BLY 213: GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY

TOPIC: CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

LECTURER: ODEY, SIMON ABOYI

Lesson Objectives
• Explain how the heart pumps blood throughout the body.
• Compare different types of blood vessels and their roles.
• Outline pathways of the pulmonary and systemic circulations.
• Define cardiovascular disease, and list its risk factors.
• Describe blood, blood components, and blood pressure.

INTRODUCTION

The circulatory system consists of three independent systems that work together: the heart
(cardiovascular), lungs (pulmonary), and arteries, veins, coronary and portal vessels (systemic).
The system is responsible for the flow of blood, nutrients, oxygen and other gases, and as well as
hormones to and from cells, as well as removal of waste such as carbon dioxide. Transport of all
these materials is necessary to maintain homeostasis of the body. An average adult has 5 to 6
quarts (4.7 to 5.6 liters) of blood, which is made up of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells
and platelets.

The Heart
The heart is a muscular organ with four chambers. It consists mainly of cardiac muscles and
tissue. The heart is located just behind and slightly left of the breastbone and it pumps blood
through the network of arteries and veins called the cardiovascular system by repeated, rhythmic
contractions.

The network of veins, arteries and blood vessels transport oxygenated blood from the heart,
delivers oxygen and nutrients to the body's cells and then returns deoxygenated blood back to the
heart. Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart through the body while Veins carry
oxygen-poor blood back to the heart. The superior vena cava carries oxygen-poor blood into the
heart. The aorta carries oxygenated blood from the heart to organs and tissues.

The heart is a pump, usually beating about 60 to 100 times per minute. With each heartbeat, the
heart sends blood throughout our bodies, carrying oxygen to every cell. After delivering the
oxygen, the blood returns to the heart. The heart then sends the blood to the lungs to pick up
more oxygen. This cycle repeats over and over again.

The heart has four chambers:

 The two top chambers are the right atrium and the left atrium. They receive the blood
entering the heart. A wall called the interatrial septum separates the atria.

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  The two bottom chambers are the right ventricle and the left ventricle. These pump blood
out of the heart. A wall called the interventricular septum separates the ventricles.

The atria are separated from the ventricles by special atrioventricular valves, which keep blood
flowing through the heart in only one direction. These valves are:

 The tricuspid valve separates the right atrium from the right ventricle.

 The mitral valve separates the left atrium from the left ventricle.

Two valves also separate the ventricles from the large blood vessels that carry blood leaving the
heart:

 The pulmonary valve is between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery, which
carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

 The aortic valve is between the left ventricle and the aorta, which carries oxygenated
blood to various parts of the body.

Figure 1: The chambers of the heart and the valves between them.

Blood Flow through the Heart

Blood flows through the heart in two separate loops, which are indicated by the arrows shown in
Figure 1.

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1. Blood from the body enters the right atrium of the heart. The right atrium pumps the blood to
the right ventricle, which pumps it to the lungs. This loop is represented by the blue arrows in
Figure 1.
2. Blood from the lungs enters the left atrium of the heart. The left atrium pumps the blood to the
left ventricle, which pumps it to the body. This loop is represented by the red arrows in Figure 1.

The Major Types of Circulation

There are three major types of circulation that occur regularly in the body:

 Pulmonary Circulation: This part of the cycle carries oxygen-depleted blood away from
the heart, to the lungs, and back to the heart. It is a short loop from the heart to the lungs
and back again to the heart. Deoxygenated blood from the heart is sent to the lungs
through the pulmonary artery (a big artery that comes from the heart, which splits into
two main branches). At the lungs, the blood picks up oxygen and drops off carbon
dioxide. The blood then returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins.

 Systemic Circulation: Next, blood that returns to the heart has picked up lots of oxygen
from the lungs and can now be sent to all other parts of the body. Oxygenated blood from
the heart is sent to various parts of the body through the aorta (a big artery that leaves the
heart). Branches off of the aorta send blood to the muscles of the heart itself, as well as
all other parts of the body. Like a tree, the branches get smaller and smaller as they get
farther from the aorta.

