The blueprint of my book called

THE BASIC
GUIDE/FUNDAMENTALS OF
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY for
allied Health professionals
Chapter 1
Definitions and Nature of Research

Chapter 2
The Research problem

Chapter 3
Variables, Objective, Research Questions and Hypothesis

Chapter 4
Review of the Literature

Chapter 5
Sample and Sampling Techniques

Chapter 6
Methodologies of Research Design

Chapter 7
Key Concepts and steps in Quantitative and Qualitative research

Chapter 7
Methods of Data Collection

Chapter 8
Methods of Data Analysis

Chapter 9

1
Discussion, Conclusion, Limitation and Recommendations

Chapter 10
Writing Research proposal and Report

Chapter 11
APA Format for Referencing and other formats

Chapter 1
Objectives of this chapter
By the end of reading this chapter the learner should be able to
1. Define Research
2. Mentions good qualities of research
3. Explain Research process
4. Mention and explain different types of Research

Definitions and Nature of Research

Definitions of Research

Research is the systematic process of collecting data by using instruments

and making an analysis on the data collected to provide a solution to a
particular problem.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines research as the process of

systematically and carefully investigating a subject to discover new
information or reach a new understanding. According to WHO, research is
essential for providing the evidence base needed to improve public health,
develop effective interventions, and inform policies and practices.

Research is a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer

questions and solve problems. The ultimate goal of research is to develop,
refine, and expand a body of knowledge (DENISE F. et al, 2010).

In the health context, research is the systematic investigation into and study of
materials, behaviours, systems, or interventions to generate new knowledge,
improve understanding, or develop solutions to health-related issues. It aims
to advance medical science, enhance public health, and improve patient care

2
by identifying effective treatments, understanding disease mechanisms, and
informing health policy and practices.

Nursing research is systematic inquiry designed to develop trustworthy

evidence about issues of importance to the nursing profession, including
nursing practice, education, administration, and informatics.

Qualities of research

Research is characterised by several key qualities that ensure its rigour,

reliability, and contribution to knowledge.

The essential qualities of a good research are as follow

1. Systematic:Research follows a structured, organised, and

methodical process. This involves clearly defined steps, from
identifying the problem to collecting and analysing data, and
finally drawing conclusions.

2. Empirical:Research is based on direct observation,

experience, or experimentation rather than on theory or belief
alone. Data is collected through reliable and validated methods
to ensure accuracy.

3. Objective:Research aims to be unbiased and impartial. The

findings should be based on evidence rather than the
researcher’s personal opinions or desires. Objectivity ensures
the credibility of the results.

4. Logical:Research is grounded in logical reasoning, with each

step being connected to the next. Conclusions should logically
follow from the data collected, and the reasoning behind them
should be clear and well-founded.

5. Replicable:Good research can be repeated under similar

conditions, and similar results should be obtained. Replicability
allows others to verify the findings and strengthens the validity
of the research.

3
6. Relevant:Research should address significant and current
issues, contributing to the body of knowledge in a meaningful
way. It should be relevant to the field of study and have
practical or theoretical implications.

7. Ethical:Research must adhere to ethical standards, including

respect for participants, informed consent, confidentiality, and
the responsible reporting of data. Ethical research ensures the
integrity and social responsibility of the research process.

8. Innovative:Good research often explores new areas or offers

new insights into existing knowledge. Innovation in research
can lead to breakthroughs, new theories, or new methods.

9. Accurate and Precise:Research requires careful and

accurate measurement and analysis. Precision in data
collection and analysis reduces errors and increases the
reliability of the results.

10. Communicable:The findings of research should be clearly

communicated to others, whether through publications,
presentations, or reports. Effective communication allows the
research to be understood, evaluated, and applied by others in
the field.

11. Critical: Research involves critical thinking and analysis.

Researchers must be critical of their own work, considering
alternative explanations, and acknowledging limitations and
potential biases.
These qualities ensure that research is trustworthy, valuable, and contributes
meaningfully to the advancement of knowledge.

Research process

The research process is a series of systematic steps that guide researchers

from the initial idea or question to the final conclusions and dissemination of
results. This process ensures that research is conducted in a structured and
rigorous manner, leading to valid and reliable findings.

Here’s an overview of the typical research process:

4
1. Identifying the Research Problem
● Definition: The research process begins with identifying and defining a
clear, specific problem or question that needs investigation.
● Importance: The problem should be relevant, significant, and
researchable within the given resources and time.

2. Reviewing the Literature

● Purpose: Conduct a thorough review of existing literature to understand
the current state of knowledge on the topic, identify gaps, and build on
previous research.
● Outcome: This step helps refine the research question, formulate
hypotheses, and develop the research framework.

3. Formulating Hypotheses or Research Questions

● Hypotheses: If applicable, develop hypotheses that predict the
relationship between variables. In exploratory research, specific
research questions guide the study.
● Clarity: Hypotheses or questions should be clear, testable, and relevant
to the research problem.

4. Designing the Research

● Methodology: Choose the research design (e.g., experimental,
descriptive, correlational) and methods (e.g., qualitative, quantitative, or
mixed-methods) that best address the research question.
● Planning: Decide on the sample size, sampling techniques, data
collection methods (surveys, interviews, experiments, etc.), and tools
(questionnaires, instruments, software).

5. Collecting Data
● Implementation:This involves the use of instruments or tools to gather
data according to the research design or research methodology,
examples of the instruments are questionnaires, interviews e.t.c . This
step requires careful execution to ensure data is accurate, reliable, and
free from bias.

5
 ● Ethics: Ensure ethical standards are followed, including informed
consent, confidentiality, and data protection.

6. Analysing Data
Quantitative Analysis: Use statistical tools and techniques to analyse
numerical data, testing hypotheses and identifying patterns or
relationships.

Qualitative Analysis: Analyse non-numerical data (e.g., interview

transcripts, observations) to identify themes, patterns, and meanings.

Interpretation: Draw conclusions based on the analysis, relating

findings back to the original research question and literature review.

7. Interpreting and Reporting Results

● Discussion: Interpret the results in the context of the research
question, hypotheses, and existing literature. Discuss the implications,
limitations, and possible applications of the findings.
● Conclusion: Summarise the key findings and their significance,
addressing the research problem or question.

8. Drawing Conclusions and Making Recommendations

● Conclusions: Based on the results, draw logical conclusions that
answer the research questions or confirm/refute the hypotheses.
● Recommendations: Suggest practical applications, policy implications,
or areas for further research.

9. Disseminating the Findings

● Publication: Share the research findings with the academic community
and the public through journals, conferences, reports, or presentations.
● Impact: Effective dissemination ensures that the research contributes to
the body of knowledge and can be used to inform practice, policy, or
further research.

10. Review and Reflection

● Assessment: Reflect on the research process to evaluate what worked
well and what could be improved in future studies.

6
 ● Learning: Use the experience to refine research skills and
methodologies for future projects.

Each of these steps is interconnected, and sometimes, researchers may need

to revisit earlier stages as new insights or challenges arise during the research
process.

Research process
⇩

Identifying the Research Problem

Reviewing the Literature

⇩

Formulating Hypotheses or Research Questions

⇩

Designing the Research

⇩

Collecting Data
⇩

Analysing Data
⇩

Interpreting and Reporting Results

⇩

7
Drawing Conclusions and Making Recommendations
⇩

Disseminating the Findings

⇩

Review and Reflection

A Summary of Research process in flow chart format

classifications of research

Research can be classified into various types based on different criteria, such
as the purpose, methodology, data type, and the discipline it belongs to.
Below are some common classifications of research.

1. Based on Purpose
The purpose-based classification of research is classified into five which are:

a. Basic (Pure) Research

b. Applied Research
c. Exploratory Research
d. Descriptive Research
e. Explanatory Research
f. Evaluative Research

a. Basic (Pure) Research

This form of classification is otherwise called fundamental, pure or basic

research which is Conducted to increase understanding and knowledge
without a direct practical application in mind.
● It is conducted for the advancement of knowledge
● It is mostly carried out in the laboratory and usually involves animals
● Example: Studying the structure of DNA or the properties of new
materials.

b. Applied Research

8
 ● Definition: Aims to solve specific, practical problems and improve
human conditions.
● Example: Developing a new vaccine, or improving educational
techniques.

c. Exploratory Research

● Definition: Conducted to explore a problem or situation when the

researcher has little or no knowledge about it.
● Example: Investigating the impact of a new technology in education.

d. Descriptive Research

● Definition: Describes characteristics, behaviours, or functions of a

population or phenomenon.
● Example: A survey to assess consumer preferences for a product.

e. Explanatory Research

● Definition: Aims to explain the cause-and-effect relationships between

variables.
● Example: Investigating the factors leading to job satisfaction among
employees.

f. Evaluative Research

● Definition: Assesses the effectiveness or impact of policies, programs,

or interventions.
● Example: Evaluating the effectiveness of a new teaching method in
schools.

2. Based on Methodology
a. Quantitative Research

● Definition: Involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to

identify patterns, relationships, or trends.
● Example: A study measuring the impact of a drug on blood pressure
using statistical analysis.

b. Qualitative Research

9
 ● Definition: Involves non-numerical data like interviews, observations, or
texts to understand concepts, experiences, or social phenomena.
● Example: Conducting interviews to understand the experiences of
cancer survivors.

c. Mixed-Methods Research

● Definition: Combines both quantitative and qualitative approaches to

provide a more comprehensive understanding of a research problem.
● Example: A study using surveys (quantitative) and focus groups
(qualitative) to assess customer satisfaction.

d. Experimental Research

● Definition: Involves manipulating one or more variables in a controlled

environment to determine their effect on other variables.
● Example: A laboratory experiment to test the efficacy of a new drug.

e. Non-Experimental Research

● Definition: Observes and analyses variables without manipulating

them, often used when experimentation is not possible.
● Example: A case study of a business organisation’s culture.

3. Based on Data Type

a. Primary Research

● Definition: Involves the collection of original data directly from sources.

● Example: Conducting a survey or an experiment.

b. Secondary Research

● Definition: Involves analysing existing data collected by others.

● Example: Analysing data from government reports or previous studies.

4. Based on Nature of Information

a. Theoretical Research

● Definition: Focuses on developing, testing, or refining theories without

immediate practical application.
● Example: Developing a new theory of social behaviour.

b. Empirical Research

10
 ● Definition: Based on observed and measured phenomena and derives
knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.
● Example: A study that measures the effectiveness of a new teaching
method in the classroom.

5. Based on Time Frame

a. Cross-Sectional Research

● Definition: Involves observations or data collection from a population or

phenomenon at a single point in time.
● Example: A survey conducted to assess public opinion on a particular
issue at one point in time.

b. Longitudinal Research

● Definition: Involves repeated observations or data collection over an

extended period of time.
● Example: A study tracking the health outcomes of individuals over
several decades.

6. Based on Field of Study

a. Social Science Research

● Definition: Focuses on human society and social relationships.

● Example: Research in psychology, sociology, or economics.

b. Natural Science Research

● Definition: Focuses on the natural world and physical universe.

● Example: Research in biology, chemistry, or physics.

c. Health Science Research

● Definition: Focuses on health-related topics, including medicine, public

health, and healthcare services.
● Example: Clinical trials for a new medication or a public health
intervention study.

d. Engineering and Technology Research

● Definition: Focuses on developing new technologies, improving

existing ones, or understanding technical processes.

11
 ● Example: Research on renewable energy sources or advanced
materials.

e. Humanities Research

● Definition: Focuses on human culture, history, and philosophy.

● Example: Research in literature, history, or philosophy.

These classifications help researchers choose appropriate methods and

approaches based on the nature of the research question, the available data,
and the goals of the study.

Roles of health professionals in research

* Participate in a journal club in a practice setting, which involves meetings to

discuss and critique research articles

* Attend research presentations at professional conferences

* Solve clinical problems and make clinical decisions based on rigorous

research

* Help to develop an idea for a clinical study

* Review a proposed research plan and offer clinical expertise to improve the
plan

* Assist researchers by recruiting potential study participants or collecting

research information (e.g., distributing questionnaires to clients)

* Provide information and advice to clients about participation in studies

* Discuss the implications and relevance of research findings with clients

Importance of research to Health professionals

Research is of paramount importance to health professionals for several

reasons, as it enhances patient care, advances medical knowledge, and
improves healthcare systems. Here are some key aspects of why research is
crucial for health professionals:

12
1. Evidence-Based Practice
Research provides the scientific basis for clinical decisions. Health
professionals rely on evidence-based research to diagnose, treat, and
manage patient conditions effectively. Without research, care would be based
on outdated practices or assumptions, potentially compromising patient safety.

2. Advancement of Medical Knowledge

Continuous research helps expand the understanding of diseases, treatments,
and health outcomes. This knowledge is essential for developing new
therapies, refining current treatments, and improving overall health care
strategies.

3. Innovation in Treatment and Technology

Research leads to innovation in medical treatments, technologies, and
procedures. Breakthroughs such as new medications, surgical techniques,
and diagnostic tools emerge from rigorous scientific inquiry, improving health
outcomes and quality of life for patients.

4. Improved Patient Outcomes

Clinical trials and research studies test the efficacy of new treatments or
interventions. Health professionals can adopt the most effective and safe
methods of care, which improves patient outcomes and reduces the risk of
complications.

5. Public Health and Policy Development

Research informs health policies and guidelines that affect populations on a
larger scale. It allows for the identification of public health issues, disease
prevention strategies, and effective interventions that can be scaled to benefit
entire communities.

6. Professional Development and Lifelong Learning

For health professionals, engaging with research encourages lifelong learning
and keeps them updated with the latest advancements in their fields. It also
helps them critically appraise new information, ensuring they provide the
highest level of care.

7. Patient Safety and Quality of Care

13
Research focuses on improving the quality and safety of healthcare systems.
It helps in identifying gaps in care, preventing medical errors, and creating
safer environments for patients and healthcare workers alike.

8. Personal and Professional Contribution

Health professionals who contribute to research can help shape the future of
medicine. By being involved in studies or clinical trials, they contribute to the
development of new standards and improvements in healthcare.

In summary, research is foundational to the progress of healthcare. It allows

health professionals to deliver evidence-based, innovative, and high-quality
care that benefits both individual patients and public health.

Importance of research to nursing profession

Research is fundamentally important to the nursing profession because it

strengthens clinical practice, enhances patient outcomes, and contributes to
the growth of nursing as a scientific discipline. Below are the key reasons why
research is critical to nursing:

1. Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)

Research provides the foundation for evidence-based practice, which is
essential in modern nursing. EBP ensures that nursing interventions,
procedures, and patient care decisions are grounded in the most current,
high-quality research. This minimises risks and increases the likelihood of
positive patient outcomes.

2. Improvement in Patient Care

Through research, nurses discover new ways to improve care delivery.
Research findings guide the development of better practices in wound care,
pain management, infection control, and more. This translates into enhanced
patient care, faster recovery times, and improved quality of life for patients.

3. Advancement of Nursing Knowledge

Research contributes to the expansion of nursing knowledge, helping to
establish nursing as a distinct scientific and academic discipline. It allows

14
nurses to develop new theories and models that define nursing practice,
fostering intellectual growth within the profession.

4. Professional Development
Engaging in research helps nurses refine their critical thinking, problem-
solving, and analytical skills. It fosters lifelong learning and professional
development, allowing nurses to stay at the forefront of healthcare
advancements and trends, ultimately improving their competency and
leadership within healthcare teams.

5. Development of Best Practices and Protocols

Research informs the creation of clinical guidelines and protocols that
ensure safe, consistent, and effective care. This is especially important in
specialties like critical care, oncology, and paediatrics, where standardised
best practices can make a significant difference in patient outcomes.

