INTELLECTUAL

REVOLUTIONS THAT
DEFINED SOCIETY
Chapter II
 Learning Objectives
At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Explain how the intellectual revolution changed the way how humans
see the world;
2. Articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and
technology;
3. Describe the technological advancements that happened in the
information age;
4. Analyze how scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world
like in Latin America, East Asia, the Middle East, and Africa.
 The Intellectual Revolution refers to early Greek speculation about nature before Socrates (600–400 BCE).
Experts associate it with terms like pre-Socratic, nontheological, or first philosophy.

This revolution had three key features:

(1) the world is not a product of supernatural forces that do not make things happen but it is a natural
whole entity,
(2) there are laws of nature that which people strongly believe in and follow because it is highly immoral
to ignore them, and
(3) humans of highly respectable intellect discovered these laws of nature.
 Copernican Revolution
Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish mathematician and astronomer who proposed
that the sun was stationary in the center of the universe and the earth
revolved around it.

His Model was a product of disappointment with the failure of Ptolemy's

geocentric model of the universe to follow Aristotle's requirement for the
uniform circular motion of all celestial bodies.
 Two competing models of the Universe

➢
1. Geocentric Theory (Ptolemy Model)
Claudius Ptolemy (c. 90-c. 180 AD) was a Greco-Egyptian writer, mathematician, and astronomer who
proposed the Earth-centered model of the universe which was accepted for fifteen centuries.

➢ Ptolemy believed that the Sun and planets orbited the Earth and accounted for the irregular motion of the
planets by spinning wheels that he called "epicycles."

➢ His major contribution was that his model can accurately explain the motion of heavenly bodies.

➢ His work enables astronomers to accurately predict planetary position and solar and lunar eclipses.

➢ Using his naked eye, he suggests that the Universe is composed of spheres with the Earth as the center.
Beyond the Sun are the planets. After the planets lay a final sphere where fixed stars can be found.
 The following observations supported the idea that the Earth
was the center of the Universe and these are:

a. The Sun appears to revolve around the Earth once per

day.

b. The moon and the planets appear to revolve around the Earth
about once per day.

c. The stars appeared to be on a celestial sphere, rotating once

each day along an axis through the north and south geographic
poles of the Earth.

d. The Earth does not seem to move from the perspective of an

Earth-bound observer. It appears to be stable, and unmoving.
 Two competing models of the Universe

➢
2. Nicholas
Heliocentric Theory (Copernicus Model)
Copernicus, a Polish statesman, and mathematician published a model in 1543 in which he
asserted that the Sun lay at the center of the planetary system.

➢ Copernicus replaced Ptolemy’s "equant," a mathematical tool used to explain the varying speeds of planets,
with a second "epicycle" to maintain the principle of uniform circular motion.

➢ Since Ptolemy's model did not strictly follow this principle, Copernicus sought to correct it by using two
imaginary moving circles to describe planetary motion.

➢ Both Copernicus and Ptolemy adhered to the Aristotelian belief that planets must move in perfect circles.
However, Copernicus’ model was less accurate because it relied on Ptolemy’s outdated, 1,500-year-old
observational data.
Today some data that support this theory are the following:

● Stellar Aberration Phenomenon – This optical effect causes celestial objects to appear slightly shifted
from their true positions due to the motion of the observer. The phenomenon supports the idea that Earth is
moving, further confirming the heliocentric model.

● Edwin Hubble’s Mathematical Calculations – Hubble’s discovery of the expanding universe showed that
galaxies are moving away from us, with their recessional velocity increasing with distance. His observations,
based on redshifts and Cepheid variable stars, provided the first direct evidence that the universe is
expanding and has no fixed center.

● The Doppler Effect – This principle explains the redshift and blueshift of light from celestial objects. When
galaxies move away from us, their light is redshifted (shifted to lower frequencies). When they move toward
us, their light is blueshifted (shifted to higher frequencies). The observed universal redshift indicates that
almost all galaxies are moving away, confirming that the universe is expanding and that distant galaxies are
receding faster than closer ones.
 Significance of the Copernican Revolution

1. The Copernican Revolution gives us an important framework for

understanding the Universe.

2. It changes people’s view that we do not occupy a special or

privileged place in the Universe.

3. It gives us knowledge that the Universe and everything in it can be

understood and predicted using a set of basic physical laws (“rules”).
 Darwinian Revolution
➢ Charles Darwin (February 12, 1809 - April 19, 1882), was an English naturalist
whose scientific theory of evolution by natural selection became the foundation of
modern evolutionary studies.
➢ His theory was a deviation from the religious belief of Victorian society that animals
and humans shared a common ancestry.
➢ His father sent him to the University of Edinburgh to study medicine. A botany
professor suggested he join a voyage on the HMS Beagle —a trip that would provide
him with much of his evidence for the theory of evolution by natural selection.
➢ He published “The Origin of Specifies” in 1589.
 Theory of Natural Selection
1. Overproduction of Offspring – Organisms produce more offspring than can survive,
leading to competition for resources.

2. Variation Among Offspring – Offspring exhibit slight differences in traits, creating

diversity within a population.