 Coronary Circulation: This type of circulation provides oxygenated blood to the

muscles of the heart itself through smaller branches off the aorta, so the heart can
function properly.

Heartbeat

Unlike skeletal muscles, cardiac muscles contract without stimulation by the nervous system.
Instead, specialized cardiac muscle cells send out electrical impulses that stimulate the
contractions. As a result, the atria and ventricles normally contract with just the right timing to
keep blood pumping efficiently through the heart. For example, when you're sleeping, it pumps
just enough to provide for the lower amounts of oxygen needed by your body at rest. But when
you're exercising, the heart pumps faster so that your muscles get more oxygen and can work
harder. The heart beat is controlled by a system of electrical signals in the heart. The sinus (or
sinoatrial node) is a small area of tissue in the wall of the right atrium. It sends out an electrical
signal to start the contracting (pumping) of the heart muscle. This node is called the pacemaker
of the heart because it sets the rate of the heartbeat and causes the rest of the heart to contract in
its rhythm.

These electrical impulses make the atria contract first. Then the impulses travel down to the
atrioventricular (or AV) node, which acts as a kind of relay station. From here, the electrical
signal travels through the right and left ventricles, making them contract.

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One complete heartbeat is made up of two phases:

 The first phase is called systole. This is when the ventricles contract, pumping blood out
into the aorta and pulmonary artery. During systole, the atrioventricular (mitral and
tricuspid valves) valves close, creating the first sound (the lub) of a heartbeat. When the
atrioventricular valves close, it keeps the blood from going back up into the atria. During
this time, the aortic and pulmonary valves are open to allow blood into the aorta and
pulmonary artery.

 The second phase is called diastole. This is when the atrioventricular valves open and the
ventricles relax. This allows the ventricles to fill with blood from the atria, and get ready
for the next heartbeat. When the ventricles finish contracting, the aortic and pulmonary
valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles. The valves closing
create the second sound (the dub) of a heartbeat.

Blood Vessels

Blood vessels form a network throughout the body to transport blood to all the body cells. There
are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries. All three are shown in
Figure 2 and described below.

Figure 2: Blood Vessels.

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• Arteries are muscular blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. They have thick
walls that can withstand the pressure of blood being pumped by the heart. Arteries generally
carry oxygen-rich blood. The largest artery is the aorta, which receives blood directly from the
heart.
• Veins are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. This blood is no longer under much
pressure, so many veins have valves that prevent backflow of blood. Veins generally carry
deoxygenated blood. The largest vein is the inferior vena cava, which carries blood from the
lower body to the heart.
• Capillaries are the smallest type of blood vessels. They connect very small arteries and veins.
The exchange of gases and other substances between cells and the blood takes place across the
extremely thin walls of capillaries.

Blood Vessels and Homeostasis

Blood vessels help regulate body processes by either constricting (becoming narrower) or
dilating (becoming wider). These actions occur in response to signals from the autonomic
nervous system or the endocrine system. Constriction occurs when the muscular walls of blood
vessels contract, reducing the amount of blood that can flow through the vessels (Figure 3).
Dilation occurs when the walls relax, increasing blood flow through the vessels.

Figure 3: Constriction and Dilation of blood vessels.

Constriction and dilation allow the circulatory system to change the amount of blood flowing to
different organs. For example, during a fight-or-flight response, dilation and constriction of
blood vessels allow more blood to flow to skeletal muscles and less to flow to digestive organs.
Dilation of blood vessels in the skin allows more blood to flow to the body surface so the body
can lose heat. Constriction of these blood vessels has the opposite effect and helps conserve body
heat.

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Blood Vessels and Blood Pressure

The force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels is called blood pressure.
Blood pressure is highest in arteries and lowest in veins. When you have your blood pressure
checked, it is the blood pressure in arteries that is measured. High blood pressure, or
hypertension, is a serious health but can often be controlled with lifestyle changes or medication.