6. Improving Healthcare Systems

Nursing research can identify inefficiencies, safety concerns, or gaps in
healthcare delivery systems. By implementing research findings, nurses can
help improve workflow, reduce errors, and promote a culture of safety and
quality improvement within healthcare institutions.

7. Enhanced Patient Safety

Many nursing research studies focus on patient safety by exploring ways to
prevent medical errors, reduce patient falls, and minimise hospital-acquired
infections. Research-driven initiatives ensure that nurses provide care in the
safest possible environment.

8. Health Policy and Advocacy

Research empowers nurses to advocate for changes in health policies that
affect patients, communities, and the nursing profession itself. For instance,
research on safe nurse-to-patient ratios, working conditions, and patient
outcomes can influence policy changes that benefit both nurses and patients.

9. Adaptation to Emerging Health Issues

Research equips nurses to respond effectively to new or evolving healthcare
challenges, such as global health crises (e.g., pandemics), emerging

15
diseases, or advances in technology. By staying engaged in research, nurses
can be proactive in adapting their practices to address these challenges.

10. Contribution to Interdisciplinary Healthcare

Nursing research is crucial in fostering collaboration between healthcare
professionals. By contributing to interdisciplinary research, nurses work with
physicians, pharmacists, and other health experts to create holistic, patient-
centred care plans that improve overall healthcare delivery.

11. Promotion of Innovation in Nursing

Research drives innovation in nursing practice, such as the development of
new nursing interventions, health technologies, or care delivery models. For
example, telemedicine and virtual nursing care were significantly advanced
through research, benefiting remote and underserved populations.

12. Improving Population Health

Public health and community-based nursing research help nurses identify
trends and disparities in population health. Research can lead to the
development of prevention strategies, health education programs, and
interventions that address public health concerns, such as chronic disease
management or vaccine promotion.

13, Quality Improvement Initiatives

Research enables nurses to participate in or lead quality improvement

initiatives within their healthcare settings. These projects use research data to
assess the current standards of care and implement changes that lead to
safer, more effective nursing practices.

Examples of Nursing Research Contributions:

● Pressure Ulcer Prevention: Research on proper positioning and skin
care has led to interventions that prevent pressure ulcers in immobile
patients.
● Pain Management: Studies on pain assessment and management
have helped nurses better understand how to provide individualised
care for patients with chronic pain or post-surgical discomfort.
● Nurse Staffing: Research on the effects of nurse-patient ratios has
driven policies that promote adequate staffing levels, ensuring better
care and reducing burnout among nurses.

16
In conclusion, research is crucial to the nursing profession as it elevates
nursing from a practice-based profession to one that is deeply grounded in
science. It empowers nurses to provide high-quality, evidence-based care,
improve patient safety, influence health policy, and contribute to the broader
advancement of healthcare.

Chapter 2

The Research Problem in Nursing Research

In nursing research, defining the research problem is a crucial step that lays
the foundation for the entire study. The research problem identifies a gap in
knowledge or a pressing issue in nursing practice that requires investigation. It
helps focus the research and provides direction for developing research
questions, objectives, and methodologies. In this chapter, we will explore the
concept of the research problem in nursing, its significance, and how to
effectively define and formulate it within the context of nursing research.

17
Definition of a Research Problem in Nursing

A research problem in nursing refers to a specific issue, gap in practice, or

area of uncertainty that is significant to nursing care, patient outcomes, or
healthcare systems. This problem arises when there is insufficient knowledge
or an unclear understanding about a particular aspect of nursing practice,
patient care, or healthcare delivery.

A nursing research problem could involve:

● Patient care practices: How nursing interventions impact patient health

outcomes.
● Healthcare delivery systems: Issues related to efficiency, staffing, or
resource allocation in healthcare.
● Nurse-patient relationships: How communication, empathy, or cultural
competence affects patient care.
● Public health concerns: Addressing community health issues, such as
chronic diseases or preventive care.

Characteristics of a Good Research Problem in Nursing

A good research problem in nursing has specific characteristics that ensure it

is relevant, feasible, and impactful:

● Relevance to Nursing Practice: The problem should be directly

related to nursing care, patient outcomes, or healthcare systems,
making it meaningful for advancing nursing practice.
● Researchability: The problem must be something that can be
investigated using nursing research methods, such as quantitative or
qualitative approaches.
● Clarity and Specificity: It should be clearly defined and focused,
avoiding broad or vague topics that are difficult to explore.
● Significance: The research problem should address an important issue
in nursing, such as improving patient care, enhancing the healthcare
environment, or addressing gaps in nursing knowledge.
● Feasibility: The problem must be feasible to study, considering
available resources, time, and access to data.

Sources of Research Problems in Nursing

Research problems in nursing can arise from a variety of sources, including:

18
 1. Clinical Practice: Many research problems stem from challenges faced
in everyday nursing practice. For example, nurses might observe that a
particular patient care practice leads to inconsistent outcomes and
warrants further investigation.
2. Literature Review: Reviewing existing nursing literature often reveals
gaps in current knowledge or areas where further research is needed.
Literature reviews help researchers identify what has already been
studied and what remains uncertain.
3. Patient Care Trends: Changes in patient demographics or healthcare
needs, such as an ageing population or increasing chronic disease
rates, may highlight new problems in nursing care.
4. Healthcare Policies: Shifts in healthcare policies, regulations, or
systems can create new research problems, especially when policies
impact the quality of nursing care or patient outcomes.
5. Nursing Education: Research problems may also arise in the field of
nursing education, such as determining the most effective methods for
training nurses in critical care or clinical decision-making.
6. Personal Experience: Nurses' own experiences in the clinical setting
can serve as valuable sources for identifying research problems. Their
observations of patient care challenges, ethical dilemmas, or system
inefficiencies often provide important insights for research.
7. Recommendation of past Research project: in the aspect of research
report there are recommendations for future research based on the
researcher’s findings. Therefore, Research problems could be driven
from this aspect.
8. From existing Theories: Most theories in Health professions particularly
nursing Theories are good sources of researchable problems because
normally theories give rise to deductions, which need to be tested
through the instrumentality of research.

Formulating a Research Problem in Nursing

Formulating a research problem in nursing involves several key steps:

1. Identify a Broad Area of Interest: Start by selecting a general area

within nursing that interests you, such as patient safety, nursing
education, or chronic disease management.
2. Narrow the Focus: Through a review of literature or personal clinical
experience, refine the broad area of interest into a more specific issue
or problem. For example, rather than focusing on general patient safety,

19
 you might explore how staffing ratios affect patient falls in a hospital
setting.
3. Review the Literature: Conduct a preliminary literature review to
understand the current knowledge on the topic. Identify gaps in
research, areas of controversy, or unanswered questions that warrant
further investigation.
4. Consider Relevance and Feasibility: Ensure that the problem is
significant to nursing and can realistically be investigated within your
resources and time constraints.
5. Formulate a Clear Problem Statement: Once the problem has been
identified and narrowed down, articulate it in a clear and concise
statement. This problem statement should summarise the issue you
intend to address and provide a rationale for its importance.

Examples of Research Problems in Nursing

Here are examples of how research problems in nursing can be formulated:

1. Example 1: Patient Safety

○ Broad Topic: Nurse staffing and patient safety.
○ Research Problem: Despite extensive research on patient
safety, there is limited evidence on how nurse staffing ratios
specifically affect the incidence of medication errors in acute care
hospitals.
○ Problem Statement: How do nurse-to-patient ratios influence the
rate of medication errors in acute care hospital settings?
2. Example 2: Chronic Disease Management
○ Broad Topic: Chronic disease management in community
settings.
○ Research Problem: Although chronic disease management
programs are widely implemented, there is limited research on
the role of community health nurses in supporting self-
management for elderly patients with diabetes.
○ Problem Statement: What role do community health nurses play
in enhancing self-management practices among elderly diabetic
patients?
3. Example 3: Nursing Education
○ Broad Topic: Nursing education and clinical decision-making.
○ Research Problem: There is a need to explore how different
teaching strategies in nursing education impact students' clinical

20
 decision-making skills, especially in high-pressure clinical
environments.
○ Problem Statement: What is the impact of simulation-based
learning on nursing students' clinical decision-making skills in
emergency care settings?

Importance of a Well-Defined Research Problem in Nursing

A well-defined research problem is essential in nursing research for several

reasons:

● Guides the Research Process: A clear problem helps the researcher

focus on relevant questions, objectives, and methods, ensuring the
study remains focused and coherent.
● Contributes to Nursing Knowledge: Defining a problem that
addresses gaps in nursing practice helps expand the scientific body of
knowledge in nursing, ultimately improving patient care and healthcare
outcomes.
● Ensures Relevance: A well-defined research problem ensures that the
study addresses a significant issue in nursing, making the research
more impactful and meaningful to the profession.
● Improves Practice: Nursing research problems that focus on practical,
real-world issues lead to findings that can be directly applied to nursing
care, helping to enhance patient outcomes and improve clinical
practices.

Research Questions and Hypotheses in Nursing Research

After formulating the research problem, the next step is to develop specific
research questions or hypotheses:

● Research Questions: These questions specify the focus of the

research and guide the investigation. For example, "How does nurse-
patient communication influence patient satisfaction in palliative care
settings?"
● Hypotheses: Hypotheses are testable statements that predict
relationships between variables. For example, "Increased
communication training for nurses will result in higher patient
satisfaction scores in palliative care settings."

Challenges in Formulating a Research Problem in Nursing

21
Common challenges faced when formulating research problems in nursing
include:

● Vagueness or Overly Broad Problems: Problems that are too broad

or vague can lead to unfocused research.
● Difficulty Finding Gaps: It may be challenging to identify a truly novel
research problem due to the abundance of existing studies.
● Limited Resources or Data: Some research problems may be difficult
to investigate due to a lack of available data or resources.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the research problem is the cornerstone of any nursing

research study. It defines the focus of the research, guides the development
of research questions and hypotheses, and ultimately ensures that the study
is relevant to nursing practice. By clearly identifying and formulating a
meaningful research problem, nursing researchers can contribute to the
advancement of the profession and the improvement of patient care.

Chapter 3

Variables, Objectives, Research Questions, and Hypothesis

In any research study, the formulation of variables, objectives, research
questions, and hypotheses is crucial for defining the study's framework and
direction. These elements provide a structured approach to investigating the
research problem. In this chapter, we will discuss the role and significance of
these components in nursing research, how they are formulated, and their
relationship to one another.

Variables in Research

Variables are the fundamental elements that researchers measure, control, or

manipulate within a study. They represent the characteristics or properties that
can vary among individuals, groups, or over time. In nursing research,
variables help explain the relationships between factors that influence patient
outcomes, nursing practices, or healthcare systems.

Types of Variables:

1. Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated or

controlled by the researcher to determine its effect on the dependent
variable. In nursing, an independent variable might be a specific

22
 intervention or treatment. Example: Nurse-to-patient ratio, type of
nursing intervention, medication dosage. An Independent Variable (IV)
is the variable that is deliberately manipulated or changed by the
researcher in an experiment or study to observe its effect on another
variable, known as the Dependent Variable (DV). The IV is considered
the cause, while the DV represents the effect or outcome.

Key Characteristics of Independent Variables:

1. Manipulation: The IV is the factor that the researcher actively changes

or controls to investigate its impact.
2. Predictor: It is used to predict changes in the dependent variable.
3. Isolated: Researchers aim to isolate the IV to ensure that it is the
primary cause of changes in the DV, controlling for other possible
influences (i.e., control variables).

Example of an Independent Variable:

In an experiment studying the effects of sleep on cognitive performance:

● Independent variable: Amount of sleep (e.g., 4 hours, 6 hours, 8

hours).
● Dependent variable: Cognitive performance (measured through tests
or tasks).
● Control variables: Age, diet, caffeine intake, etc.

Types of Independent Variables:

1. Experimental: Variables that the researcher manipulates directly (e.g.,

dosage of a drug, type of treatment).
2. Categorical: IVs that represent different groups or categories (e.g.,
gender, education level).
3. Continuous: IVs that can take on a range of values (e.g., time spent
exercising, temperature).

Role in Research:

The IV is fundamental in establishing causal relationships in research. In

experimental designs, researchers aim to show how changes in the IV lead to
changes in the DV, helping to draw conclusions about cause and effect.

23
 2. Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome or effect that is measured in
response to changes in the independent variable. It reflects what is
being impacted by the independent variable. Example: Patient recovery
time, level of pain, patient satisfaction, or rates of hospital-acquired
infections.

A Dependent Variable (DV) is the outcome or response that researchers

measure in an experiment or study to determine the effect of the independent
variable (IV). The DV is considered the effect or result that may change in
response to the manipulation of the IV. It depends on the variation of the IV.

Key Characteristics of Dependent Variables:

1. Measured Outcome: The DV is what the researcher observes and

records during the study.
2. Affected by the IV: Changes in the DV are expected to result from
changes in the IV.
3. Objective: The DV should be measured as accurately and objectively
as possible to ensure valid results.

Example of a Dependent Variable:

In a study examining the impact of exercise on weight loss:

● Independent variable (IV): Amount of exercise (e.g., 30 minutes/day

vs. 60 minutes/day).
● Dependent variable (DV): Weight loss (measured in kilograms or
pounds).
● Control variables: Diet, age, metabolism rate, etc.

Role in Research:

The DV helps researchers understand the outcome of an experiment. By

analysing how the DV changes in response to variations in the IV, researchers
can draw conclusions about cause and effect relationships.

Types of Dependent Variables:

1. Quantitative: Measured in numerical terms (e.g., scores, weights,

lengths, reaction times).
2. Qualitative: Measured in descriptive or categorical terms (e.g.,
symptoms of an illness, behavioural responses).

24
 Example Across Different Fields:

In Psychology: Studying how different stress levels (IV) affect memory

performance (DV).

In Education: Measuring how teaching style (IV) influences student test

scores (DV).

In Medicine: Assessing how a new drug (IV) affects blood pressure

(DV).

The DV reflects the primary data that will be analysed to assess the impact of
the independent variable, helping to validate or refute hypotheses.

3. Extraneous Variables: Variables that are not of primary interest but

could influence the dependent variable if not controlled. Researchers
must account for these to avoid biassed results.Example: Patient age,
comorbidities, hospital environment.

A Dependent Variable (DV) is the outcome or response that researchers

measure in an experiment or study to determine the effect of the independent
variable (IV). The DV is considered the effect or result that may change in
response to the manipulation of the IV. It depends on the variation of the IV.

Key Characteristics of Dependent Variables:

1. Measured Outcome: The DV is what the researcher observes and

records during the study.
2. Affected by the IV: Changes in the DV are expected to result from
changes in the IV.
3. Objective: The DV should be measured as accurately and objectively
as possible to ensure valid results.

Example of a Dependent Variable

In a study examining the impact of exercise on weight loss:

● Independent variable (IV): Amount of exercise (e.g., 30 minutes/day

vs. 60 minutes/day).

25
 ● Dependent variable (DV): Weight loss (measured in kilograms or
pounds).
● Control variables: Diet, age, metabolism rate, etc.

Role in Research:

The DV helps researchers understand the outcome of an experiment. By

analyzing how the DV changes in response to variations in the IV, researchers
can draw conclusions about cause and effect relationships.

Types of Dependent Variables:

1. Quantitative: Measured in numerical terms (e.g., scores, weights,

lengths, reaction times).
2. Qualitative: Measured in descriptive or categorical terms (e.g.,
symptoms of an illness, behavioral responses).

Example Across Different Fields:

● In Psychology: Studying how different stress levels (IV) affect memory

performance (DV).
● In Education: Measuring how teaching style (IV) influences student test
scores (DV).
● In Medicine: Assessing how a new drug (IV) affects blood pressure
(DV).

