima)
The intensity Iq = Im will be zero in the diffraction pattern if,
sin a = 0 and a  0.
The values of a which satisfy this condition are
a = mp where m =  1,  2,  3, ........
\ a = a sin q = m p
Thus, the condition for minima is
a sin q = m l ... (1)
where m = 0 is not possible, because then q becomes zero, which corresponds to the
principal maximum.
Equation (1) gives the positions of minima on either side of the principal maximum
in the diffraction pattern of a single slit.
(c) Secondary Maxima
Analysis shows that the secondary maxima lie approximately half way between the
two minima. They are found from
a =  p, m = 1, 2, 3, ......
or a sin q = (2 m + 1)·l/2
Substituting this value of a in Iq = Im , we get
= =
For m = 1, 2, 3, .....
= 0.045, 0.016, 0.0083 .....
The successive maxima decrease in intensity rapidly. The relative intensity
distribution in the single slit diffraction pattern for = 10 is shown in Fig. 8.7.

Intensity distribution in diffraction pattern due to a single slit

INTENSITY PATTERN DUE TO A SINGLE SLIT
Consider monochromatic plane waves incident on a single slit of width 'a'. When
aperture is very small, only one secondary wavelet comes through and the
wavefront is spherical. Suppose the slit width is such that several secondary
wavelets pass through the slit. At the distance screen, these secondary wavelets
superpose giving a rippled intensity distribution which is called the single-slit
diffraction pattern as shown in Fig. 8.8.

The intensity in the pattern has a central maximum and then falls to zero (the first
minimum), past the first minimum the intensity rises to a relatively small secondary
maximum before again dropping to zero (the second minimum). The rippling
continues with each secondary maximum having less magnitude than the previous
secondary maximum.
Dependence of Spectrum on Width and Wavelength
The position of the minimum is given by, a sin q = ml. Therefore, the angular width
of the spectrum will depend upon the slit width a, wavelength l and order of
interference m.
The width of spectrum inversely depends upon the slit width, hence smaller the slit
width, wider will be the spectrum. Fig. 8.9 shows spectrum width for different slit
width.

The Fig. shows the variation of single slit diffraction pattern as the slit width varies.
Decreasing the aperture size from 10l to 5l causes the diffraction pattern to spread
out about twice as far.
The wavelength directly decides the spectrum width. If the slit is illuminated by
white light, the light of different wavelengths will form a spectrum of different
angular width. All this will overlap giving a colourful spectrum.
The spectrum width directly depends on the order 'm'. But for higher order, the
intensity decreases.
DIFFRACTION AT CIRCULAR APERTURE
The diffraction pattern formed by a plane wave from a point source passing through
a circular aperture is of considerable importance as it is applied to the resolving
power of optical instruments such as telescopes, microscopes etc. The geometric
optics assumes that the image of a point source will be a point. The geometrical
optics does not consider the wave nature of light and hence diffraction at the edges
of aperture of the instrument is neglected. But in practice the image is not a point
image but a diffraction pattern formed by circular aperture. The diffraction pattern
consists of a bright central maxima, corresponding to the image in geometrical
optics, surrounded by fainter secondary maxima and minima. Fig. 8.10 shows
diffraction pattern at a single slit.

(a) Intensity pattern (b) Intensity distribution

Diffraction pattern
The diffraction pattern consists of a bright central disc, known as Airy's disc,
surrounded by a number of fainter rings. Neither the disc nor rings are sharply
limited but shade off gradually at the edges, being separated by circle of zero
intensity (minima).
The condition for minima for a single slit is given by
a sin q = ml where m = 0, 1, 2   (I)
In case of circular aperture, m is not an integer but can have fractional values such
as
m = 0, 1.22, 1.635  .
The value q = 0 gives principal maxima while m = 1.22 gives first minima. The
position of first minima decides the diameter of principal maxima, hence the
resolving power of the instrument.
Therefore, equation for first minima becomes
a sin q = 1.22l  (II)
If d is the diameter of circular aperture then,
d sin q = 1.22l  (III)
For small values of q, sin q  q.
 q =  (IV)

