POLARIZATION OF WAVES

The transverse nature of waves leads to the characteristic phenomenon called

polarization. The characteristic, polarization is not exhibited by longitudinal waves.
Thus only transverse waves could be polarized. In a transverse wave, if the
directions of all the vibrations at all the points are restricted to one particular plane,
then the wave is called polarized, more specific plane polarized. A plane polarized
wave is the simplest of a transverse wave, which is also termed as linearly polarized
wave.
REPRESENTATION OF PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT (PPL),
UNPOLARIZED LIGHT (UPL) AND PARTIALLY POLARIZED
LIGHT
According to the electromagnetic theory, light consists of electric and magnetic
vectors vibrating continuously with time in a plane, transverse to the direction of
propagation of light and to each other. However, in explaining polarization only
the vibrations of the electric vector are considered. It does not mean that
magnetic field vectors are absent, they are present. But for drawing simplicity they
are not shown in the diagram.
Unpolarized Light
The light having vibrations along all possible directions perpendicular to the direction
of propagation of light, is called an unpolarized light. It is symmetrical about it's
direction of propagation.

Unpolarized light
It can be considered to consist an infinite number of waves each having its own
vibration. Therefore, for any position of the crystal there will be one vibration parallel
to its axes, so when such a light is passed through a single tourmaline crystal and is
rotated no change in the intensity of the emergent light is observed.
Since unpolarized light has vibrations along all possible directions, at right angles to
the directions of propagation of light, it is represented by a star.
Polarized Light
The light having vibration only along a single plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of light is called a polarized light. It’s vibrations are one sided,
therefore it is dissymmetrical about the direction of propagation of light. When
polarized light is passed through a single rotating crystal, a change in the intensity of
emergent light is observed.
According to the electromagnetic theory, a plane polarized light can be defined as
follows :
A light wave is said to be plane polarized if the electric vector (E) or magnetic
vector (H) at any point is vibrating along the same plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of light wave.
The polarized beam of light has vibrations along a single plane. If they are parallel to
the plane of the paper, they are represented by arrows [See Fig. (a)]. If they are
perpendicular to the plane of the paper, they are represented by dots on a ray of
light. [See Fig. (b)].
 (a) Parallel to plane of paper

(b) Perpendicular to plane of paper

Plane polarized light
Partially Polarized Light
A partially polarized light is a mixture of plane polarized and unpolarized light. It is
represented as shown in the Fig.
In partially polarized light the vibrations in the plane of plane polarized light
dominate over the vibrations in other directions.

Partially polarized light

DOUBLE REFRACTION
Optic Axis
The optic axis is the direction of symmetry of unisotropic media along which
double refraction does not take place.
A line drawn through any of the blunt corners making equal angles with each of the
three edges gives the direction of the optic axis. In fact any line parallel to this line is
also an optic axis. Therefore, optic axis is not a line but it is a direction.
Principal Section
A plane containing the optic axis
and perpendicular to the opposite
faces of the crystal is called the
principal section of the crystal.
The principal section cuts the surfaces
of a calcite crystal in a parallelo- gram Principal section of calcite crystal
with angles 109 and 71.
Principal Plane
The plane containing the optic axis and the ordinary ray is called principal
plane of the ordinary ray. Similarly the plane containing the optic axis and the
extraordinary ray is called the principal plane of the extraordinary ray.
Experiments revealed that the vibrations of the ordinary rays are perpendicular to
the principal section of the crystal while the vibrations of the extraordinary rays are
parallel to the principal section of the crystal. Thus, the two rays are planepolarized,
their vibrations being at right angles to each other.
Double Refraction
The phenomenon of double refraction was discovered by Erasmus Bartholinus in
1669 during his studies on calcite. When light is incident on a calcite crystal, it is
found to produce two refracted rays which are different in properties. The
phenomenon of causing two refracted rays by a crystal is called birefringence or
double refraction. The crystals are said to be birefringent.
 (a) (b)
Double reflection
All anisotropic materials exhibit double refraction. The two rays formed in double
refraction are linearly polarized in mutually perpendicular directions. One of the rays
obeys Snell's law of refraction and hence is called an ordinary ray or O-ray. The
other ray does not obey Snell's law and is called an extraordinary ray or E-ray.
If one of the rays is eliminated, the light transmitted by the crystal will be a linearly
polarized light.
When a ray of light AB is incident on the calcite crystal making an angle of incidence
i, it is refracted along two paths inside the crystal : (i) along BC making an
angle of refraction r2, (ii) along BD making an angle of refraction r 1. These two rays
emerge out along DO and CE which are parallel as the crystal faces are parallel.
HUYGEN’S THEORY OF DOUBLE REFRACTION
Huygen explained the phenomenon of double refraction on the basis of the principle
of secondary wavelets.
He assumed :
1. When a beam of ordinary unpolarized light strikes a doubly refracting crystal,
each point on the surface sends out two wavefronts, one for ordinary ray
and the other for extraordinary ray.
2. The ordinary-ray travels with the same speed vo in all directions and the
crystal has a single refractive index o = for this wave. Thus, the O-ray has a
spherical wavefront.
3. The speed of extra-ordinary ray ve varies with direction. So, the
refractive index, e = also varies with direction for the E-ray. Therefore, the
extra-ordinary ray develops a wavefront which is ellipsoidal.
4. The velocity ve measured is perpendicular to the optic axis.
5. The velocities of the O-ray and E-ray are the same along the optic axis.
6. When rays are incident along the optic axis, the spherical and ellipsoidal
wavefronts touch each other at points of intersection with the optic axis and
double refraction does not take place.
7. If vo > ve or o < e, the spherical wavefront lies outside the elliptical
wavefront. Such crystals are called positive crystals. The examples of
positive crystal are quartz, ice etc.