The DV reflects the primary data that will be analysed to assess the impact of
the independent variable, helping to validate or refute hypotheses.

Extraneous variables are factors in a research study or experiment that are

not the primary focus (i.e., not the independent or dependent variables), but
they can potentially affect the outcome or findings. These variables introduce
"noise" into the experiment, making it more difficult to determine whether
changes in the dependent variable (DV) are due to the independent variable
(IV) or some other factor.

Characteristics of Extraneous Variables

1. Unintended Influence: They can unintentionally affect the DV, leading

to confounding or false associations between the IV and DV.
2. Controlled or Uncontrolled: Some extraneous variables can be
controlled or accounted for, while others may be difficult to manage or
recognize.

26
3. Potential for Confounding: If not controlled, they can become
confounding variables, which distort the relationship between the IV
and DV.

Examples of Extraneous Variables

1. Participant Variables: Characteristics of participants such as age,

gender, intelligence, or motivation levels, which can affect outcomes.
○ Example: In a study on the effect of study techniques (IV) on
exam performance (DV), participant motivation could be an
extraneous variable.
2. Situational Variables: Environmental factors like lighting, noise, or
temperature that may affect how participants perform.
○ Example: In a test of cognitive performance (DV) based on time
spent studying (IV), room temperature could impact participants'
ability to concentrate.
3. Experimenter Variables: The behaviour or characteristics of the
experimenter that might influence participant behaviour.
○ Example: If an experimenter unintentionally gives cues to
participants about how to respond, this could become an
extraneous variable.
4. Time of Day: Time-related factors, such as whether an experiment is
conducted in the morning or evening, can affect participant performance
or outcomes.
○ Example: Testing fatigue and concentration (DV) across different
work shifts (IV), but failing to account for circadian rhythms
(extraneous).

Strategies to Control Extraneous Variables:

1. Randomization: Randomly assigning participants to different

experimental conditions helps distribute extraneous variables evenly
across groups.
2. Matching: Pairing participants in different groups based on similar
characteristics (e.g., age, education level) to minimise differences.
3. Standardisation: Keeping the testing environment consistent across all
experimental conditions.
4. Statistical Control: Using statistical techniques like ANCOVA (Analysis
of Covariance) to adjust for the effects of extraneous variables in the
analysis.

Example

27
In a clinical trial testing a new drug's effectiveness:

● Independent variable (IV): The drug or treatment.

● Dependent variable (DV): Patient's health outcome (e.g., reduction in
symptoms).
● Extraneous variables: Diet, exercise, patient adherence to the
medication, or psychological state—all of which could affect the
outcome independently of the drug.

By identifying and controlling extraneous variables, researchers ensure that

the effect of the IV on the DV is not influenced by other factors, leading to
more reliable and valid results.

4. Confounding Variables: A type of extraneous variable that may distort

the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Example: Socioeconomic status, prior healthcare access.

5. Control variables

In health research, control variables (also known as confounding variables)

play a critical role in ensuring that the relationships between independent
variables (e.g., a treatment or intervention) and dependent variables (e.g.,
health outcomes) are accurately assessed. Controlling for these variables
reduces bias and enhances the reliability of the results.

Importance of Control Variables in Health Research

Prevent Confounding: Confounding occurs when an outside factor

influences both the independent and dependent variables, creating a
false association.

Increase Validity: Properly controlling variables strengthens the

internal validity of the study, ensuring that the results are truly due to the
intervention or exposure.

Enable Generalization: By controlling for extraneous factors,

researchers can more accurately generalise their findings to a broader
population.

Common Control Variables in Health Research:

28
 1. Age: Age often affects health outcomes, so it's crucial to control for it
when studying interventions.
2. Gender: Health outcomes can differ between men and women, making
it important to account for sex-related differences.
3. Socioeconomic Status (SES): Income, education, and occupation can
influence health through access to care, lifestyle choices, and
environmental factors.
4. Lifestyle Factors:
● Diet: Diet can significantly influence health outcomes,
particularly in studies related to chronic diseases.
● Exercise: Physical activity levels can affect both risk
factors and health outcomes.
● Smoking/Alcohol Use: These are common risk factors
that need to be controlled for in many health studies.
5. Genetics: Genetic predispositions can play a role in how individuals
respond to treatments or develop diseases.
6. Pre-existing Conditions: Conditions like hypertension, diabetes, or
cardiovascular disease can influence health outcomes and should be
controlled for.
7. Medication Use: Ongoing medication use can alter the effects of new
interventions or treatments being studied.
8. Environmental Factors: Living conditions, exposure to pollution, and
access to healthcare are important external factors to control in health
research.

Example:

In a study investigating the impact of a new diet on heart disease risk:

● Independent variable: Type of diet (e.g., high-fibre vs. low-fibre).

● Dependent variable: Incidence of heart disease.
● Control variables: Age, gender, smoking status, exercise frequency,
existing health conditions (e.g., hypertension), and genetic
predisposition.

By controlling for these variables, researchers can more confidently assess

whether the diet itself is influencing heart disease risk, rather than other
factors.

5.

29
Research Objectives

Research objectives are specific goals that the study seeks to achieve. They
are derived from the research problem and provide a clear direction for the
study. Objectives guide the researcher in selecting variables, developing
research questions, and designing the methodology.

Types of Objectives:

1. General Objectives: Broad goals that outline the overall aim of the
study. They offer a high-level view of what the research intends to
achieve. Example: To examine the effect of nurse-patient
communication on patient satisfaction in acute care settings.
2. Specific Objectives: Narrower, focused goals that outline specific
outcomes the researcher intends to achieve. Example: To assess the
impact of nurse-patient communication training on the patient
satisfaction scores of individuals admitted to an acute care unit.

Characteristics of Good Research Objectives: SMART

● Clear and Specific: Objectives should be concise and detailed,

addressing the research problem directly.
● Measurable: The outcomes should be measurable, allowing the
researcher to assess the achievement of objectives.
● Achievable and Feasible: The objectives should be realistic,
considering the available time, resources, and expertise.
● Relevant: Objectives must align with the research problem and
contribute to the field of study.
● Time bound: A time bound refers to a specific period within which a
task, objective, or project must be completed. In project management,
goal setting, or research, establishing a clear time bound ensures
accountability and progress. It creates a sense of urgency and
structure, allowing you to track progress effectively.

Research Questions

Research questions are the specific inquiries the study aims to answer.
These questions emerge from the research problem and guide the direction of
the investigation. Research questions focus on the relationship between
variables, offering a roadmap for data collection and analysis.

Types of Research Questions:

30
 1. Descriptive Questions: These questions aim to describe a
phenomenon or the characteristics of a group. Example: What is the
level of patient satisfaction among elderly patients receiving palliative
care in a hospital setting?
2. Comparative Questions: These questions compare different groups or
treatments. Example: How does patient satisfaction differ between
those receiving traditional nursing care and those receiving
personalised nursing interventions?
3. Relationship-Based Questions: These questions explore relationships
between two or more variables. Example: What is the relationship
between nurse-patient communication and patient satisfaction in
intensive care units?

Characteristics of Good Research Questions:

● Clear and Focused: Research questions should be clearly defined and

focused on specific aspects of the research problem.
● Relevant: They must be closely related to the research objectives and
the overall study purpose.
● Feasible: The questions should be answerable within the scope of the
study.
● Researchable: The questions should allow for empirical investigation
through data collection and analysis.

Hypotheses
Definition
Adedokun J.A ( 2017): Hypothesis refers to an idea or explanation of possible and
plausable solution to a research problem that is based on known facts but has not yet but
has not yet been proven. It is a suggested solution to a research problem which has not yet
been proved to be true.
According to Best and Kahn (2008): “ The research hypothesis is a tentative answer to a
question. It is an educated guest or hunch, generally based on prior research and / or theory
to subjected to the process of verification or disconfirmation. The gathering of data and the
logical analysis of data relationships provide a method of confirming or disconfirming the
hypothesis by duducing its consequences”

A hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts a relationship between

variables. In nursing research, hypotheses provide a tentative explanation for
the expected outcome of the study. They guide the data collection and
analysis process, allowing researchers to confirm or refute the predicted
relationships.

31
Types of Hypotheses

1. Null Hypothesis (H₀): A statement that there is no relationship

between the independent and dependent variables. It is the hypothesis
that the researcher aims to test and potentially reject. Example: There is
no significant relationship between nurse-patient communication and
patient satisfaction in acute care units. It is otherwise called called
hypothesis of no effect, no relationship or difference.
2. Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): A statement that suggests a relationship
or effect exists between variables. This is often the hypothesis the
researcher expects to support. Example: There is a significant positive
relationship between nurse-patient communication and patient
satisfaction in acute care units. It is of two types the directional and non
directional alternative hypothesis. The directional alternative
hypothesis specify that the difference between variables will not only
be significant, but also specify the direction of the difference while non
directional hypothesis only specify that there will be a significant
difference between variables without specifying the direction of the
difference.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

● Testable: The hypothesis must be formulated in a way that can be

empirically tested through data collection and analysis.
● Specific: It should clearly state the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables.
● Measurable: The variables involved in the hypothesis must be
quantifiable or measurable.
● Relevant: The hypothesis should be closely aligned with the research
problem and objectives.

Formulating Hypotheses

When formulating a hypothesis, researchers should consider the following:

● The relationship between the variables being studied.

● The direction of the relationship (positive, negative, or no relationship).
● Whether the hypothesis can be tested using the available data and
research methods.

Relationship Between Variables, Objectives, Research Questions, and

Hypotheses

32
The relationship between variables, objectives, research questions, and
hypotheses is interdependent, with each element building upon the others. A
well-formulated research study follows a logical progression:

● Research Problem: Identifies a gap in knowledge or an issue that

needs to be addressed.
● Variables: Define the factors that will be measured or manipulated to
investigate the problem.
● Objectives: Clarify the goals of the study, guiding the formulation of
research questions and hypotheses.
● Research Questions: Provide specific inquiries into the relationships
between variables.
● Hypotheses: Offer predictions or expectations about the relationships
between variables, leading to the testing of these relationships during
the study.

For example:

● Research Problem: There is limited knowledge about the impact of

nurse-patient communication on patient satisfaction in acute care
settings.
● Variables: Independent variable—nurse-patient communication;
Dependent variable—patient satisfaction.
● Research Objectives: To examine how nurse-patient communication
influences patient satisfaction in acute care settings.
● Research Questions: What is the relationship between nurse-patient
communication and patient satisfaction in acute care settings?
● Hypothesis: There is a positive relationship between nurse-patient
communication and patient satisfaction in acute care settings.

Conclusion

In conclusion, variables, objectives, research questions, and hypotheses

are essential components of any nursing research study. These elements help
provide structure, focus, and direction, guiding the investigation of the
research problem. Understanding how to define and formulate these
components is critical for conducting meaningful and scientifically valid
research. Each part builds upon the others, ensuring a logical and cohesive
approach to exploring nursing-related issues and advancing the field.

Chapter 4

33
Review of the Literature
A literature review is an essential component of any research study,
including nursing research. It involves systematically identifying, evaluating,
and synthesising previous studies related to the research problem. The
literature review helps establish the context for the research, highlights
existing knowledge, identifies gaps, and provides a rationale for the study. In
this chapter, we will explore the purpose of the literature review, its structure,
and how to conduct an effective review in the field of nursing research.

Purpose of the Literature Review

The literature review serves several key purposes in nursing research:

1. Establishing the Research Context: The review provides a

background for the study by outlining what is already known about the
research topic and what still needs to be explored.
2. Identifying Gaps in Knowledge: By reviewing existing studies, the
researcher can identify gaps, inconsistencies, or areas where further
investigation is needed.
3. Avoiding Duplication: The review helps ensure that the researcher is
not duplicating previous work unnecessarily but is instead building upon
or advancing existing research.
4. Providing a Theoretical Framework: The literature review can help
identify relevant theories or models that inform the research study and
guide the development of research questions, hypotheses, and
methodologies.
5. Justifying the Research: By demonstrating the relevance and need for
the study, the literature review provides a strong justification for why the
research is important and how it contributes to nursing practice or
knowledge.
6. Synthesising Evidence: The literature review synthesises the results
of prior studies to provide an overview of what is currently known and
where controversies or uncertainties exist.

Steps in Conducting a Literature Review

Conducting a thorough and comprehensive literature review requires a

systematic approach. Here are the key steps involved:

1. Defining the Research Topic and Scope

34
 ● Clarify the Research Problem: Before beginning the review, the
researcher must clearly define the research problem, research
questions, and objectives. This helps focus the review on relevant
studies.
● Set Parameters: Determine the scope of the review, including the time
frame, geographical focus, and type of studies to include (e.g., only
peer-reviewed journal articles or specific methodologies).

2. Searching for Relevant Literature

● Identify Sources: Common sources for nursing research literature

include academic databases such as PubMed, CINAHL (Cumulative
Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature), MEDLINE, and Cochrane
Library. Books, theses, conference proceedings, and government
reports can also provide valuable information.
● Use Keywords and Search Terms: Use keywords related to the
research problem to search for relevant studies. These keywords
should include terms related to the variables, population, setting, and
interventions involved in the study.
● Use Boolean Operators: Use Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) to
refine search results and narrow or broaden the scope of the literature
search.

3. Evaluating and Selecting Sources

● Assess Relevance: Evaluate whether the studies found are directly

relevant to the research problem and objectives. Prioritise studies that
provide insights into the key variables or phenomena being
investigated.
● Consider Quality: Review the methodological quality of the studies.
High-quality studies with sound methodologies and rigorous data
analysis contribute more to the credibility of the literature review.
● Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria: Establish criteria for including or
excluding studies based on relevance, date of publication, study design,
or other factors.

4. Organising the Literature

● Group Studies by Theme: Organise the literature by common themes

or categories, such as study outcomes, population characteristics, or

35
 research methods. This helps synthesise findings and identify trends or
discrepancies.
● Chronological Organisation: In some cases, organising the literature
chronologically helps illustrate how knowledge in the field has evolved
over time.
● Theoretical Framework: Grouping studies based on the theories or
models they apply can provide insights into how theoretical
perspectives have influenced the understanding of the research
problem.

5. Synthesising the Literature

● Summarise Key Findings: Provide a summary of the key findings from

each study. Highlight common themes, recurring trends, and areas of
consensus or disagreement.
● Identify Gaps and Inconsistencies: Point out gaps in the literature,
such as understudied populations or interventions. Also, note any
inconsistencies in findings across different studies.
● Highlight Methodological Limitations: Discuss any methodological
limitations or weaknesses in the studies reviewed, such as small
sample sizes, bias, or issues with data collection. This helps inform your
own research design.

6. Writing the Literature Review

● Introduction: Start by introducing the research problem and the

purpose of the literature review. Explain why this review is necessary
and how it will inform the study.
● Body: Present the findings from the literature, organised thematically,
chronologically, or by methodology. Provide critical analysis and
synthesis, rather than just summarising individual studies.
● Conclusion: Summarise the main findings from the literature review.
Highlight the gaps and explain how your study will address these gaps.
Reiterate the importance of your research in contributing to the field.

Structure of the Literature Review

A well-structured literature review typically follows a specific format. Below is a

typical structure used in nursing research:

1. Introduction:

36
 ○ Briefly introduce the research topic.
○ State the purpose of the literature review.
○ Highlight the significance of the research problem and its
relevance to nursing practice.
2. Thematic or Chronological Organisation:
○ Present the existing studies organised around themes or in
chronological order.
○ Provide a summary and critique of each study or group of studies.
○ Synthesise the findings by discussing common trends,
contradictions, and gaps in the literature.
3. Methodological Analysis:
○ Assess the methodological strengths and weaknesses of the
studies.
○ Identify any limitations, biases, or areas where methods need
improvement.
4. Theoretical Framework:
○ Discuss any theories or models commonly used in the reviewed
studies.
○ Evaluate how these theories have influenced the understanding
of the research problem.
5. Conclusion:
○ Summarise the key findings of the literature review.
○ Highlight gaps in knowledge or areas that require further
research.
○ Provide a rationale for your research study and explain how it will
contribute to nursing practice or theory.