Cardiovascular Disease

Diseases of the heart and blood vessels, called cardiovascular diseases (CVD), are very
common. The leading cause of CVD is atherosclerosis.

Atherosclerosis

This is the buildup of plaque inside arteries (Figure 4). Plaque consists of cell debris, cholesterol,
and other substances. Factors that contribute to plaque buildup include a high-fat diet and
smoking. As plaque builds up, it narrows the arteries and reduces blood flow.

Figure 4: The fatty material inside the artery on the right is plaque. This material builds up
and makes the artery much narrower. Less blood can flow through it than the normal
artery.

Coronary Heart Disease

Atherosclerosis of arteries that supply the heart muscle is called coronary heart disease. This
disease may or may not have symptoms such as chest pain. As the disease progresses, there is an
increased risk of heart attack. A heart attack occurs when the blood supply to part of the heart
muscle is blocked and cardiac muscle fibers die.

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Preventing Cardiovascular Disease

Many factors may increase the risk of developing coronary heart disease and other CVDs. The
risk of CVDs increases with age and is greater in males than females at most ages. Having a
close relative with CVD also increases the risk. These factors cannot be controlled, but other risk
factors can, including smoking, lack of exercise, and high-fat diet. By making healthy lifestyle
choices, you can reduce your risk of developing CVD.

Blood

Blood is a fluid connective tissue. It circulates throughout the body through blood vessels by the
pumping action of the heart. Blood in arteries carries oxygen and nutrients to all the body’s cells.
Blood in veins carries carbon dioxide and other wastes away from the cells to be excreted. Blood
also defends the body against infection, repairs body tissues, transports hormones, and controls
the body’s pH.

Composition of Blood

The fluid part of blood is called plasma. It is a watery golden-yellow liquid that contains many
dissolved substances and blood cells. Types of blood cells in plasma include red blood cells,
white blood cells, and platelets.
• The trillions of red blood cells in blood plasma carry oxygen. Red blood cells contain
hemoglobin, a protein with iron that binds with oxygen.
• White blood cells are generally larger than red blood cells but far fewer in number. They
defend the body in various ways. For example, white blood cells called phagocytes swallow and
destroy microorganisms and debris in the blood.
• Platelets are cell fragments involved in blood clotting. They stick to tears in blood vessels and
to each other, forming a plug at the site of injury. They also release chemicals that are needed for
clotting to occur.

Blood Groups

This is a genetic characteristic associated with the presence or absence of certain molecules
called antigens, on the surface of red blood cells. This means that the antigens expressed on the
red blood cell determine an individual's blood group.

Antigens are molecules, which can be either proteins or sugars. Antigens and antibodies play a
role in the immune system’s defense mechanism. White blood cells produce antibodies which
will target an antigen if they consider it a foreign object. This is why it is essential to match
blood types when a person needs a transfusion. If a person receives red blood cells with antigens
that are not already present in their system, their body will reject and attack the new red blood
cells. This can cause a severe and possibly life-threatening reaction.

Scientists use two types of antigens to classify blood types: ABO antigens and Rh antigens.

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• ABO blood group is determined by two common antigens, often referred to simply as antigens
A and B. A person may have blood type A (only antigen A), B (only antigen B), AB (both
antigens), or O (no antigens). ABO blood group has 8 types (A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-, 0+ and
0-).
• Rhesus blood group is determined by one common antigen. A person may either have the
antigen (Rh+) or lack the antigen (Rh-).

The antigens of the ABO blood group are sugars. They are produced by a series of reactions in
which enzymes catalyze the transfer of sugar units. In contrast, the antigens of the Rh blood
group are proteins.