3. Inheritance of Traits – Favorable characteristics can be passed down from one generation
to the next.

4. Survival of the Fittest – Individuals with traits best suited to their environment are more
likely to survive and reproduce, while those less adapted may not survive.
 Impact of Darwinism
1. Revolutionized Biology
• Darwin’s work unified the biological sciences by providing a framework for understanding how
all living organisms are related.
• His theory laid the foundation for modern genetics, ecology, and paleontology.

2. Changed Views on Human Origins

• Darwin’s theory challenged traditional religious beliefs about the special creation of humans.
• It introduced the idea that humans and animals share a common ancestor, contradicting earlier
beliefs in the fixed nature of species.

3. Influenced Medicine and Genetics

• Evolutionary theory helped scientists understand genetics, heredity, and disease resistance.
• It provided insight into how bacteria evolve resistance to antibiotics, guiding medical
advancements.
• Today, evolutionary biology informs cancer research, genetic engineering, and the study of
viruses.
 Impact of Darwinism
4. Social Impact
• Darwin’s ideas were misinterpreted and misused to justify Social Darwinism, a belief that
“survival of the fittest” applied to human society.
• Some used this concept to support racism, imperialism, and class discrimination, arguing that
the wealthy and powerful were superior.
• It also influenced eugenics movements, which sought to “improve” human populations through
selective breeding.

5. Education and Law

• Darwin’s theory led to major debates about teaching evolution in schools, especially in religious
societies.
• The Scopes “Monkey” Trial (1925) in the U.S. was a landmark case where a teacher was fined
for teaching evolution, highlighting tensions between science and religion.
• Today, evolution remains a core part of biology curricula worldwide, despite ongoing opposition
from some religious groups.
 Freudian Revolution
➢ Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of
psychoanalysis, a revolutionary approach to understanding human behavior and
treating psychological disorders.
➢ Born in the Austrian Empire,
➢ studied medicine at the University of Vienna and later established his clinical practice
in Vienna in 1886.
➢ In 1938, he fled to the United Kingdom to escape Nazi persecution and died in exile
in 1939.
➢ Freud's work laid the foundation for modern psychology, influencing fields such as
psychotherapy, psychiatry, and even literature and cultural studies.
 Major Theories and Contributions
➢ The Structure of the Mind: Id, Ego, and Superego
Freud proposed that the human psyche is divided into three
interacting components:
1. Id – The primal, unconscious part of the mind that seeks
immediate gratification of desires and instincts. It operates
based on the "pleasure principle.“
2. Ego – The rational, conscious part that balances the desires
of the id with reality. It follows the "reality principle" and
mediates between the id and the superego.
3. Superego – The moral component of personality,
representing internalized societal norms and values. It acts as
the conscience, enforcing ethical behavior.
Choosing Whether to Study or Go to a Party
Alex has an important exam tomorrow, but his friends invite him to a big party the night before.
He really wants to go, but he also knows he needs to study. Here's how the id, ego, and superego
come into play:
● Id (Pleasure-Seeking Instinct):
"Forget studying! The party sounds fun, and I don’t want to miss out. I can always cram in the
morning."
● Superego (Moral Conscience):
"Skipping studying is irresponsible. You should be disciplined and do what’s right. A good
student would stay home and prepare for the exam."
● Ego (Reality Balancer):
"Maybe I can study for a few hours first, then go to the party for a little while. That way, I
won’t fall behind, but I also won’t miss out completely."
 ➢ Psychosexual Stages of Development
Freud argued that personality develops through a series of psychosexual
stages, where different parts of the body serve as the focus of pleasure and
psychological tension.

1. Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months) – The child becomes focused on oral

pleasures such as sucking. Difficulties at this stage could lead to
adulthood centered around smoking, drinking alcohol, and biting nails and
they can be pessimistic, gullible, and overly dependent on others.

2. Anal Stage (18 months to 3 Years) – The child is focused on the

pleasure of eliminating and retaining feces and learning to control this due
to societal norms. Fixation here can lead to perfectionism, a need to
control, or the opposite; messy and disorganized.
3. Phallic Stage (Ages 3 to 6 Years) – The child has focused on the genitals
and during this stage, boys develop an unconscious sexual desire for their
mothers and fear that because of this their fathers will punish them by
castration. This became known as the Oedipus Complex after the Sophocles
tragedy. A fixation at this stage could lead to confusion over the sexual
identity or engaging in sexual deviance.

4. Latency Stage (Ages 6 to puberty) – Sexual urges remain largely

repressed at this stage.

5. Genital Stage (Puberty Onwards) – This final stage leads to the

individual switching their interest to members of the opposite sex.
➢ The Unconscious Mind and Defense Mechanisms
Freud’s concept of the unconscious mind was one of his most
revolutionary ideas. He argued that much of human behavior is driven by
unconscious desires, fears, and memories.

1. Repression – Pushing distressing thoughts into the unconscious.

2. Denial – Refusing to accept reality.
3. Projection – Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts to others.
4. Displacement – Redirecting emotions toward a safer target.
5. Sublimation – Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable
actions (e.g., aggression into sports).