Importance of the Literature Review in Nursing Research

The literature review plays a critical role in the success of nursing research by
providing the following benefits:

1. Contextualising the Study: It places the research problem in the

context of existing knowledge and helps readers understand the
relevance and importance of the study.
2. Identifying Evidence-Based Practices: Nursing research often aims
to improve patient care through evidence-based practices. The literature
review allows the researcher to identify best practices supported by
empirical evidence.
3. Informing Research Design: By reviewing the strengths and
weaknesses of previous studies, the researcher can design a more

37
 robust and rigorous study. The review also helps select appropriate
research methodologies and variables.
4. Justifying the Research: The literature review provides a clear
rationale for the research, demonstrating the need to address gaps,
inconsistencies, or limitations in previous studies.
5. Guiding Data Collection and Analysis: By identifying key themes,
variables, and methodologies from the literature, the review helps guide
the development of research questions, hypotheses, and data collection
strategies.

Common Challenges in Conducting a Literature Review

Researchers often encounter several challenges when conducting a literature

review in nursing research:

● Limited Access to Resources: Accessing the full text of relevant

studies can be difficult due to subscription barriers or limited availability
in certain databases.
● Time Constraints: A comprehensive literature review requires time,
especially in fields with a vast amount of research.
● Overwhelming Volume of Research: Nursing is a field with extensive
research publications, making it challenging to sift through and select
the most relevant studies.
● Bias and Subjectivity: Researchers must remain objective and avoid
selective reporting, which can bias the findings of the literature review.

Conclusion

The literature review is an essential part of the research process in nursing,

providing a solid foundation for the research study. It establishes the context
of the study, identifies gaps in existing knowledge, and helps justify the need
for the research. Conducting a thorough, well-organised, and critically
analysed literature review enhances the quality of nursing research and
ensures that it contributes meaningfully to both theory and practice. A strong
literature review enables researchers to develop a clear focus for their studies,
design effective methodologies, and ultimately contribute to improving patient
care and healthcare systems.

Chapter 5

Sample and Sampling Techniques

38
In any research study, especially in nursing research, selecting an appropriate
sample is critical to ensuring the accuracy, reliability, and generalizability of
the findings. The sample is a subset of the population under study, and the
way it is chosen can significantly impact the study's outcomes. This chapter
explores the concepts of sampling, different types of sampling techniques, and
the importance of selecting the right sample size for nursing research.

Definition of Sampling

Sampling refers to the process of selecting a subset of individuals or units

from a larger population to participate in a research study. This allows the
researcher to gather data that can be analysed and used to make inferences
about the entire population. In nursing research, selecting the right sample is
crucial, as it can affect the accuracy of the findings and their applicability to a
broader population.

Key Terms:

● Population: The entire group of individuals, units, or phenomena that

the researcher is interested in studying.
● Sample: A subset of the population selected for study.
● Sampling Frame: A list or representation of the elements in the
population from which the sample is drawn.
● Sampling Unit: An individual element or entity from which data is
collected (e.g., patients, nurses, hospitals).

Importance of Sampling in Nursing Research

Sampling is essential for the following reasons:

1. Feasibility: It is often impractical or impossible to study an entire

population due to time, cost, and resource constraints. Sampling makes
the research process more manageable and efficient.
2. Generalizability: A well-selected sample allows researchers to
generalise the findings to the larger population. The representativeness
of the sample determines the degree to which the results can be applied
to other groups.
3. Accuracy and Precision: Proper sampling techniques ensure that the
data collected is accurate and that the findings can be interpreted with
confidence.
4. Ethical Considerations: In nursing research, ethical concerns often
limit the size and nature of the sample. Sampling allows for ethical
compliance while still obtaining relevant data.

39
Types of Sampling Techniques

There are two primary categories of sampling techniques: probability

sampling and non-probability sampling. Each has different methods and is
suited to different research designs.

Probability Sampling

Probability sampling involves random selection, meaning that each member

of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. This
method increases the likelihood of obtaining a representative sample.

Types of Probability Sampling:

1. Simple Random Sampling:

Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Example: A researcher selects 50 nurses from a list of all registered nurses in
a hospital by randomly drawing names.

Advantages: High external validity, easy to implement.

Disadvantages: Can be time-consuming and expensive, requires a

complete sampling frame.

2. Stratified Random Sampling:The population is divided into subgroups

(strata) based on specific characteristics (e.g., age, gender, work
experience), and a random sample is drawn from each stratum.
Example: A researcher studying patient satisfaction stratifies the
sample by age groups (e.g., 18-30, 31-50, 51+), then randomly selects
participants from each age group.

Advantages: Ensures representation of key subgroups, improves

precision.

Disadvantages: Requires knowledge of population characteristics, can

be complex to organise.

3. Systematic Sampling: Individuals are selected from a population at

regular intervals after a random starting point. Example: A researcher
selects every 10th patient from a list of patients admitted to a hospital
during a specific time frame.

40
 Advantages: Easy to implement, ensures even distribution.
Disadvantages: Can introduce bias if the population is ordered in a
specific way.

4. Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters (e.g.,

hospitals, wards), and entire clusters are randomly selected for the
study. Example: A researcher studying nursing practices selects three
hospitals at random and includes all nurses from those hospitals in the
sample.

Advantages: Useful for large, geographically dispersed populations,

reduces cost and time.

Disadvantages: Can increase sampling error, less precise than other

probability methods.

Non-Probability Sampling

Non-probability sampling does not involve random selection, meaning that

not all members of the population have an equal chance of being selected.
These methods are often used in exploratory or qualitative research.

Types of Non-Probability Sampling:

1. Convenience Sampling:Participants are selected based on their

availability or ease of access. Example: A researcher studying patient
satisfaction interviews patients in a hospital waiting room because they
are readily available.

Advantages: Easy and inexpensive, quick data collection.

Disadvantages: High risk of bias, low generalizability.

2. Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling: Participants are selected based

on the researcher’s judgement about who is most appropriate for the
study. Example: A researcher studying the experiences of nurses in
critical care selects only nurses with more than five years of experience
in that setting.

Advantages: Useful for targeting specific populations, ideal for

qualitative research.

Disadvantages: Subject to researcher bias, not generalizable to the

larger population.

41
 3. Snowball Sampling: Existing participants recruit future participants
from among their acquaintances or colleagues. Example: A researcher
studying rare health conditions asks patients to refer to other patients
with the same condition.

Advantages: Useful for hard-to-reach or hidden populations.

Disadvantages: Risk of homogeneity, less representative of the
population.

4. Quota Sampling: The researcher ensures that specific characteristics

of the population are represented in the sample by setting quotas (e.g.,
gender, age). Example: A researcher ensures that the sample includes
50% male and 50% female nurses.

Advantages: Ensures representation of certain subgroups, easier than

stratified sampling.

Disadvantages: May not be representative overall, risk of bias in

participant selection.

Determining Sample Size

The size of the sample is a critical factor that affects the reliability and
generalizability of the research findings. The following considerations are
important when determining the sample size:

1. Population Size: The total number of individuals in the population

under study.
2. Research Design: The type of study (e.g., qualitative, quantitative,
descriptive, experimental) affects the required sample size. Quantitative
studies generally require larger samples than qualitative studies.
3. Desired Confidence Level: The confidence level reflects how sure the
researcher can be that the results from the sample reflect the true
population values. Common confidence levels are 95% and 99%.
4. Margin of Error (Confidence Interval): The margin of error refers to
the range within which the true population parameter is expected to fall.
A smaller margin of error requires a larger sample size.
5. Effect Size: The effect size refers to the magnitude of the difference or
relationship being studied. Smaller effect sizes require larger samples to
detect.
6. Power of the Study: Statistical power is the probability that the study
will detect a true effect. Higher power typically requires larger samples.

42
Sample Size Calculation

Sample size calculation is a critical part of designing any study or research,

ensuring that your results are reliable and statistically valid. The sample size
determines how many participants or data points you need to collect to make
accurate inferences about the population.

Key Factors in Sample Size Calculation

1. Population Size (N): The total number of individuals in the population

you’re studying.
2. Margin of Error (E): The range within which the true population
parameter is expected to lie, usually expressed as a percentage (e.g.,
±5%).
3. Confidence Level (Z-value): The probability that the true population
parameter falls within the margin of error, often set at 90%, 95%, or
99%. These correspond to Z-scores in standard normal distribution
(1.645, 1.96, 2.576, respectively).
4. Standard Deviation (σ) or Proportion (p): If you are working with
continuous data, you'll need an estimate of the population standard
deviation. If you are working with categorical data (yes/no questions),
you can use an estimated proportion (p), typically 0.5 if no prior
knowledge is available.
5. Power of the Study (1-β): This is the probability of detecting a true effect
if one exists, usually set at 80% or 90%.

Sample Size Formula for Simple Random Sampling

1. For Proportion-Based Studies (e.g., surveys):

N=

Adjusting for Finite Population:

If you are dealing with a finite population, you can adjust the sample size
using the formula:

Where NNN is the population size, and nnn is the sample size calculated
above.

Example: Proportion-Based Study

You want to survey 10,000 students in a university to estimate their

satisfaction with online learning. You aim for a 95% confidence level, a margin
of error of 5%, and no prior knowledge of the population proportion, so you
use p=0.5p = 0.5p=0.5.

43
 ● Z=1.96
● Z = 1.96
● Z=1.96
● p=0.5
● p = 0.5
● p=0.5
● E=0.05
● E = 0.05
● E=0.05

Plugging into the formula:

n=1.962⋅0.5⋅(1−0.5)0.052=3.8416⋅0.250.0025=384.16n = \
frac{1.96^2 \cdot 0.5 \cdot (1 - 0.5)}{0.05^2} = \frac{3.8416 \cdot
0.25}{0.0025} = 384.16n=0.0521.962⋅0.5⋅(1−0.5)
=0.00253.8416⋅0.25=384.16

So, the required sample size is approximately 385 students.

Would you like help with a specific sample size calculation for your study? If
you provide the details, I can calculate it for you.

Ethical Considerations in Sampling

Ethical considerations are paramount when selecting a sample in nursing

research. These include:

● Informed Consent: Participants must provide voluntary, informed

consent to participate in the study.
● Confidentiality: The privacy and confidentiality of participants must be
protected throughout the research process.
● Fair Selection: The selection process must be free from discrimination
or bias. Vulnerable populations should be protected from exploitation.
● Minimising Harm: The research should be designed to minimise any
potential harm or discomfort to participants.

5.6 Challenges in Sampling

Some common challenges in sampling include:

● Sampling Bias: Occurs when certain groups are over- or under-

represented in the sample, leading to skewed results.
● Non-Response Bias: When participants who choose not to respond
differ in meaningful ways from those who do, leading to biased results.

44
 ● Access to the Population: It can be difficult to access certain
populations, such as patients with specific health conditions or those in
remote locations.
● Sample Size Limitations: Resource constraints may limit the size of
the sample, affecting the study’s generalizability and precision.

5.7 Conclusion

Sampling is a critical component of nursing research, as the selection of a

representative and adequately sized sample ensures the reliability and validity
of the study's findings. By choosing the appropriate sampling technique,
researchers can minimize bias and ensure that their results are applicable to
the broader population. Ethical considerations must always guide the
sampling process to protect participants and ensure the study's integrity. An
effective sampling strategy allows nursing researchers to make meaningful
contributions to evidence-based practice and improve patient care outcomes.

Chapter 6

Methodologies of Research Design

In nursing research, the choice of research design and methodology is crucial
to ensuring that the study effectively addresses the research problem and
achieves valid, reliable, and applicable results. This chapter delves into the
different types of research methodologies commonly used in nursing research,
including their characteristics, strengths, and limitations, to guide researchers
in selecting the most appropriate design for their studies.

Definition of Research Design

A research design refers to the overall strategy or plan that a researcher

uses to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and
logical way, ensuring that the research problem is effectively addressed. It
includes the methods and procedures for data collection, measurement, and
analysis, guiding the researcher in obtaining valid and reliable results.

Importance of Research Design in Nursing Research

Research design plays a critical role in nursing research because it:

1. Aligns with Research Objectives: Ensures that the methodology is

appropriate to answer the research questions or test the hypotheses.

45
 2. Ensures Validity: Helps minimise biases and errors, ensuring that the
findings are a true reflection of the phenomena being studied.
3. Facilitates Replication: A well-documented design allows other
researchers to replicate the study to validate and expand on the
findings.
4. Optimises Resources: Ensures that the study is conducted efficiently
within the available time, financial, and logistical constraints.

Types of Research Designs in Nursing Research

Nursing research utilises various research designs depending on the nature of

the research problem, the type of data being collected, and the intended
outcomes. These designs fall into two main categories: quantitative and
qualitative research designs, with some studies using mixed-methods
approaches.

Quantitative Research Designs

Quantitative research is based on the systematic investigation of phenomena

by collecting numerical data and applying statistical analysis. This approach is
used when the researcher seeks to quantify variables and test relationships or
hypotheses.

Descriptive Design

Descriptive research aims to describe characteristics of a population or

phenomenon without manipulating variables.

● Purpose: To provide an accurate portrayal of individuals, events, or

situations.
● Example in Nursing: A study that describes the demographic
characteristics of patients with chronic illnesses in a particular hospital.

Strengths:

● Easy to implement.
● Provides a detailed understanding of the phenomenon.

Limitations:

● Cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.

46
 ● Limited to what can be observed or described.

Correlational Design

Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more

variables to determine whether they are associated or related. Purpose: To
explore associations between variables. Example in Nursing: A study
examining the relationship between nurse burnout and patient outcomes.

Strengths: Can identify associations that might warrant further investigation.

Useful for studying naturally occurring variables.

Limitations: Cannot establish causation and Confounding variables may

influence relationships.

Experimental Design

Experimental research involves the manipulation of one or more

independent variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable while
controlling for extraneous factors.The Purpose is To establish cause-and-
effect relationships. Example in Nursing: A randomised controlled trial (RCT)
to evaluate the effectiveness of a new medication in reducing postoperative
pain.

Strengths: High internal validity due to control of variables and establishes

causal relationships.

Limitations: May lack external validity due to artificial settings and ethical and
practical limitations in nursing research (e.g., withholding treatment from
control groups).

Quasi-Experimental Design

Quasi-experimental research is similar to experimental research but lacks

random assignment to groups. The Purpose is To evaluate interventions
when randomization is not feasible. Example in Nursing: A study comparing
patient outcomes in two hospital wards, one implementing a new nursing care
protocol and the other using traditional care.

Strengths:

More practical and flexible than experimental designs.

Can be used in real-world settings.

47
Limitations:

Lower internal validity due to lack of randomization.

Difficult to control for confounding variables.

Qualitative Research Designs

Qualitative research is used to explore complex phenomena that cannot be

easily quantified. It focuses on understanding the meaning, experiences, and
perspectives of individuals or groups.

Phenomenological Design

Phenomenological research seeks to understand and describe the lived

experiences of individuals from their perspective.

● Purpose: To explore how individuals make sense of their experiences.

● Example in Nursing: A study examining the experiences of cancer
patients undergoing chemotherapy.

Strengths:

● Provides deep, detailed insights into personal experiences.

● Useful for studying subjective phenomena.