Before a person receives donated blood, doctors will check that this blood is compatible. If
someone with group B antigen receives red blood cells from someone with group A antigen,
their body will launch an immune response and reject the transfusion. The anti-A antibody in the
recipient’s plasma will attack and destroy the A antigen donor red blood cells. When the
recipient’s plasma attacks and destroys the donor cells, the blood may clump or agglutinate. This
can lead to blood clots, which can obstruct blood vessels. If they break, hemoglobin can leak out,
and this can be toxic. Other possible adverse effects include allergic reactions and anaphylaxis.
In some cases, the body can cope, but others can be life-threatening. Some reactions occur at
once, while others can take up to 28 days to appear. In addition, blood can sometimes contain
unexpected antibodies, viruses, or parasites. The donor may not have symptoms, but they can
affect a recipient’s health.

Figure 5: Blood Group Compatibility

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 TOPIC: RESPIRATION AND METABOLISM
ODEY, SIMON ABOYI

Lesson Objectives
• Distinguish between internal and external respiration.
• Describe metabolism and metabolic rate.
• Explain external respiration in humans
• Explain external respiration in fish, insects and small organisms

INTRODUCTION
Respiration is a characteristic process of living organisms which involves the release of energy
by breaking down high-energy organic chemical compounds. The main energy-providing
chemical compounds are the organic chemical nutrients, carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. All
living organisms need energy in order to make genetic material and carry out metabolic
processes.
There are two main kinds of respiration:
i. Internal respiration: a biochemical process which takes place inside living cells in
either the cytoplasm or the mitochondria. This process is also referred to as cell
respiration and may or may not use oxygen.
ii. External respiration: a physical process also called ventilation or breathing and is
concerned with gas exchange in air for land organisms and in water for aquatic
organisms.

Non-living materials, e.g. carbon, sugar and fuels, release energy by chemical action called
oxidation or combustion, which differs greatly from respiration. Dry, powdered glucose (a non-
living material and an essential component in the release of energy during respiration), can be
burnt in the laboratory in a chemical process called combustion. Living cells cannot respire
glucose in the same way. This is because the chemical combustion would be far too rapid and
uncontrolled, giving out a large amount of heat energy too quickly for the cell to cope with.
Hence, energy is released slowly in enzyme-controlled stages in living cells during the
respiration process.

Basic Principles of Respiratory Systems:

 Movement of an oxygen-containing medium so it contacts a moist membrane overlying
blood vessels.
 Diffusion of oxygen from the medium into the blood.
 Transport of oxygen to the tissues and cells of the body.
 Diffusion of oxygen from the blood into cells.
 Carbon dioxide follows a reverse path.

External Respiration

External respiration, or breathing, is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an
animal and its environment. Most animals use specialized organs or organ-systems, such as
lungs, trachea, or gills, for external respiration. In all cases, exchange of gases between the

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environment and an animal occurs by diffusion through a wet surface on the animal which is
permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide. Diffusion is the random movement of molecules and
causes a net movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration. Thus, oxygen moves into an organism because its concentration is lower inside
than in the environment (air or water) and carbon dioxide moves out of an organism because its
concentration is higher inside than in the environment.

External respiration involves two main processes, which depend on the type of organism:

• Ventilation, or 'breathing' - the process of moving oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the
respiratory surface of the skin, gills or lungs.

• Gaseous exchange - the process by which oxygen and carbon dioxide pass through the
respiratory membrane into and out of the cell.

As different organisms have different mechanisms for extracting oxygen from their
environments, animal-gas exchange mechanisms have been classified into five categories.

