❖ Process of Design: Logical and Physical Design,

❖ Structured Design, Functional Decomposition.

❖ Form Design,

❖ Classification of Forms,

❖ Requirement of Form Design,

❖ Input Design, Output Design.

1. Process of Design: Logical Design

PHYSICAL DESIGN
 ❖ STRUCTURED DESIGN

Structured design is a data-flow based methodology that helps in identifying the input and output
of the developing system. The main objective of structured design is to minimize the complexity
and increase the modularity of a program. Structured design also helps in describing the
functional aspects of the system.

In structured designing, the system specifications act as a basis for graphically representing the
flow of data and sequence of processes involved in a software development with the help of
DFDs. After developing the DFDs for the software system, the next step is to develop the
structure chart.

Software is developed based on the functional, and non-functional requirements shared by the
customers. The functional decomposition is critical in software development as it helps to
generate more manageable components of the software. It assists in getting an idea of the
architecture, and design of the system very easily.

What is Software Functional Decomposition?

The software functional decomposition works by breaking down complicated types of software.
We can also determine the working of various kinds of modules that are required to build
compound systems. The development, and testing team use the software functional
decomposition technique to go through the specifications quickly. The primary aim of this
methodology is to determine the numerous functionalities, and communications so that the big,
complicated system can be broken down. It consists of multiple steps which help us to break
down a compound system into simpler units.

Steps Involved in Software Functional Decomposition

The steps involved in software functional decomposition are listed below −

1. Determine the Prominent Function

This is the one of the first steps on functional decomposition. The main objective of this step is to
conclude what is the purpose behind which the software is being developed. The main characteristics,
architecture, and design of the system are identified. Thus the main system behavior is determined in this
step. If we take an example of a mobile phone, its main function is to take, and receive calls.

2. Segregating the Prominent Function

This is the second step on functional decomposition. The prominent functions are segregated into
sub-functions which are more compact, and simple to handle. This is because it helps to
comprehend characteristics of the system more easily.

3. Define Relationship Between Sub-Functions

This is the third step on functional decomposition. The relationship between the sub-functions
and prominent functions are defined. The communications among various functions are easily
understandable at this stage.

4. Represent Relationship

This is the fourth step on functional decomposition. After the relationships among functions are
defined, they are represented in a pictorial or diagrammatic form. This helps to describe how
different characteristics of the system are connected, and to visualize its working.

5. Refine the Functional Decomposition

This is the final step on functional decomposition. The functional block diagram of the system is
reviewed, and any changes required at this stage are also incorporated. After the fine tuning of
the entire process, we can infer that software functional decomposition has been completed.

Applications of Software Functional Decomposition

The applications of software functional decomposition are listed below −

● The functional decomposition is used extensively at the design phase of the software
development where the developers break down the software, and its requirements into
smaller units.
● The functional decomposition is used extensively in modular programming where a
software is segregated into independent components, each of which having a specific
task.
 ● The functional decomposition helps to have more code reusability by simplifying the
complicated functionalities into smaller units.
● The functional decomposition helps to have more efficient testing, and debugging as the
complex systems are breaking down into multiple simpler units.
● The functional decomposition is used to optimize the performance parameters in the
software.
● The functional decomposition encourages an environment of collaboration since multiple
individuals work together on the same system which are split into multiple modules.
● The functional decomposition helps to maintain and modify a software more efficiently
as its functions are decomposed into smaller, and more manageable units.

Advantages of Software Functional Decomposition

The advantages of the software functional decomposition are listed below −

● The software functional decomposition reduces the complexity of the whole system.
● The software functional decomposition helps to maintain the software in an efficient way.
● The software functional decomposition assists in achieving more code reusability.
● The software functional decomposition helps to scale up a system faster.

Disadvantages of Software Functional Decomposition

The disadvantages of the software functional decomposition are listed below −

● The software functional decomposition brings more complexity as the communication

among sub-functions are sometimes difficult to establish.
● The software functional decomposition makes the understanding of software difficult, as
it is decomposed into smaller components.
● As the system is broken down, the software functional decomposition makes the testing
process longer.
● The software functional decomposition may bring performance issues in the software.

Input Design

In an information system, input is the raw data that is processed to produce output. During the
input design, the developers must consider the input devices such as PC, MICR, OMR, etc.

Therefore, the quality of system input determines the quality of system output. Welldesigned
input forms and screens have following properties −

● It should serve specific purpose effectively such as storing, recording, and retrieving the
information.
● It ensures proper completion with accuracy.
 ● It should be easy to fill and straightforward.
● It should focus on user’s attention, consistency, and simplicity.
● All these objectives are obtained using the knowledge of basic design principles
regarding −
o What are the inputs needed for the system?
o How end users respond to different elements of forms and screens.

Objectives for Input Design

The objectives of input design are −

● To design data entry and input procedures

● To reduce input volume
● To design source documents for data capture or devise other data capture methods
● To design input data records, data entry screens, user interface screens, etc.
● To use validation checks and develop effective input controls.

Data Input Methods

It is important to design appropriate data input methods to prevent errors while entering data.
These methods depend on whether the data is entered by customers in forms manually and later
entered by data entry operators, or data is directly entered by users on the PCs.

A system should prevent user from making mistakes by −

● Clear form design by leaving enough space for writing legibly.

● Clear instructions to fill form.
● Clear form design.
● Reducing key strokes.
● Immediate error feedback.