Limitations:

● Findings are not generalizable to a larger population.

● Time-consuming and requires skilled interview techniques.

Grounded Theory Design

Grounded theory is an inductive approach that aims to develop a theory

grounded in the data collected from participants.

● Purpose: To generate a theory based on participants' experiences.

● Example in Nursing: A study developing a theory on how nurses cope
with workplace stress.

Strengths:

● Produces new theoretical insights.

● Focuses on understanding processes and interactions.

Limitations:

48
 ● Time-intensive and complex analysis.
● Requires iterative data collection and analysis.

Ethnographic Design

Ethnographic research involves the study of cultures, practices, and social

interactions within a particular community or group.

● Purpose: To understand the cultural context in which people live and

work.
● Example in Nursing: A study exploring the cultural practices that
influence health-seeking behaviours in a rural community.

Strengths:

● Provides rich, contextualised understanding of group behaviours.

● Captures cultural nuances.

Limitations:

● May be difficult to maintain objectivity.

● Requires prolonged immersion in the field.

Case Study Design

Case study research involves an in-depth analysis of a single case or

multiple cases within a real-world context.

● Purpose: To explore a specific instance in great detail.

● Example in Nursing: A case study of a hospital’s response to an
infectious disease outbreak.

Strengths:

● Provides in-depth understanding of complex issues.

● Allows for the exploration of rare or unique cases.

Limitations:

● Results may not be generalizable.

● Vulnerable to researcher bias.

Mixed-Methods Design

49
Mixed-methods research combines both quantitative and qualitative
approaches in a single study to provide a more comprehensive understanding
of the research problem.

● Purpose: To take advantage of the strengths of both methodologies

and provide richer insights.
● Example in Nursing: A study that uses surveys (quantitative) to
measure patient satisfaction and interviews (qualitative) to explore
patients’ personal experiences in greater detail.

Strengths:

● Provides a more holistic view of the research problem.

● Allows for validation and cross-verification of results through
triangulation.

Limitations:

● Complex and time-consuming.

● Requires expertise in both qualitative and quantitative methodologies.

Factors Influencing the Choice of Research Design

Several factors influence the selection of the most appropriate research

design for a nursing study:

1. Nature of the Research Problem: Quantitative designs are suitable for

studies that aim to test hypotheses or measure variables, while
qualitative designs are better suited for exploring subjective experiences
or complex social phenomena.
2. Research Objectives: Descriptive studies are useful for describing
phenomena, while experimental studies are necessary for establishing
causal relationships.
3. Available Resources: The time, budget, and expertise available to the
researcher will also influence the choice of design.
4. Ethical Considerations: Ethical constraints, such as the need to
protect vulnerable populations, may limit the use of certain research
designs (e.g., experimental designs that withhold treatment).

Ethical Considerations in Research Design

Ethical considerations are critical in the design and implementation of nursing

research. Key ethical principles include:

50
 ● Informed Consent: Participants must be fully informed about the
study’s purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits, and provide voluntary
consent.
● Confidentiality: Researchers must ensure the privacy of participants by
safeguarding their personal information.
● Non-Maleficence: The research must be designed to minimize harm
and avoid unnecessary risks to participants.
● Justice: Participants should be selected fairly, without discrimination,
and vulnerable populations must be protected.

Research Triangulation
Research triangulation is a methodological approach that involves using
multiple methods, data sources, researchers, or theoretical perspectives to
study a phenomenon. The goal of triangulation is to enhance the credibility
and validity of research findings by cross-verifying results from different
angles. This approach helps to address the limitations and biases associated
with using a single method or perspective.

1. Types of Triangulation

Methodological Triangulation

Definition: Involves using different research methods to study the same

phenomenon. Purpose is to cross-check findings and ensure that the results
are not method-specific. Examples: Combining quantitative surveys with
qualitative interviews or focus groups.

Data Triangulation

Definition: Involves using multiple data sources to investigate a research

problem. The Purpose is To increase the breadth of understanding by
collecting data from different contexts, times, or groups. Examples: Gathering
data from different populations, settings, or at different times.

Researcher Triangulation

Involves multiple researchers or evaluators examining the same

phenomenon. The Purpose is to minimise individual biases and enhance the
objectivity of the findings. Examples having different researchers conduct
interviews or analyse data independently and then compare findings.

Theoretical Triangulation

51
Definition: Involves using multiple theoretical perspectives to interpret the
data.

Purpose: To provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research

problem and explore different interpretations.

Examples: Applying different theories to analyze the same data, such as

using both a psychological and sociological perspective.

2. Benefits of Triangulation

Increased Validity

By using multiple methods or sources, triangulation helps to confirm the

findings and reduces the likelihood of errors or biases that may arise from
relying on a single method.

Comprehensive Understanding

Triangulation provides a more complete and nuanced understanding of the

research problem by incorporating different perspectives and types of data.

Enhanced Credibility

The use of triangulation strengthens the credibility of the research by

demonstrating that the findings are robust across different methods or
sources.

Identification of Bias

Triangulation helps to identify and address potential biases or limitations in

individual methods or perspectives.

3. Challenges of Triangulation

Complexity

Implementing triangulation can be complex and time-consuming, requiring

careful planning and coordination among different methods, data sources, or
researchers.

Integration

Combining and synthesising findings from different methods or sources can

be challenging, especially when results are inconsistent or contradictory.

52
Resource Intensive

Triangulation often requires additional resources, such as multiple

researchers, varied data collection tools, or extensive data analysis efforts.

4. Examples of Triangulation in Nursing Research

Methodological Triangulation

A study examining patient satisfaction might use both quantitative surveys

(e.g., Likert scale questionnaires) and qualitative interviews to capture both
statistical trends and personal experiences.

Data Triangulation

Research on the effectiveness of a new nursing intervention could collect data

from different hospitals, over different time periods, and from various patient
demographics.

Researcher Triangulation

A team of researchers might independently code qualitative interview

transcripts and then compare their findings to ensure reliability and reduce
individual biases.

Theoretical Triangulation

A study on chronic illness management could use both behavioural theory and
social support theory to analyse data and provide a multifaceted
understanding of patient experiences.

5. Conclusion

Selecting the appropriate research design is a crucial step in conducting

rigorous, reliable, and valid nursing research. Whether using quantitative,
qualitative, or mixed-methods approaches, researchers must carefully
consider the research problem, objectives, and ethical concerns when
choosing a design. A well-chosen research design not only enhances the
quality and credibility of the findings but also ensures that the study
contributes to the advancement of evidence-based nursing practice and
ultimately improves patient outcomes. Research triangulation is a valuable
approach for enhancing the rigour and validity of research findings. By
combining different methods, data sources, researchers, or theoretical
perspectives, researchers can provide a more comprehensive and credible

53
analysis of complex phenomena. While triangulation offers significant benefits,
it also presents challenges that require careful consideration and planning. In
nursing research, applying triangulation can lead to more robust and
actionable insights, ultimately contributing to improved patient care and
evidence-based practice.

Chapter 7

Key CoKey Concepts and steps in Quantitative and Qualitative research

Quantitative Research: Experimental and Nonexperimental Studies A basic

distinction in quantitative studies is the difference between experimental and
nonexperimental research. In experimental research, researchers actively
introduce an intervention or treatment. In nonexperimental research, on the
other hand, researchers are bystanders—they collect data without introducing
treatments or making changes. For example, if a researcher gave bran flakes
to one group of subjects and prune juice to another to evaluate which method
facilitated elimination more effectively, the study would be experimental
because the researcher intervened in the normal course of things. If, on the
other hand, a researcher compared elimination patterns of two groups whose
regular eating patterns differed—for example, some normally took foods that
stimulate bowel elimination and others did not—there is no intervention. Such
a study is non experimental. In medical and epidemiologic research, an
experimental study usually is called a controlled trial or clinical trial, and a
nonexperimental inquiry is called an observational study(Denise F. plot et
al,2010).

Key Concepts and Steps in Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Phase 1: The conceptual phase

Formulating and delimiting the problem

Reviewing the related literature

Undertaking clinical fieldwork

Defining the framework/developing conceptual definitions

Formulating hypotheses

Phase 1:The Conceptual Phase The early steps in a quantitative research

project typically involve activities with a strong conceptual or intellectual

54
element. During this phase, researchers call on such skills as creativity,
deductive reasoning, and a grounding in existing research evidence on the
topic of interest.

Step 1: Formulating and Delimiting the Problem Quantitative researchers

begin by identifying an interesting, significant research problem and
formulating good research questions. In developing research questions, nurse
researchers must pay close attention to substantive issues (Is this research
question important, given the evidence base?);

theoretic issues (Is there a conceptual context for enhancing understanding of

this problem?);

clinical issues (Could study findings be useful in clinical practice?);

methodologic issues (How can this question best be answered to yield high-
quality evidence?);

and ethical issues (Can this question be rigorously addressed in an ethical

manner?).

Step 2: Reviewing the Related Literature

Quantitative research is typically conducted within the context of previous

knowledge. Quantitative researchers typically strive to understand what is
already known about a topic by undertaking a thorough literature review
before any data are collected.

Step 3: Undertaking Clinical Fieldwork

Researchers embarking on a clinical study often benefit from spending time in

appropriate clinical settings, discussing the topic with clinicians and health
care administrators, and observing current practices. Such clinical fieldwork
can provide perspectives on recent clinical trends, current diagnostic
procedures, and relevant health care delivery models; it can also help
researchers better understand clients’ perspectives and the settings in which
care is provided. Step

4: Defining the Framework and Developing Conceptual

Definitions When quantitative research is performed within the context of a

conceptual framework, the findings may have broader significance and utility.
Even when the research question is not embedded in a theory, researchers

55
must have a conceptual rationale and a clear vision of the concepts under
study.

Step 5: Formulating Hypotheses Hypotheses state researchers’ expectations

about relationships among study variables. Hypotheses are predictions of
expected outcomes; they state the relationships researchers expect to
observe in the study data. The research question identif ies the concepts
under investigation and asks how the concepts might be related; a hypothesis
is the predicted answer. Most quantitative studies are designed to test
hypotheses through statistical analysis.

Phase 2: The Design and Planning Phase

In the second major phase of a quantitative study, researchers make

decisions about the study site and about the methods and procedures to be
used to address the research question. Researchers typically have
considerable flexibility in designing a study and make many methodologic
decisions. These decisions have crucial implications for the integrity and
generalizability of the study findings.

Step 6: Selecting a Research Design

The research design is the overall plan for obtaining answers to the questions
being studied and for handling various challenges to the worth of the study
evidence. In designing the study, researchers decide which specific design will
be adopted and what they will do to minimise bias and enhance the
interpretability of results. In quantitative studies, research designs tend to be
highly structured and controlled. Research designs also indicate other aspects
of the research—for example, how often. data will be collected, what types of
comparisons will be made, and where the study will take place. The research
design is the architectural backbone of the study.

Step 7: Developing Protocols for the Intervention In experimental research,

researchers create the independent variable, which means that participants
are exposed to different treatments or conditions. An intervention protocol for
the study would need to be developed, specifying exactly what the
intervention will entail (e.g., who would administer it, how frequently and over
how long a period the treatment would last, and so on) and what the
alternative condition would be. The goal of well-articulated protocols is to have
all subjects in each group treated in the same way. In nonexperimental
research, of course, this step is not necessary.

56
Step 8: Identifying the Population Quantitative researchers need to know what
characteristics the study participants should possess, and clarify the group to
whom study results can be generalised— that is, they must identify the
population to be studied. A population is all the individuals or objects with
common, defining characteristics. For example, the population of interest
might be all adult male patients undergoing chemotherapy in Dallas.

Step 9: Designing the Sampling Plan Researchers typically collect data from a
sample, which is a subset of the population. Using samples is clearly more
practical and less costly than collecting data from an entire population, but the
risk is that the sample might not adequately reflect the population’s traits. In a
quantitative study, a sample’s adequacy is assessed by the criterion of
representativeness (i.e., how typical or representative the sample is of the
population). The sampling plan specifies in advance how the sample will be
selected and how many subjects there will be.

Step 10: Specifying Methods to Measure Variables Quantitative researchers

must develop or borrow methods to measure the research variables as
accurately as possible. Based on the conceptual definitions, researchers
select or design methods to operationalize the variables and collect their data.
A variety of quantitative data collection approaches exist; the primary methods
are self-reports (e.g., interviews), observations (e.g., observing children’s
behaviour), and biophysiologic measurements. The task of measuring
research variables and developing a data collection plan is a complex and
challenging process.

Step 11: Developing Methods to Safeguard

Human/Animal Rights Most nursing research involves human subjects,

although some involve animals. In either case, procedures need to be
developed to ensure that the study adheres to ethical principles. Each aspect
of the study plan needs to be scrutinised to determine whether the rights of
subjects have been adequately protected.

Step 12: Reviewing and Finalising the Research Plan Before actually
collecting data, researchers often perform a number of “tests” to ensure that
procedures will work smoothly. For example, they may evaluate the readability
of written materials to determine if participants with low reading skills can
comprehend them, or they may pretest their measuring instruments to assess

Phase 2: The design and planning phase

57
Selecting a research design

Developing intervention protocols

Identifying the population

Designing the sampling plan

Specifying methods to measure research variables

Developing methods to safeguard subjects

Finalising the research plan

Phase 3: The empirical phase

Collecting the data

Preparing the data for analysis

Phase 4: The analytic phase

Analysing the data

Interpreting the results

Phase 5: The dissemination phase

Communicating the findings

Utilising the findings in practice

Quantitative and qualitative research are two fundamental approaches to

research that differ in methods, objectives, and the types of data they
generate. Below are the key concepts and steps associated with both
approaches:

Quantitative Research
Key Concepts

1. Objective Measurement: Focuses on numerical data and aims to measure

variables objectively.
2. Hypothesis Testing: Begins with a clear, testable hypothesis or
research question.

58
 3. Variables: Includes independent, dependent, and control variables.
4. Data Collection Instruments: Uses structured tools like surveys,
questionnaires, and experiments to collect numerical data.
5. Statistical Analysis: Involves analysing data using statistical
techniques to determine patterns, relationships, and causality.
6. Generalizability: Results are often generalised to larger populations
based on statistical significance.
7. Reliability and Validity: Focus on the consistency (reliability) and
accuracy (validity) of measurements.

Steps in Quantitative Research

1. Formulating the Research Problem: Clearly defining the research question

or hypothesis.
2. Literature Review: Reviewing existing studies to build on prior
knowledge.
3. Developing the Hypothesis: Creating a testable statement that
predicts relationships between variables.
4. Research Design: Choosing a suitable design (e.g., experimental,
survey) and deciding on the sampling method.
5. Data Collection: Gathering data through standardised instruments
(e.g., surveys, tests, observations).
6. Data Analysis: Using statistical methods to analyse data (e.g.,
descriptive statistics, inferential statistics).
7. Interpretation of Results: Drawing conclusions based on the analysis
and determining if the hypothesis is supported.
8. Reporting and Presentation: Communicating findings, usually through
reports, charts, and tables.

Qualitative Research
Key Concepts

1. Subjective Understanding: Focuses on understanding human

experiences, behaviours, and interactions.
2. Open-ended Inquiry: Research questions are often broad and
exploratory.
3. Contextual Understanding: Emphasises the importance of social,
cultural, and environmental contexts.
4. Data Collection Methods: Uses non-numerical data like interviews,
focus groups, and observations.

59
 5. Thematic Analysis: Analyses data by identifying patterns, themes, or
meanings.
6. Flexibility: Research design and questions can evolve as the study
progresses.
7. Credibility and Trustworthiness: Focuses on the authenticity and
depth of findings rather than statistical significance.