1. Direct diffusion: Sponges, jellyfish, and terrestrial flatworms use this primitive method.
In direct diffusion, oxygen diffuses from the environment through cells on the animal's
surface and then diffuses to individual cells inside. The primitive animals that use this
method do not have respiratory organs. Obviously, an animal with small surface areas
and large volume cannot rely on direct diffusion, since little oxygen would reach the
interior of the body. Microbes, fungi, and plants all obtain the oxygen they use for
cellular respiration by direct diffusion through their surfaces.
2. Diffusion into blood: Annelids (segmented worms) and amphibians use this method.
In this method, oxygen diffuses through a moist layer of epidermal cells on the body
surface and from there through capillary walls and into the blood stream. Once oxygen is
in the blood, it moves throughout the body to different tissues and cells. While this
method does not rely upon respiratory organs and is thus quite primitive, it is somewhat
more advanced than direct diffusion.
3. Tracheae: Insects and terrestrial arthropods use this method. In tracheal respiration, air
moves through openings in the body surface called spiracles and then into special tubes
called tracheae (singular, trachea) which extend into the body. The tracheae divide into
many small branches which contact the muscles and organs. In small insects, air moves
into the tracheae passively, whereas in large insects, body movements facilitate tracheal
air movement. An advantage of tracheal respiration is that it provides oxygen directly to
the muscles. Muscle cells use this oxygen, together with the carbohydrates and other
energetic molecules in the hemolymph (insect blood), to generate the energy needed for
flight.
4. Gills: Fish and other aquatic animals use this method. Gills are specialized tissues with
many infoldings, each covered by a thin layer of cells and impregnated with blood
capillaries. They take up oxygen dissolved in water and expel carbon dioxide dissolved
in blood. Gills work by a mechanism called countercurrent exchange, in which blood and
water flow in discrete pathways and opposite directions. This allows gills to more

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 efficiently extract oxygen from water and expel carbondioxide into the water. Certain
details of gill anatomy differ among different species.
5. Lungs: Terrestrial vertebrates use this method. Lungs are special organs in the body
cavity that are composed of many small chambers impregnated with blood capillaries.
After air enters the lungs, oxygen diffuses into the blood stream through the walls of
these capillaries. It then moves from the lung capillaries to the different muscles and
organs of the body. Humans and other mammals have lungs in which air moves in and
out through the same pathway. In contrast, birds have more specialized lungs which use
a mechanism called cross-current exchange. Like the countercurrent exchange
mechanism of gills, air flows through the crosscurrent exchange system of bird lungs in
one direction only, making for more efficient oxygen exchange.

Conditions Required for External Respiration

• Oxygen is available dissolved in sea or fresh water or in its gaseous form in the air. There is 25
times more oxygen in air than is dissolved in an equal volume of sea water. Aquatic animals
must hence transport great volumes of water to their respiratory surfaces.
• Diffusion is the movement of substances in air or water. The rate of diffusion of oxygen in the
air is 100,000 times the diffusion rate of oxygen in water. Oxygen and carbon dioxide will
diffuse very slowly in cell fluid, compared to rapid diffusion in the air spaces of the lungs.
• Moisture, in the form of water or mucus on the respiratory surface, is needed to dissolve the
gases before they can diffuse through the membrane.
• Permeable thin membranes or skins allow rapid diffusion compared to non-permeable scaly
skins.
• The surface area of the respiratory membrane must be as large as possible to allow rapid
diffusion.

The rate of respiration in animals is affected by physical activity or exercise, body size and
weight, pregnancy, hormones, temperature, lactation, stimulant drugs and age. This is related to
the daily needs of the organism involved.

Energy release in living cells

Glucose is the main respiratory substrate which is broken down or respired in living organisms
to yield energy. Energy can exist in many different forms but the main forms of energy in the
respiring cell are heat and chemical energy. Approximately 35% of the energy released is in the
form of heat whilst about 65% is chemical energy in the form of an energy-rich compound called
adenosine triphosphate or ATP. ATP can be moved about inside the cell. It is a form of stored
energy that can be released rapidly as required to a living cell. The energy is used in different life
maintenance processes.

Metabolism

Metabolism is the word used to describe the chemical processes which takes place within a
living thing. All living organisms need energy to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures,
and respond to their environments. Metabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical processes
that enables organisms transform the chemical energy stored in molecules into energy that can be
used for cellular processes. Animals consume food to replenish energy; their metabolism breaks

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down the carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids to provide chemical energy for these
processes. Plants convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy stored in molecules
during the process of photosynthesis.