Double refraction
8. If ve > vo or e < o, the elliptical wavefront lies outside the spherical
wavefront. Such crystals are called negative crystals. The examples of
negative crystals are calcite, tourmaline, etc.
POLARIZATION BY DOUBLE REFRACTION - NICOL PRISM
Nicol prism is an optical device used for producing and analysing plane
polarised light.
Principle :
The Nicol prism is made in such a way that it eliminates one of the refracted rays by
total internal reflection i.e. O-ray is eliminated and only E-ray is transmitted through
the prism.
Construction :
A calcite crystal whose length is three times it’s breadth is taken. Let ABCD be the
principal section of the crystal with  BAD = 71. The end faces of the crystal are cut
in such a way that they make angles 68 and 112 in the principal section instead of
71 and 109.

(a) (b)

The crystal is then cut into two pieces from one blunt corner to the other along a
plane perpendicular to the principal section. The two cut faces are grounded and
polished optically flat. It is then cemented together by Canada balsam whose
refractive index lies between the refractive indices for the O-ray and E-ray for calcite.
Refractive index of Calcite for O-ray
µo = 1.658
Refractive index of Canada Balsam
µc = 1.55 Using sodium light of  = 5893 A,
Refractive index of Calcite for E-ray
µe = 1.486
Canada balsam layer acts as a rarer medium for O-ray and as a denser medium for
E-ray. Except the end faces, the sides of the crystal are blackened.
Working :
When a ray of unpolarized light is incident on the prism surface, it splits into O-ray
and E-ray. Both the rays are polarized having vibrations at right angles to each
other.
When the O-ray passes from a portion of the crystal into the layer of Canada balsam,
it passes from a denser medium to rarer medium. When the angle of incidence is
greater than the critical angle, the O-ray is totally internally reflected and is not
transmitted.
When the E-ray passes from calcite to the Canada Balsam layer, it enters in rarer
medium.
Therefore, the E-ray is not affected and is transmitted through the prism. Refractive
index for O-ray with respect to Canada balsam,
 =
If C is the critical angle,
 µ =
sin C = =
C = 69
As the length of the crystal is large, the angle of incidence at Canada balsam surface
for the O-ray is greater than the critical angle. Thus, it suffers total internal reflection
while E-ray is transmitted which is plane polarized having vibrations in the principal
section.
Special Cases :
 If the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle for O-ray, it is not
reflected and is transmitted through the prism.
In this position, both the O-ray and E-ray are transmitted through the prism.
 The E-ray also has a limit beyond which it is totally internally reflected by
Canada balsam surface. If E-ray travels along the optic axis, its refractive
index is the same as that of O-ray i.e. 1.658. But it is 1.486 for all other
directions of E-ray.
Therefore depending on the direction of propagation of E-ray, µ e lies between 1.486
and 1.658.
Therefore for a particular case, µ e may be more than 1.55 and the angle of incidence
will be more than the critical angle. Then E-ray will also be totally internally
reflected.