Steps in Qualitative Research

1. Formulating the Research Problem: Identifying a broad area of interest or

research question.
2. Literature Review: Reviewing relevant theories and studies to provide
a foundation for the research.
3. Designing the Study: Choosing the method of inquiry (e.g., case
study, ethnography, grounded theory).
4. Data Collection: Gathering data through interviews, focus groups,
participant observations, or document analysis.
5. Data Organization: Transcribing interviews, organising notes, or coding
documents.
6. Data Analysis: Identifying themes, patterns, and relationships using
methods like thematic analysis or content analysis.
7. Interpretation of Findings: Making sense of the data by exploring the
meanings, insights, and perspectives of participants.
8. Reporting: Presenting findings in a narrative form, often including direct
quotes from participants to illustrate key points.

Comparison

Feature Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Objective Test hypotheses, measure Explore phenomena,

variables understand meanings

Data Type Numerical (quantifiable) Non-numerical (words, images)

Research Structured and fixed Flexible and evolving

60
Design

Sampling Large, random samples Small, purposive samples

Analysis Statistical Thematic, narrative

Outcome Generalizable results In-depth understanding

Both approaches are valuable and can sometimes be combined in mixed

methods research to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a
research problem.

Major Classes of Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research typically involves structured, statistical analysis to test

hypotheses or explore relationships between variables. Here are the major
classes:

1. Descriptive Research

● Purpose: To describe characteristics or behaviours of a population.

● Key Features: Focuses on "what" rather than "why."
● Examples: Surveys, observational studies.
● Methods: Data is collected through surveys, questionnaires, or
observation and analysed numerically (e.g., frequency, averages).
● Example Question: What is the average age of people who buy a
certain product?

2. Correlational Research

● Purpose: To examine relationships between two or more variables

without manipulating them.
● Key Features: Determines whether an association exists between
variables but doesn’t imply causation.
● Methods: Surveys, observational studies, archival data.

61
 ● Example Question: Is there a relationship between time spent on
social media and academic performance?

3. Experimental Research

● Purpose: To establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

● Key Features: Involves manipulation of one or more independent
variables and measuring the effect on dependent variables.
● Methods: Randomised control trials (RCT), laboratory experiments.
● Example Question: Does a new drug reduce symptoms of anxiety
compared to a placebo?

4. Quasi-Experimental Research

● Purpose: To investigate cause-and-effect relationships, but without

random assignment to groups.
● Key Features: Similar to experimental research but lacks full control
over variables or random assignment.
● Methods: Pre-test and post-test studies, non-equivalent control group
designs.
● Example Question: Does a new teaching method improve student
performance, even if random assignment to different teaching methods
is not possible?

5. Cross-sectional Research

● Purpose: To study a population at one specific point in time.

● Key Features: Measures variables at one moment, useful for
descriptive or correlational purposes.
● Methods: Surveys, observational studies.
● Example Question: What is the prevalence of a particular health
condition in a given population today?

6. Longitudinal Research

● Purpose: To study variables over a longer period.

● Key Features: Repeated observations or measurements over time to
examine changes or trends.
● Methods: Surveys, experiments, observational studies conducted at
intervals.
● Example Question: How do children’s reading abilities develop from
age 5 to 10?

62
Qualitative Research

Qualitative research involves open-ended, exploratory methodologies aimed

at understanding meanings, experiences, or social contexts. Major classes
include:

1. Ethnography

● Purpose: To explore cultural phenomena and how people in a specific

community live and understand their world.
● Key Features: Immersive research, often involving long-term
observation or participation within a community.
● Methods: Participant observation, interviews, field notes.
● Example Question: How do residents of a rural village perceive
environmental changes affecting their community?

2. Phenomenology

● Purpose: To explore individuals’ lived experiences and how they make

sense of them.
● Key Features: Focuses on subjective experiences and meanings.
● Methods: In-depth interviews, discussions.
● Example Question: What is the experience of living with chronic pain
like for patients?

3. Grounded Theory

● Purpose: To develop a theory grounded in data that is systematically

gathered and analysed.
● Key Features: Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously to
build a theory inductively.
● Methods: Interviews, observations, document reviews.
● Example Question: How do people make decisions about retirement?

4. Case Study

● Purpose: To provide a detailed, in-depth understanding of a single case

or small group of cases.
● Key Features: Focuses on one case or a small number of cases within
a real-world context.
● Methods: Interviews, observations, document analysis.
● Example Question: How did a specific company handle a crisis, and
what can be learned from it?

63
5. Narrative Research

● Purpose: To study the stories individuals tell about their lives and
experiences.
● Key Features: Focuses on personal stories or life experiences, often
chronological.
● Methods: Storytelling, interviews, biographical methods.
● Example Question: How do survivors of trauma narrate their
experiences of recovery?

6. Action Research

● Purpose: To solve practical problems while also contributing to

theoretical knowledge.
● Key Features: Collaborative and iterative; involves researchers working
with participants to enact change.
● Methods: Group discussions, participant observation, feedback loops.
● Example Question: How can a community organisation improve its
outreach to underrepresented groups?

7. Content Analysis

● Purpose: To systematically analyse the content of texts, images, or

media to understand social phenomena.
● Key Features: Involves identifying patterns, themes, or biases within
qualitative data.
● Methods: Document analysis, coding of interviews or media.
● Example Question: How are women portrayed in news media
regarding leadership roles?

Mixed Methods Research

While not a separate class, mixed methods research combines both

quantitative and qualitative approaches. This allows researchers to gain a
more comprehensive understanding by drawing on the strengths of both. It
often involves collecting and analysing both numerical data (quantitative) and
textual or visual data (qualitative) in a single study.

Quantitative Research: Experimental and Nonexperimental Studies

64
Quantitative research can be broadly divided into experimental and
nonexperimental studies, each serving different purposes and employing
different methodologies. Here's a detailed comparison:

1. Experimental Studies

Experimental studies are designed to establish cause-and-effect relationships

between variables by manipulating one or more independent variables and
observing the effect on dependent variables.

Key Characteristics:

● Manipulation of Variables: Researchers actively manipulate the

independent variable(s) to observe the effect on the dependent variable.
● Control Group: Often includes a control group that does not receive
the treatment or intervention to compare outcomes.
● Random Assignment: Participants are randomly assigned to different
groups (e.g., treatment and control groups) to minimise bias and ensure
the groups are equivalent at the start.
● High Control: Researchers control extraneous variables to ensure that
any observed changes in the dependent variable are due to the
manipulation of the independent variable.
● Causality: Because of the high control and manipulation, experimental
studies can suggest causality.

Types of Experimental Studies:

1. True Experiments
○ Randomised Control Trials (RCTs): Participants are randomly
assigned to either the experimental or control group.
○ Purpose: To determine whether a treatment or intervention has a
significant effect on outcomes.
○ Example: Testing the effectiveness of a new medication by
comparing a group that receives the drug with a group that
receives a placebo.
2. Field Experiments
○ Conducted in natural settings: Unlike laboratory experiments,
field experiments take place in real-world environments.
○ Example: Studying the impact of a new teaching method by
implementing it in a classroom and comparing outcomes with a
classroom using traditional methods.

65
 3. Laboratory Experiments
○ Highly controlled settings: Experiments conducted in a lab to
eliminate outside influences.
○ Example: Testing the effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive
performance by controlling sleep hours in a laboratory setting.

2. Nonexperimental Studies

Nonexperimental studies do not involve manipulation of variables and are

primarily used to observe and describe relationships between variables as
they naturally occur. They are often used when experimental manipulation is
not possible or ethical.

Key Characteristics:

● No Manipulation: The researcher observes variables without intervening

or manipulating them.
● No Random Assignment: Participants are not randomly assigned to
different groups, and natural groupings (e.g., by age, gender) may exist.
● Correlational: Nonexperimental studies often explore relationships
between variables, but they do not provide strong evidence for
causality.
● Observational Nature: These studies observe and measure variables
as they occur naturally.

Types of Nonexperimental Studies:

1. Descriptive Research
○ Purpose: To describe characteristics, behaviours, or conditions as
they are.
○ Methods: Surveys, observations, case studies.
○ Example: Surveying a group of people to find out the average
number of hours they exercise per week.
2. Correlational Research
○ Purpose: To examine the relationship between two or more
variables without manipulating them.
○ Key Feature: Can indicate the strength and direction of
relationships but does not establish causality.
○ Example: Studying the relationship between social media usage
and self-esteem levels. You can identify a correlation but not
prove that one causes the other.

66
 3. Cross-sectional Research
○ Purpose: To study variables at one point in time.
○ Key Feature: Often used to compare different groups at a single
time.
○ Example: Studying the prevalence of smoking in different age
groups by conducting a survey at one point in time.
4. Longitudinal Research
○ Purpose: To study the same participants over a period of time to
observe changes and developments.
○ Key Feature: Helps identify trends and changes but does not
involve experimental manipulation.
○ Example: Tracking the academic progress of a cohort of students
from elementary school through high school.
5. Case-Control Study
○ Purpose: To compare individuals with a specific condition
(cases) to those without (controls) to identify potential causes or
risk factors.
○ Key Feature: Retrospective; looks back in time to examine
exposure to risk factors.
○ Example: Studying patients with lung cancer (cases) and those
without (controls) to examine their history of smoking.
6. Cohort Study
○ Purpose: To follow a group of individuals over time to study the
development of certain outcomes.
○ Key Feature: Prospective; tracks participants forward in time.
○ Example: Studying a group of non-smokers and tracking them for
20 years to see how many develop lung disease.

Comparison of Experimental and Nonexperimental Studies

Feature Experimental Studies Nonexperimental

Studies

Manipulation of Yes No
Variables

67
Control over High (control groups, Low or none
Variables random assignment)

Causality Can establish causality Cannot establish

causality

Random Common (e.g., RCTs) Rare

Assignment

Examples Drug trials, behavioural Surveys, correlational

experiments studies

Purpose To test cause-and-effect To observe and describe

relationships relationships

Setting Often in labs or controlled Often in natural, real-

environments world settings

When to Use Each Study Type:

● Experimental Studies: Use when the goal is to determine cause-and-

effect relationships and when you can manipulate the variables.
● Nonexperimental Studies: Use when manipulation of variables is not
feasible, ethical, or when the goal is to explore relationships, describe
phenomena, or observe trends over time.

Each study type has its advantages and limitations, and the choice depends
on the research question, practical constraints, and ethical considerations.

concepts and steps in Quantitative and Qualitative research

68
Quantitative and qualitative research are two fundamental approaches to
research that differ in methods, objectives, and the types of data they
generate. Below are the key concepts and steps associated with both
approaches:

Quantitative Research
Key Concepts

1. Objective Measurement: Focuses on numerical data and aims to measure

variables objectively.
2. Hypothesis Testing: Begins with a clear, testable hypothesis or
research question.
3. Variables: Includes independent, dependent, and control variables.
4. Data Collection Instruments: Uses structured tools like surveys,
questionnaires, and experiments to collect numerical data.
5. Statistical Analysis: Involves analysing data using statistical
techniques to determine patterns, relationships, and causality.
6. Generalizability: Results are often generalised to larger populations
based on statistical significance.
7. Reliability and Validity: Focus on the consistency (reliability) and
accuracy (validity) of measurements.

Steps in Quantitative Research

1. Formulating the Research Problem: Clearly defining the research question

or hypothesis.
2. Literature Review: Reviewing existing studies to build on prior
knowledge.
3. Developing the Hypothesis: Creating a testable statement that
predicts relationships between variables.
4. Research Design: Choosing a suitable design (e.g., experimental,
survey) and deciding on the sampling method.
5. Data Collection: Gathering data through standardised instruments
(e.g., surveys, tests, observations).
6. Data Analysis: Using statistical methods to analyse data (e.g.,
descriptive statistics, inferential statistics).
7. Interpretation of Results: Drawing conclusions based on the analysis
and determining if the hypothesis is supported.
8. Reporting and Presentation: Communicating findings, usually through
reports, charts, and tables.

69
Qualitative Research
Key Concepts

1. Subjective Understanding: Focuses on understanding human

experiences, behaviours, and interactions.
2. Open-ended Inquiry: Research questions are often broad and
exploratory.
3. Contextual Understanding: Emphasises the importance of social,
cultural, and environmental contexts.
4. Data Collection Methods: Uses non-numerical data like interviews,
focus groups, and observations.
5. Thematic Analysis: Analyses data by identifying patterns, themes, or
meanings.
6. Flexibility: Research design and questions can evolve as the study
progresses.
7. Credibility and Trustworthiness: Focuses on the authenticity and
depth of findings rather than statistical significance.

Steps in Qualitative Research

1. Formulating the Research Problem: Identifying a broad area of interest or

research question.
2. Literature Review: Reviewing relevant theories and studies to provide
a foundation for the research.
3. Designing the Study: Choosing the method of inquiry (e.g., case
study, ethnography, grounded theory).
4. Data Collection: Gathering data through interviews, focus groups,
participant observations, or document analysis.
5. Data Organization: Transcribing interviews, organising notes, or coding
documents.
6. Data Analysis: Identifying themes, patterns, and relationships using
methods like thematic analysis or content analysis.
7. Interpretation of Findings: Making sense of the data by exploring the
meanings, insights, and perspectives of participants.
8. Reporting: Presenting findings in a narrative form, often including direct
quotes from participants to illustrate key points.

Comparison

70
 Feature Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Objective Test hypotheses, measure Explore phenomena,

variables understand meanings

Data Type Numerical (quantifiable) Non-numerical (words, images)

Research Structured and fixed Flexible and evolving

Design

Sampling Large, random samples Small, purposive samples

Analysis Statistical Thematic, narrative

Outcome Generalizable results In-depth understanding

Both approaches are valuable and can sometimes be combined in mixed

methods research to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a
research problem.

major classes of quantitative and qualitative research

Major Classes of Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research typically involves structured, statistical analysis to test

hypotheses or explore relationships between variables. Here are the major
classes:

1. Descriptive Research

71
 ● Purpose: To describe characteristics or behaviours of a population.
● Key Features: Focuses on "what" rather than "why."
● Examples: Surveys, observational studies.
● Methods: Data is collected through surveys, questionnaires, or
observation and analysed numerically (e.g., frequency, averages).
● Example Question: What is the average age of people who buy a
certain product?

2. Correlational Research

● Purpose: To examine relationships between two or more variables

without manipulating them.
● Key Features: Determines whether an association exists between
variables but doesn’t imply causation.
● Methods: Surveys, observational studies, archival data.
● Example Question: Is there a relationship between time spent on
social media and academic performance?

3. Experimental Research

● Purpose: To establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

● Key Features: Involves manipulation of one or more independent
variables and measuring the effect on dependent variables.
● Methods: Randomised control trials (RCT), laboratory experiments.
● Example Question: Does a new drug reduce symptoms of anxiety
compared to a placebo?

4. Quasi-Experimental Research

● Purpose: To investigate cause-and-effect relationships, but without

random assignment to groups.
● Key Features: Similar to experimental research but lacks full control
over variables or random assignment.
● Methods: Pre-test and post-test studies, non-equivalent control group
designs.
● Example Question: Does a new teaching method improve student
performance, even if random assignment to different teaching methods
is not possible?

5. Cross-sectional Research

● Purpose: To study a population at one specific point in time.

● Key Features: Measures variables at one moment, useful for
descriptive or correlational purposes.

72
 ● Methods: Surveys, observational studies.
● Example Question: What is the prevalence of a particular health
condition in a given population today?

6. Longitudinal Research

● Purpose: To study variables over a longer period.

● Key Features: Repeated observations or measurements over time to
examine changes or trends.
● Methods: Surveys, experiments, observational studies conducted at
intervals.
● Example Question: How do children’s reading abilities develop from
age 5 to 10?