Every task performed by living organisms requires energy. Energy is needed to perform heavy
labor and exercise, but humans also use a great deal of energy while thinking and even while
sleeping. For every action that requires energy, many chemical reactions take place to provide
chemical energy to the systems of the body, including muscles, nerves, heart, lungs, and brain.

The main chemical metabolic reactions occurring in cells are either synthesis or the building up
of a compound from simpler substances, which is also called anabolism, or decomposition or
breakdown of chemical compounds, also called catabolism

Metabolic Rate is the rate at which a body uses energy, and can be measured as either oxygen
uptake or carbon dioxide output using a respirometer or spirometer. It is found that the rate of
respiration or metabolic rate of plants is very much less than animals. Also the rate differs among
resting animals. The rate of metabolism or respiration also differs for different tissues found in a
human being; the cells with the greatest number of mitochondria having the highest rate. Liver
cells have a higher number of mitochondria than blood cells and blood cells have a higher
number of mitochondria than fat cells.

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) is the rate at which the human body uses energy when at
complete rest, 12 hours after a meal in a moderately warm room. In such resting conditions
energy is used for heartbeat, external respiration and cell metabolism. Basal metabolism excludes
all physical skeletal muscle activity.

Metabolic Pathways

There are two major and opposite pathways in metabolism, anabolic pathway and catabolic
pathway. An anabolic pathway requires energy and builds molecules while a catabolic pathway
produces energy and breaks down molecules. The processes of making and breaking down
carbohydrate molecules illustrate two types of metabolic pathways. A metabolic pathway is a
step-by-step series of interconnected biochemical reactions that convert a substrate molecule or
molecules through a series of metabolic intermediates, eventually yielding a final product or
products. For example, one metabolic pathway for carbohydrates breaks large molecules down
into glucose. Another metabolic pathway might build glucose into large carbohydrate molecules
for storage. The first of these processes requires energy and is referred to as anabolic. The second
process produces energy and is referred to as catabolic.

Anabolic Pathways

Anabolic pathways require an input of energy to synthesize complex molecules from simpler
ones. One example of an anabolic pathway is the synthesis of sugar from CO2. Other examples
include the synthesis of large proteins from amino acid building blocks and the synthesis of new
DNA strands from nucleic acid building blocks. These processes are critical to the life of the cell,

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take place constantly, and demand energy provided by ATP and other high-energy molecules
like NADH (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) and NADPH.

Catabolic Pathways

Catabolic pathways involve the degradation of complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing
the chemical energy stored in the bonds of those molecules. Some catabolic pathways can
capture that energy to produce ATP, the molecule used to power all cellular processes. Other
energy-storing molecules, such as lipids, are also broken down through similar catabolic
reactions to release energy and make ATP.

Chemical reactions in metabolic pathways rarely take place spontaneously. Each reaction step is
facilitated, or catalyzed, by a protein called an enzyme. Enzymes are important for catalyzing all
types of biological reactions - those that require energy as well as those that release energy.

Figure 6: Anabolic and catabolic pathways: Anabolic pathways are those that require energy
to synthesize larger molecules. Catabolic pathways are those that generate energy by breaking
down larger molecules. Both types of pathways are required for maintaining the cell’s energy
balance.

NOTE:

 The breakdown of glucose living organisms utilize to produce energy is described by the
equation: C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy
 The photosynthetic process plants utilize to synthesize glucose is described by the
equation: 6CO2+6H2O+energy→C6H12O6+6O2

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Figure 7: Respiratory System in Some Animals

Figure 8: Counter-Current Flow in Fish

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Figure 9: Respiratory System of Insects and Birds

Figure 10: Respiratory System of Amphibians and Some Mammals

Figure 11: Human Respiratory System

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