Some of the popular data input methods are −

● Batch input method (Offline data input method)

● Online data input method
● Computer readable forms
● Interactive data input

Input Integrity Controls

Input integrity controls include a number of methods to eliminate common input errors by
end-users. They also include checks on the value of individual fields; both for format and the
completeness of all inputs.
Audit trails for data entry and other system operations are created using transaction logs which
gives a record of all changes introduced in the database to provide security and means of
recovery in case of any failure.

Output Design

The design of output is the most important task of any system. During output design, developers
identify the type of outputs needed, and consider the necessary output controls and prototype
report layouts.

Objectives of Output Design

The objectives of input design are −

● To develop output design that serves the intended purpose and eliminates the production
of unwanted output.
● To develop the output design that meets the end users requirements.
● To deliver the appropriate quantity of output.
● To form the output in appropriate format and direct it to the right person.
● To make the output available on time for making good decisions.

Let us now go through various types of outputs −

External Outputs

Manufacturers create and design external outputs for printers. External outputs enable the system
to leave the trigger actions on the part of their recipients or confirm actions to their recipients.

Some of the external outputs are designed as turnaround outputs, which are implemented as a
form and re-enter the system as an input.

Internal outputs

Internal outputs are present inside the system, and used by end-users and managers. They support
the management in decision making and reporting.

There are three types of reports produced by management information −

● Detailed Reports − They contain present information which has almost no filtering or
restriction generated to assist management planning and control.
● Summary Reports − They contain trends and potential problems which are categorized
and summarized that are generated for managers who do not want details.
 ● Exception Reports − They contain exceptions, filtered data to some condition or
standard before presenting it to the manager, as information.

Output Integrity Controls

Output integrity controls include routing codes to identify the receiving system, and verification
messages to confirm successful receipt of messages that are handled by network protocol.

Printed or screen-format reports should include a date/time for report printing and the data.
Multipage reports contain report title or description, and pagination. Pre-printed forms usually
include a version number and effective date.

Forms Design

Both forms and reports are the product of input and output design and are business document
consisting of specified data. The main difference is that forms provide fields for data input but
reports are purely used for reading. For example, order forms, employment and credit
application, etc.

● During form designing, the designers should know −

o who will use them
o where would they be delivered
o the purpose of the form or report
● During form design, automated design tools enhance the developer’s ability to prototype
forms and reports and present them to end users for evaluation.

Objectives of Good Form Design

A good form design is necessary to ensure the following −

● To keep the screen simple by giving proper sequence, information, and clear captions.
● To meet the intended purpose by using appropriate forms.
● To ensure the completion of form with accuracy.
● To keep the forms attractive by using icons, inverse video, or blinking cursors etc.
● To facilitate navigation.

✔ CLASSIFICATION OF FORMS

Flat Forms

● It is a single copy form prepared manually or by a machine and printed on a

paper. For additional copies of the original, carbon papers are inserted
between copies.
 ● It is a simplest and inexpensive form to design, print, and reproduce, which
uses less volume.

Unit Set/Snap out Forms

● These are papers with one-time carbons interleaved into unit sets for either
handwritten or machine use.
● Carbons may be either blue or black, standard grade medium intensity.
Generally, blue carbons are best for handwritten forms while black carbons
are best for machine use.

Continuous strip/Fanfold Forms

● These are multiple unit forms joined in a continuous strip with perforations
between each pair of forms.
● It is a less expensive method for large volume use.

No Carbon Required (NCR) Paper

● They use carbonless papers which have two chemical coatings (capsules),
one on the face and the other on the back of a sheet of paper.
● When pressure is applied, the two capsules interact and create an image.

Requirement of Form Design

Form design follows the process of analyzing forms, evaluating documents that are
already present and creating new forms or improving existing or new documents.
Purpose of the form is to communicate efficiently and effectively through forms
design. There are some major requirements of forms :
1. Identifying Syntax –
Purpose of form must be clearly defined by title of form. Columns and rows
should be labelled or numbered so as to avoid any confusion. Form should also
be identified by name or the code number which will make reordering easy if
needed.
2. Maximum readability and use –
Form should be easy to use and user should not face any difficulty in filling
form. Appropriate writing space should be given so that inserting new data is
easy. This also imply looking for appropriate space and balancing overall forms
layout and its use.
3. Physical factors –
The form’s color, layout should let themselves to easy reading. Pages should be
numbered when documents with more than one page are to be generated for
user.
4. Order of data items –
The data requested should represent a sequence which must be logical. Related
data should be in the same sequence on all the forms. Much of this design takes
place in forms analysis phase.
5. Ease of data entry –
If form is to be used for data entry, the form should have field positions
indicated under each column of data
6. Size and arrangement –
The form must be easy to fill by user. It should provide space for signatures.
Important items must be in appropriate location or position in the form.
7. Use of instructions –
The instructions on form should clearly describe how to use and handle the
form.
8. Efficiency considerations –
The form should also be cost effective. This simply imply removing unnecessary
data that is not required and help to read lines across form.
For example, if a poorly designed form causes 10
supervisors to waste 30 second on each form, then 5 minutes are lost because of
form. If the firm uses 10, 000 of these forms per year, then 883 hours of lost
time could have been saved by a better forms design.
9. Type of report –
Forms design should also consider whether content is a summary, something
between the summary as results (intermediate managerial information), or
supporting-data. The user requirements for each type also sometimes indicate
the final form of design.