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research involves open-ended, exploratory methodologies aimed

at understanding meanings, experiences, or social contexts. Major classes
include:

1. Ethnography

● Purpose: To explore cultural phenomena and how people in a specific

community live and understand their world.
● Key Features: Immersive research, often involving long-term
observation or participation within a community.
● Methods: Participant observation, interviews, field notes.
● Example Question: How do residents of a rural village perceive
environmental changes affecting their community?

2. Phenomenology

● Purpose: To explore individuals’ lived experiences and how they make

sense of them.
● Key Features: Focuses on subjective experiences and meanings.
● Methods: In-depth interviews, discussions.
● Example Question: What is the experience of living with chronic pain
like for patients?

3. Grounded Theory

● Purpose: To develop a theory grounded in data that is systematically

gathered and analysed.

73
 ● Key Features: Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously to
build a theory inductively.
● Methods: Interviews, observations, document reviews.
● Example Question: How do people make decisions about retirement?

4. Case Study

● Purpose: To provide a detailed, in-depth understanding of a single case

or small group of cases.
● Key Features: Focuses on one case or a small number of cases within
a real-world context.
● Methods: Interviews, observations, document analysis.
● Example Question: How did a specific company handle a crisis, and
what can be learned from it?

5. Narrative Research

● Purpose: To study the stories individuals tell about their lives and
experiences.
● Key Features: Focuses on personal stories or life experiences, often
chronological.
● Methods: Storytelling, interviews, biographical methods.
● Example Question: How do survivors of trauma narrate their
experiences of recovery?

6. Action Research

● Purpose: To solve practical problems while also contributing to

theoretical knowledge.
● Key Features: Collaborative and iterative; involves researchers working
with participants to enact change.
● Methods: Group discussions, participant observation, feedback loops.
● Example Question: How can a community organisation improve its
outreach to underrepresented groups?

7. Content Analysis

● Purpose: To systematically analyse the content of texts, images, or

media to understand social phenomena.
● Key Features: Involves identifying patterns, themes, or biases within
qualitative data.
● Methods: Document analysis, coding of interviews or media.
● Example Question: How are women portrayed in news media
regarding leadership roles?

74
Mixed Methods Research

While not a separate class, mixed methods research combines both

quantitative and qualitative approaches. This allows researchers to gain a
more comprehensive understanding by drawing on the strengths of both. It
often involves collecting and analysing both numerical data (quantitative) and
textual or visual data (qualitative) in a single study.

Quantitative Research: Experimental and Nonexperimental Studies

Quantitative research can be broadly divided into experimental and

nonexperimental studies, each serving different purposes and employing
different methodologies. Here's a detailed comparison:

1. Experimental Studies

Experimental studies are designed to establish cause-and-effect relationships

between variables by manipulating one or more independent variables and
observing the effect on dependent variables.

Key Characteristics:

● Manipulation of Variables: Researchers actively manipulate the

independent variable(s) to observe the effect on the dependent variable.
● Control Group: Often includes a control group that does not receive
the treatment or intervention to compare outcomes.
● Random Assignment: Participants are randomly assigned to different
groups (e.g., treatment and control groups) to minimise bias and ensure
the groups are equivalent at the start.
● High Control: Researchers control extraneous variables to ensure that
any observed changes in the dependent variable are due to the
manipulation of the independent variable.
● Causality: Because of the high control and manipulation, experimental
studies can suggest causality.

Types of Experimental Studies:

1. True Experiments

75
 ○ Randomised Control Trials (RCTs): Participants are randomly
assigned to either the experimental or control group.
○ Purpose: To determine whether a treatment or intervention has a
significant effect on outcomes.
○ Example: Testing the effectiveness of a new medication by
comparing a group that receives the drug with a group that
receives a placebo.
2. Field Experiments
○ Conducted in natural settings: Unlike laboratory experiments,
field experiments take place in real-world environments.
○ Example: Studying the impact of a new teaching method by
implementing it in a classroom and comparing outcomes with a
classroom using traditional methods.
3. Laboratory Experiments
○ Highly controlled settings: Experiments conducted in a lab to
eliminate outside influences.
○ Example: Testing the effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive
performance by controlling sleep hours in a laboratory setting.

2. Nonexperimental Studies

Nonexperimental studies do not involve manipulation of variables and are

primarily used to observe and describe relationships between variables as
they naturally occur. They are often used when experimental manipulation is
not possible or ethical.

Key Characteristics:

● No Manipulation: The researcher observes variables without intervening

or manipulating them.
● No Random Assignment: Participants are not randomly assigned to
different groups, and natural groupings (e.g., by age, gender) may exist.
● Correlational: Nonexperimental studies often explore relationships
between variables, but they do not provide strong evidence for
causality.
● Observational Nature: These studies observe and measure variables
as they occur naturally.

Types of Nonexperimental Studies:

1. Descriptive Research

76
 ○ Purpose: To describe characteristics, behaviours, or conditions as
they are.
○ Methods: Surveys, observations, case studies.
○ Example: Surveying a group of people to find out the average
number of hours they exercise per week.
2. Correlational Research
○ Purpose: To examine the relationship between two or more
variables without manipulating them.
○ Key Feature: Can indicate the strength and direction of
relationships but does not establish causality.
○ Example: Studying the relationship between social media usage
and self-esteem levels. You can identify a correlation but not
prove that one causes the other.
3. Cross-sectional Research
○ Purpose: To study variables at one point in time.
○ Key Feature: Often used to compare different groups at a single
time.
○ Example: Studying the prevalence of smoking in different age
groups by conducting a survey at one point in time.
4. Longitudinal Research
○ Purpose: To study the same participants over a period of time to
observe changes and developments.
○ Key Feature: Helps identify trends and changes but does not
involve experimental manipulation.
○ Example: Tracking the academic progress of a cohort of students
from elementary school through high school.
5. Case-Control Study
○ Purpose: To compare individuals with a specific condition
(cases) to those without (controls) to identify potential causes or
risk factors.
○ Key Feature: Retrospective; looks back in time to examine
exposure to risk factors.
○ Example: Studying patients with lung cancer (cases) and those
without (controls) to examine their history of smoking.
6. Cohort Study
○ Purpose: To follow a group of individuals over time to study the
development of certain outcomes.
○ Key Feature: Prospective; tracks participants forward in time.
○ Example: Studying a group of non-smokers and tracking them for
20 years to see how many develop lung disease.

77
Comparison of Experimental and Nonexperimental Studies

Feature Experimental Studies Nonexperimental

Studies

Manipulation of Yes No
Variables

Control over High (control groups, Low or none

Variables random assignment)

Causality Can establish causality Cannot establish

causality

Random Common (e.g., RCTs) Rare

Assignment

Examples Drug trials, behavioural Surveys, correlational

experiments studies

Purpose To test cause-and-effect To observe and describe

relationships relationships

Setting Often in labs or controlled Often in natural, real-

environments world settings

When to Use Each Study Type

78
 ● Experimental Studies: Use when the goal is to determine cause-and-
effect relationships and when you can manipulate the variables.
● Nonexperimental Studies: Use when manipulation of variables is not
feasible, ethical, or when the goal is to explore relationships, describe
phenomena, or observe trends over time.

Each study type has its advantages and limitations, and the choice depends
on the research question, practical constraints, and ethical considerations.

Chapter 7

Methods of Data Collection

Data collection is a critical aspect of any research process, particularly in
nursing research, where accurate, reliable, and valid data are essential for
making informed decisions, improving patient outcomes, and advancing
nursing practice. This chapter explores various methods of data collection,
highlighting their use in different types of nursing research, their strengths,
limitations, and ethical considerations.

Definition of Data Collection

Data collection refers to the systematic process of gathering and measuring

information on variables of interest in a structured and organised manner,
enabling researchers to answer research questions, test hypotheses, and
evaluate outcomes. In nursing research, data collection is crucial for
generating evidence that informs clinical practice, health policies, and patient
care.

7.2 Importance of Data Collection in Nursing Research

Data collection is essential in nursing research because:

1. Supports Evidence-Based Practice: Well-collected data allows for the

development and implementation of nursing interventions based on
scientific evidence.
2. Informs Decision-Making: Accurate data helps nurses make informed
clinical decisions that improve patient outcomes.

79
 3. Ensures Validity and Reliability: Proper data collection methods
contribute to the credibility of research findings by minimizing biases
and errors.
4. Enhances Replication: Transparent data collection processes allow
other researchers to replicate the study and verify results.
5. Promotes Generalizability: A representative and properly collected
dataset can ensure that findings are applicable to broader populations.

Types of Data in Nursing Research

Data in nursing research can be broadly categorised into two types:

1. Quantitative Data: Numerical data that can be measured and analysed

statistically (e.g., patient age, blood pressure levels, number of hospital
admissions).
2. Qualitative Data: Non-numerical data that describe phenomena based
on observations, interviews, or text (e.g., patient experiences, nurse
perceptions of care).

Methods of Data Collection

The method chosen for data collection depends on the research design,
research question, and the type of data required. In nursing research, both
quantitative and qualitative data collection methods are commonly used.

Quantitative Data Collection Methods

Quantitative data collection methods are structured, objective, and rely on

instruments that yield numerical data. These methods are appropriate for
research that aims to quantify variables, establish patterns, or test
relationships between variables.

Questionnaires are a widely used method for data collection in research,

particularly in social sciences, education, health, and market research. They
involve a set of written questions designed to gather information from
participants on a particular topic or set of topics. Here’s a detailed explanation
of questionnaires as a research method:

Advantages of Questionnaires

1. Cost-Effective and Time-Saving: They can be distributed to a large

number of respondents at relatively low cost, and they are quicker to
administer compared to other methods like interviews.
2. Wide Reach: Questionnaires can reach respondents who are
geographically dispersed, allowing researchers to gather data from a
diverse or large sample.

80
 3. Standardisation: All participants are asked the same questions,
ensuring consistency in data collection.
4. Anonymity: Respondents often feel more comfortable answering
sensitive questions when their responses are anonymous.
5. Quantifiable Data: Closed-ended questions can easily be turned into
numerical data for statistical analysis.
6. Flexibility: Questionnaires can be used in various formats (online,
paper, or mobile apps).

Disadvantage of questionnaire

Here are some of the disadvantages of questionnaires:

1. Low Response Rate

Non-Response Bias: Especially in self-administered surveys (like online or mailed
questionnaires), response rates can be low. Those who choose not to participate
may differ in important ways from those who do, leading to non-response bias and
skewed results.

Incentive Dependency: To increase response rates, incentives may be needed,

which can increase costs and may not always guarantee high-quality responses.

2. Inflexibility
No Immediate Clarifications: Unlike interviews, questionnaires do not allow for
clarification of questions if respondents are confused. Misinterpretation of questions
can lead to inaccurate or incomplete answers.

Pre-Set Responses: For close-ended questions, respondents are limited to the

options provided. If the answer choices don’t reflect their true opinion, they may
select an option that doesn’t fully capture their views.

3. Superficial Data
Lack of Depth: Questionnaires, especially those with close-ended questions, often
provide shallow data. Respondents may not have the opportunity to elaborate on
their answers, which limits the richness of the data collected.

Oversimplification: Complex opinions, behaviours, or attitudes might be

oversimplified when reduced to yes/no or multiple-choice answers.

4. Respondent Fatigue
Long or Boring Questionnaires: If the questionnaire is too long or repetitive,
respondents may lose interest and either drop out or rush through the remaining
questions without giving thoughtful responses. This leads to poor quality data.

81
 Survey Fatigue: In settings where respondents are frequently surveyed (e.g.,
workplaces or market research panels), they may become fatigued and provide less
accurate or meaningful responses over time.

5. Social Desirability Bias

Respondents May Not Be Honest: People may answer questions in a way that they
think is socially acceptable or desirable, rather than providing their true opinions or
behaviours. This can distort the data.For example, respondents may underreport
behaviours they view as negative (like smoking) or overreport positive behaviours
(like exercise or charitable donations).

6. Limited by Respondent’s Literacy and Language

● Reading and Writing Skills: Questionnaires require respondents to have sufficient
literacy skills to read and understand the questions, which can exclude certain
populations or lead to misunderstandings. Language Barriers: If the questionnaire is
not provided in a language the respondent is fluent in, it can result in poor data
quality.

7. No Opportunity for Spontaneous Feedback

Rigid Format: Respondents are limited to answering only what is asked, leaving no
room for spontaneous or unanticipated insights. In contrast, interviews allow
researchers to explore unexpected themes or issues that may arise during the
conversation.

8. Potential for Incomplete Responses

Skipping Questions: Respondents may skip questions they find confusing,
sensitive, or irrelevant. Even if required fields are implemented in online surveys, this
could lead to incomplete data or forced answers that may not be accurate.

9. No Control Over Respondent Environment

● Distractions: Respondents might complete the questionnaire in environments where
they are distracted, which could lead to rushed or inaccurate responses and lack of
Engagement Without an interviewer to encourage or motivate them, respondents
may not be fully engaged in the process, affecting the quality of their answers.

10. Sample Representation

● Exclusion of Certain Groups: If the questionnaire is distributed online, for example,
it may exclude populations that don’t have access to the internet or are not tech-
savvy. This creates a sampling bias and limits the generalizability of the results.

11. Data Collection Can Be Time-Consuming

82
 Follow-Ups Required: When response rates are low, researchers may need to send
reminders or follow-up messages, which can be time-consuming and delay the data
collection process.

Data Cleaning: Responses may need to be cleaned for errors, missing values, or
inconsistent answers, particularly in open-ended responses.

12. Sensitive Topics Can Lead to Evasive Responses

Avoidance of Sensitive Questions: When questionnaires cover sensitive topics
(e.g., personal income, health issues), respondents may refuse to answer or provide
evasive answers due to discomfort or privacy concerns, leading to gaps in the data.

Less Rapport: Unlike face-to-face interviews, questionnaires lack the personal

connection that can sometimes encourage participants to open up about sensitive
subjects.

13. Risk of Misinterpretation

Complex Questions: Even with clear language, some respondents may misinterpret
certain questions, leading to inaccurate or misleading responses. This is especially
common with abstract or technical questions.

No Opportunity to Probe: Unlike interviews, researchers cannot probe deeper into

responses to clarify unclear or incomplete answers.

14. Limited to Self-Reported Data

Subjective Data: Questionnaires rely on the honesty and accuracy of self-reported
data, which may not always reflect true behaviours or opinions. Respondents might
not remember past behaviours accurately or might misjudge their opinions.

Types of Questionnaires

1. Structured Questionnaires: These consist of close-ended questions,

where respondents choose from a set of predefined answers. This
format is useful for gathering quantitative data. Example: Multiple
choice, Likert scale (strongly agree to strongly disagree), yes/no
questions.
2. Semi-Structured Questionnaires: A combination of both open-ended and
closed-ended questions, offering both structured response choices and
the flexibility to provide qualitative insights. Example: "Rate your
satisfaction from 1 to 5. Please explain your choice."
3. Unstructured Questionnaires: These are primarily made up of open-
ended questions, allowing respondents to express their thoughts freely.

83
 This type is used for qualitative data collection. Example: "What are
your thoughts on our new service?"

Key Components of a Questionnaire

1. Introduction: Provides the purpose of the questionnaire and instructions

for the respondents.
2. Demographic Questions: Gather background information about the
respondents (e.g., age, gender, occupation) that may be relevant to the
research.
3. Main Questions: The core part, designed to gather data about the
research topic.
4. Conclusion: Includes a thank-you note and sometimes an option to
provide additional comments.