These defense mechanisms explain how people cope with inner conflicts and
emotional distress.
 Impact of Freud’s Work
1. Transforming Psychology and Therapy
Freud’s psychoanalytic therapy introduced techniques such as:
• Free association – Patients freely express thoughts to uncover unconscious material.
• Dream analysis – Dreams are interpreted as expressions of unconscious desires.
• Transference – Patients project feelings about important figures onto the therapist.

2. Influence on Society and Culture

Freud’s theories extended beyond psychology, influencing literature, philosophy, and even art. His
ideas contributed to understanding human sexuality, childhood development, and mental disorders.
However, they also sparked controversies, especially regarding gender and sexuality.

3. Social and Ethical Implications

• Education and child development – Influencing early childhood psychology.
• Medicine and psychiatry – Shaping psychotherapy and mental health treatments.
• Philosophy and literature – Impacting existentialist and surrealist movements.
However, his work also led to controversial applications, such as:
● Freudian feminism – Critics argue his theories reinforced gender stereotypes.
● Criticism of the Oedipus Complex – Many psychologists reject this concept as outdated and
unscientific.
 Information Revolution
➢ The Information Revolution marks a global shift that began in the late 20th century,
driven by rapid advancements in digital Information and Communication
Technologies (ICTs).
➢ This revolution has significantly reduced the cost of acquiring, processing, storing,
and transmitting information in various forms (text, graphics, audio, and video),
reshaping economies, societies, and governments worldwide.
 Key Strands of the Information Revolution
➢ Computer Revolution

1st – computers began to proliferate in the 1960s, which

transformed business around the world.
2nd - started in the late 1970s when consumers became computer
customers for the first time.
3rd - introduction of the Internet
4th - began with smartphones and tablets.

The computer revolution refers to sales of computers in the

hundreds of millions, with their diffusion throughout society making
an impact on the same scale as that of the automobile, television,
or the telephone.
➢ Internet Revolution
The Internet age began in the 1960s when computer specialists in
Europe began to exchange information from the main computer to a
remote terminal by breaking down data into small packets of information
that could be reassembled at the receiving end. The system was called
packet-switching.

In 1968, the U.S. Department of Defense engaged scientists to create a

national communications system. Experimenting with packet-switching, the
government scientists eventually linked several computers over telephone
lines to operate as a single system. The system was called the Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET).

The World Wide Web (WWW), developed by Tim Berners-Lee, led to

the mass adoption of the Internet, enabling global connectivity.
➢ Digital Revolution
This is the shift from mechanical and analog electronic technology to
digital electronics which began anywhere from the late 1950s to the late
1970s with the adoption and proliferation of digital computers and digital
record keeping that continues to the present day.

The main feature of this revolution is the growing economic, social,l and
technological role of information.

The Information Age began around the 1970s and is still going on today.
It is also known as the Computer Age, Digital Age, or New Media Age.
This era brought about a period in which people could access information
and knowledge easily.

Enabled automation, artificial intelligence (AI), big data, and cloud

computing, making digital transformation possible across industries.
 Significant Contributions of the Information Revolution
1. Economic and Workforce Transformations
• Digital technologies have reshaped business models, economies, and global labor
markets.
• E-commerce, remote work, and automation have increased efficiency but also displaced
certain job sectors.
• The globalization of the workforce allows people to work remotely, competing for jobs
worldwide.

2. Technological and Scientific Advancements

• Biotechnology & Genetic Research: The Human Genome Project, gene therapy, and
cloning have revolutionized medicine.
• Data Management & AI: Vast amounts of data are analyzed through AI, improving
decision-making in healthcare, finance, and security.
• Nanotechnology & Materials Science: Development of carbon nanotubes, memory
metals, and composite alloys for advanced industrial applications.
• Space Exploration: Air-breathing space vehicles and improved propulsion systems
have made space stations and interplanetary missions more viable.
 Significant Contributions of the Information Revolution
3. Communication and Media Evolution
• The rise of social media, instant messaging, and real-time news updates has
transformed global communication.
• The digitalization of books, music, and films has made media more accessible but
has also led to concerns about digital piracy.
• The shift from analog to digital storage (CDs replacing vinyl records, streaming
services replacing DVDs) ensures information preservation and easy distribution.

4. Government, Security, and Societal Changes

• Governments use digital tools for strategic intelligence, cybersecurity, and military
advancements.
• The rise of cybercrimes, identity theft, and hacking has prompted new legal
frameworks.
• The role of soft power in diplomacy has expanded as information flows influence public
opinion and policy-making.
 Significant Contributions of the Information Revolution
5. Transportation and Infrastructure Innovations
• The development of electric and hydrogen-based vehicles contributes to sustainable
energy solutions.
• Improved supersonic travel and smart transportation systems have enhanced
global mobility and logistics.
• Advanced GPS and data networks allow seamless navigation and real-time monitoring
of global activities.
 Challenges and Future Implications
➢ Digital Divide: Unequal access to technology creates gaps between
developed and developing nations.

➢ Privacy and Security Issues: With vast amounts of data online, protecting
personal and corporate information is crucial.

➢ Job Displacement: Automation and AI replace certain jobs, necessitating

new skills and education reforms.