PLANE DIFFRACTION GRATING

Grating : An arrangement consisting of a large number of parallel slits of the
same width and separated by equal opaque spaces is known as diffraction grating.
A grating is prepared by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a plane glass plate with
the help of a diamond point. The lines act as opaque spaces and the incident light
cannot pass through them. The space between any two lines acts as a slit and is
transparent to light.
A plane transmission grating generally contains 15,000 to 20,000 lines per inch. It
was first constructed by Fraunhofer. If the lines are drawn on a silvered surface, it
acts as a reflection grating.
Theory of Plane Diffraction Grating :
Consider the diffraction pattern of N parallel slits each of width 'a' and separated by
equal opaque spaces 'b'. The distance between the centres of adjacent slits is d = (a
+ b) and it is called the grating element. The grating element is defined as the
reciprocal of number of lines per cm i.e.
(a + b) = , where N is lines per cm
or (a + b) = 2.54/N where N is lines per inch.
Let a plane wavefront of wavelength l be incident normally on the slits. According to
Huygen's principle every point in the slit is regarded as the origin of secondary
wavelets which spread out in all directions. Therefore, rays are diffracted from each
slit in all directions.
The resultant amplitude of light from a single slit of width 'a' in a direction making
angle q with the normal is given by
EN = Em  (1)
where a = a sin q  (2)

(a) Diffraction at N Slits, (b) Phasor Diagram

We can replace all the secondary wavelets in each slit by a single wave of amplitude
Em , starting from its mid-point and travelling at an angle q with the normal.
We need, therefore, find only the N-slit interference pattern and multiply it by E m to
obtain the complete pattern.
To find the interference pattern for N slits, we make use of phasors. Assuming each
phasor to have amplitude E N and at an angle Df the phasor diagram is as shown in
Fig. 8.11 (b).
The phase angle Df is the phase difference between the waves coming from adjacent
slits and is given by
Df = k  (path difference between consecutive slits)
Df =
Df =  (3)
We will define angle b such that
b =  (4)
The total phase difference between first and last wave will simply be sum of the
phase differences added by each slit individually.
 f = NDf
f = N  (5)
or f = 2Nb [from equation (4)]  (6)
As the slits of a grating are of equal width, the amplitude of light diffracted from
each slit will be same. The amplitude of diffracted wave will be,
E1 = E2 = …… = EN = Em … (7)
Mathematically, it can be proved that the resultant amplitude is,
Eq = Em · … (8)
Intensity is square of the amplitude.
\ Iq = Im · ... (9)
The first factor in equation (9) gives the intensity distribution in the diffraction
pattern due to a single slit. The second factor may be said to give the
interference pattern for N slits.
Thus, we can say that each of the N slits gives rise to a diffracted beam in which the
intensity distribution depends on the width of the slit. These diffracted beams then
interfere with one another to produce the final diffraction pattern.
CONDITIONS FOR MAXIMA AND MINIMA
(a) Principal Maxima
The condition for principal maxima is that, the path difference between the waves
from adjacent slits must be an integer multiple of l. Therefore, the condition for
principal maxima is
(a + b) sin q = m l, where, m = 0, 1, 2, 3, ....... m ... (1)
Here m is called the order of interference.
This is equivalent to saying that,
b = sin q
b = = mp ... (2)
For these values of b, becomes indeterminate.
But by L'Hospital's rule,
= = = N
\ The intensity of the principal maxima is given as
Iq = N2 ... (3)
Thus, the intensity of principal maxima increases with increasing N. The intensity of
the principal maximum is greatest while on either side of it, the intensities of other
maxima go on decreasing.
(b) Minima
The intensity is given by, Iq = ·
For minima, sin Nb = 0 but sin b  0. i.e. Nb = mp, where m has any integral value
except N, 2N, 3N .... etc., because for these values of m, b = 0, p, 2p.... etc. and
these correspond to principal maxima.
Thus, for minima, Nb = mp
or b = But b = sin q
\ The condition for minima becomes
sin q =
or (a + b) sin q = l, but m  nN ... (4)
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ......
Hence, the positions of minima are given by
(a + b) sin q = , , ........ ... (5)
There are (N – 1) minima between any two consecutive principal maxima.
(c) Secondary Maxima
As there are (N – 1) minima between two consecutive principal maxima, there must
be (N – 2) other maxima coming alternatively with the minima between two
consecutive principal maxima. These maxima are called the secondary maxima. The
positions of secondary maxima are obtained by differentiating the expression for
intensity with respect to b and equating to zero.