Steps in Developing a Questionnaire

1. Define the Objectives: Clearly outline what information is needed and

how the data will contribute to the research objectives.
2. Design the Questions: Write questions that are clear, concise, and free
of bias. Decide on the type of questions (open-ended, closed-ended,
etc.).
3. Pilot Test: Test the questionnaire on a small group to identify any issues
with wording, flow, or understanding.
4. Revise: Make necessary adjustments based on feedback from the pilot
test.
5. Distribute: Choose a mode of delivery (e.g., online survey, paper
questionnaire, email) and distribute it to your target sample.

Characteristics of good questionnaire

A good questionnaire is designed to collect accurate, reliable, and relevant data. To

achieve this, it must be carefully constructed to avoid biases, confusion, and
misinterpretation.

The following are characteristics of a good questionnaire:

1. Clarity and Simplicity

Clear Language: Questions should be easy to understand, avoiding jargon,
technical terms, or complex language. The goal is to ensure that all respondents
interpret the questions the same way.

Concise: Questions should be brief and to the point, without unnecessary detail or
complexity.

2. Relevance

84
Focused on Objectives: Every question should relate directly to the research
objectives. Avoid including irrelevant or off-topic questions that do not contribute to
the study's goals.

No Redundancy: Avoid asking the same thing multiple times in different ways unless
it serves a specific purpose, like measuring consistency.

3. Unbiased and Neutral Wording

Avoid Leading Questions: Questions should be neutral, without suggesting a
particular answer. Leading questions can bias the responses. Example of a leading
question: "Don't you think the care is effective?" Neutral version: "How would you
rate the care?"

No Double-Barreled Questions: These are questions that ask two things at once,
which can confuse respondents. Example: "Do you like the design and functionality
of our Hospital?" (This should be split into two separate questions).

4. Balanced Options
Appropriate Response Range: When using scales (e.g., Likert scales), provide a
balanced set of options. For example, include both positive and negative response
options, not just positive ones.

Ensure All Possible Responses: For multiple-choice questions, ensure the options
cover all possibilities. Use "Other (please specify)" when necessary to allow for
responses not listed.

5. Logical Flow and Order

Grouped Questions: Questions should be organised logically, with related questions
grouped together. This makes the questionnaire easier to navigate and ensures a
smoother experience for the respondent.

Progression: Begin with less sensitive or easier questions, and gradually move to
more complex or sensitive topics. This helps build respondent engagement and
comfort.

6. Pilot Testing
Pre-Test the Questionnaire

A good questionnaire should be tested on a small group before being widely

distributed. This helps identify issues such as unclear questions, poor response
options, or technical glitches (in the case of online surveys).

7. Variety in Question Types

85
Mix of Question Types: Depending on the data you need, use a variety of question
types (e.g., open-ended, closed-ended, Likert scales). Mixing question types can
help prevent respondent fatigue and maintain engagement.

Open-Ended Questions Sparingly: While open-ended questions provide valuable

qualitative insights, they should be used sparingly because they require more effort
from respondents.

8. Appropriate Length
Short and Focused: A good questionnaire is not excessively long. A lengthy
questionnaire can lead to respondent fatigue, reducing the quality of answers or
leading to dropouts.

Time Consideration: It’s important to respect respondents' time by keeping the

questionnaire as short as possible while still gathering all necessary data.

9. Clear Instructions
How to Answer: Instructions should be provided for each section or type of question,
explaining how respondents should answer.

Examples: If a question is particularly complex, include examples to ensure the

respondent knows what kind of response is expected.

10. Ethical Considerations

Anonymity and Confidentiality: If sensitive information is being collected, ensure
respondents know that their data will remain confidential or anonymous.

Informed Consent: Respondents should be informed about the purpose of the study
and how their data will be used before they participate.

11. Customization for the Audience

Target Audience Language: The questionnaire should be tailored to the literacy
level, cultural context, and preferences of the target population.

Cultural Sensitivity: Ensure the questions are appropriate and do not offend or
alienate respondents based on their cultural or social backgrounds.

12. Use of Visual Design (for Online or Printed Surveys)

Easy-to-Read Layout: The questionnaire should be visually appealing and easy to
read. Use clear fonts, adequate spacing, and appropriate contrast between the text
and background.

Navigation Tools (for online surveys): Ensure easy navigation with features like
progress bars, clear buttons, and easy transitions between questions.

86
 13. Ability to Provide Non-Responses
"Don't Know" or "Not Applicable" Options: For some questions, respondents may
not have an answer or the question may not apply to them. Offering an option like
"Not applicable" or "Don't know" prevents forced or inaccurate responses.

Conclusion
A good questionnaire is well-designed, concise, and focused on the research objectives. It
ensures clarity, relevance, neutrality, and ease of response while respecting the time and
experience of the respondent.

Limitations of Questionnaires

1. Low Response Rate: Especially in online surveys, response rates can be

low, which might affect the representativeness of the sample.
2. Misinterpretation of Questions: Respondents might misunderstand
questions, leading to inaccurate responses.
3. Lack of Depth: Close-ended questions may not allow respondents to
elaborate on their thoughts or provide detailed insights.
4. Bias: Respondents may answer questions in a way they think is socially
acceptable rather than how they truly feel.

Applications of Questionnaires

● Academic Research: Used to gather data on attitudes, opinions,

behaviours, or characteristics in various fields such as psychology,
sociology, education, and health.
● Market Research: Helps businesses understand customer preferences,
product satisfaction, or market trends.
● Healthcare: Collects data on patient experiences, satisfaction with
treatment, or public health trends.

B. interview as a tool for data collection in healthcare research

In healthcare research, interviews are a widely used tool for data collection,
providing valuable insights into patient experiences, healthcare provider
perspectives, and organisational practices. Interviews allow researchers to
explore complex issues such as health behaviours, attitudes towards
treatment, patient satisfaction, and the effectiveness of healthcare
interventions.

87
Importance of Interviews in Healthcare Research

Healthcare research often deals with human experiences and behaviours that
cannot be fully understood through quantitative methods alone. Interviews
help in capturing the subjective experiences of patients and healthcare
providers, enabling a deeper understanding of:

● Patient perceptions of illness, treatment, and healthcare services.

● Healthcare professionals' experiences related to patient care, clinical
decision-making, and workplace challenges.
● Impact of healthcare policies on clinical practice, patient outcomes, and
care delivery.
● Cultural and social determinants of health that influence patient
behaviour and decision-making.

Types of Interviews Used in Healthcare Research

1. Structured Interviews:
○ Predefined Questions: In structured interviews, the interviewer
asks a set of standardised questions with no deviation. This
ensures consistency across participants and makes it easier to
compare responses.
○ Example: A structured interview may ask healthcare providers
about their adherence to a specific protocol for treating a
common condition.
○ Use: Often used when collecting data that will be analysed
quantitatively, or when the goal is to standardise responses
across a large number of participants.
2. Semi-Structured Interviews:
○ Guided but Flexible: Semi-structured interviews use a framework
of prepared questions but allow the interviewer to explore
emerging topics in greater detail. This format is popular in
healthcare research because it balances consistency with depth.
○ Example: A researcher might ask patients about their experiences
with a particular treatment but probe further into how it affects
their daily lives.
○ Use: Ideal for exploring both specific issues and broader
experiences, making it common in patient and clinician research.
3. Unstructured Interviews:
○ Open-Ended Conversations: Unstructured interviews allow
participants to share their thoughts freely, with minimal guidance
from the interviewer. This method provides the deepest insights
but can be difficult to standardise or compare across participants.
○ Example: A researcher may use unstructured interviews to
explore how patients with chronic illness navigate their care and
interact with the healthcare system.
○ Use: Effective for in-depth exploration of complex or sensitive
topics, such as emotional responses to illness or end-of-life care.
4. Focus Group Interviews:

88
 ○ Group Dynamics: Focus group interviews involve multiple
participants discussing a topic with a moderator guiding the
conversation. This format allows for interaction among
participants, which can reveal shared experiences or differing
perspectives.
○ Example: A focus group of patients with diabetes may discuss
their experiences with disease management and barriers to
adherence.
○ Use: Useful for gathering diverse viewpoints in a group setting,
especially when investigating community or organisational issues
in healthcare.

Advantages of Interviews in Healthcare Research

1. Rich, In-Depth Data:

○ Interviews provide detailed, qualitative data that captures the
complexities of human behaviour, emotions, and decision-
making, which is essential for understanding healthcare
experiences.
○ Example: Interviews with cancer patients can reveal not only the
physical impact of treatment but also the emotional and social
challenges they face.
2. Clarification and Probing:
○ Interviewers can ask follow-up questions to clarify responses or
explore new topics that arise during the conversation. This
flexibility allows for deeper understanding.
○ Example: If a patient mentions difficulties with medication
adherence, the interviewer can probe further to identify specific
barriers (e.g., cost, side effects, or forgetfulness).
3. Understanding Patient and Provider Perspectives:
○ Interviews allow researchers to capture subjective experiences
from both patients and healthcare providers, which can lead to a
more comprehensive understanding of healthcare delivery.
○ Example: Interviews with nurses may provide insights into
challenges they face in delivering patient care, such as workload,
emotional stress, or communication barriers.
4. Addressing Sensitive Topics:
○ Healthcare research often involves sensitive issues (e.g., mental
health, terminal illness, reproductive health), and interviews
provide a safe space for participants to share their experiences.
○ Example: Patients may feel more comfortable discussing their
feelings about end-of-life care in a one-on-one interview
compared to a survey or group setting.
5. Capturing Non-Verbal Cues:
○ In face-to-face interviews, researchers can observe non-verbal
communication, such as body language, facial expressions, or
tone of voice, which adds context to the participant’s responses.
○ Example: A patient’s discomfort or hesitation when discussing
certain topics might indicate deeper concerns not explicitly
stated.

89
 6. Flexibility:
○ Interviews can be conducted in various formats (e.g., face-to-face,
phone, video call) depending on the participants' needs or
logistical considerations, making them adaptable for different
research settings.
○ Example: Interviews can be conducted over the phone with
patients who are too ill to travel, ensuring inclusivity in the
research process.

Disadvantages of Interviews in Healthcare Research

1. Time and Resource Intensive:

○ Conducting interviews, particularly in healthcare settings, can be
time-consuming and expensive, especially if large numbers of
interviews need to be conducted. Transcribing and analysing
interview data is also labour-intensive.
○ Example: Conducting in-depth interviews with a large sample of
healthcare providers across different hospitals may take months.
2. Interviewer Bias:
○ The interviewer’s tone, phrasing, or even body language can
influence participants’ responses. If not managed carefully,
interviewer bias can distort the data.
○ Example: A researcher’s personal views on healthcare policies
may unintentionally shape the way questions are asked,
influencing the responses of healthcare providers.
3. Social Desirability Bias:
○ Participants, especially patients or healthcare workers, may
provide answers they think are socially acceptable rather than
their true opinions, particularly on sensitive topics.
○ Example: Patients might downplay negative experiences with
their care to avoid appearing critical of their healthcare providers.
4. Limited Generalizability:
○ Since interviews typically involve smaller, non-random samples,
the findings may not be easily generalizable to larger populations.
○ Example: Interviewing a small group of patients from a single
hospital may not reflect the experiences of all patients with the
same condition nationwide.
5. Data Complexity:
○ The qualitative nature of interview data makes it difficult to
analyse and quantify, especially when dealing with large volumes
of unstructured data.
○ Example: Analysing transcripts from unstructured interviews
requires coding themes and patterns, which can be subjective
and prone to interpretation errors.
6. Access to Participants:
○ Scheduling interviews with healthcare providers or patients can
be challenging due to their busy schedules, health conditions, or
logistical barriers.

90
 ○ Example: It may be difficult to find convenient times to interview
doctors or patients who are undergoing treatment or have limited
availability due to health concerns.

Applications of Interviews in Healthcare Research

1. Patient Experience Research:

○ Interviews are often used to explore patient experiences with
healthcare services, treatments, or chronic disease management.
These insights can help improve patient care and inform
healthcare policies.
○ Example: Researchers might interview patients with heart disease
to understand their experiences with cardiac rehabilitation and
barriers to adherence.
2. Healthcare Provider Perspectives:
○ Understanding the experiences of healthcare providers (e.g.,
doctors, nurses, and other staff) through interviews can provide
insights into the challenges they face in delivering care,
workplace stress, or professional development needs.
○ Example: Nurses might be interviewed to explore how workplace
stress and burnout affect patient care quality.
3. Health Policy and Systems Research:
○ Interviews can help assess the impact of healthcare policies on
clinical practices, hospital operations, or patient outcomes.
○ Example: Hospital administrators may be interviewed to
understand how new policies on electronic health record
implementation affect workflow and care delivery.
4. Qualitative Evaluation of Interventions:
○ Interviews are used to assess the effectiveness of healthcare
interventions by exploring patient or provider perspectives on the
benefits, challenges, and outcomes of those interventions.
○ Example: Researchers may interview patients and clinicians to
evaluate the implementation of a telemedicine program in rural
areas.
5. Cultural and Social Determinants of Health:
○ Interviews allow for an exploration of how cultural beliefs and
social factors influence health behaviours and access to care.
○ Example: Immigrant populations may be interviewed to
understand their healthcare-seeking behaviours and the barriers
they face in accessing services.

Steps in Conducting Interviews in Healthcare Research

1. Identify the Research Question: Define the objectives and focus of the
research, such as patient satisfaction with a particular service or
healthcare providers' perspectives on new clinical guidelines.
2. Develop an Interview Guide: Prepare a list of key questions or topics to
guide the interview. For semi-structured interviews, this guide should
include both open-ended and closed questions.

91
 3. Select Participants: Choose a sample of participants based on the
research goals (e.g., patients, healthcare providers). Ensure diversity in
the sample to capture a range of perspectives.
4. Conduct Interviews: Create a comfortable and open environment for the
interview, whether it’s face-to-face or virtual. Ensure informed consent
is obtained and ethical considerations are followed.
5. Record and Transcribe Data: With the participant’s consent, record the
interview to ensure accuracy in data collection. Transcribe the
interviews for analysis.
6. Analyze the Data: Use qualitative methods, such as coding or thematic
analysis, to identify patterns and themes in the interview data.
7. Report Findings: Present the results in a way that reflects the richness
of the data, often using quotes to illustrate key themes and provide
context.

Conclusion

In healthcare research, interviews are an invaluable method for collecting in-

depth, qualitative data. They provide a way to explore the nuanced
experiences of patients and healthcare providers, offering rich insights that
can inform patient care, policy development, and health interventions.
However, careful planning, execution, and analysis are essential to ensure that
the data collected is reliable, unbiased, and ethically sound.

C. Observations (Structured)

Structured observation involves the systematic observation and recording of

specific behaviours or events using a predefined set of criteria.

● Purpose: To gather quantitative data on observable actions or

occurrences.
● Example in Nursing: Observing and recording nurses’ hand hygiene
practices in a clinical setting.

Strengths:

● Provides objective data on actual behaviour.

● Useful for studying behaviours that participants may not self-report
accurately.

Limitations:

● Observer bias may influence the accuracy of the data.

● Participants may change their behaviour if they know they are being
observed (Hawthorne effect).
● May be difficult to observe complex or subtle behaviours.

92
Types of observation

Observation is a key research tool used in various fields, including social

sciences, education, psychology, and healthcare, to collect data in a natural
setting. It allows researchers to gather first-hand information by observing
behaviours, actions, and interactions. Below is a detailed explanation of the
different types of observation used as research tools:

1. Structured Observation

● Description: In structured observation, the researcher uses a

predefined framework or checklist to systematically observe and record
specific behaviours, actions, or events. The criteria for observation are
determined before the study begins, ensuring that only relevant data is
collected.
● Purpose: Structured observation aims to provide consistent, reliable
data that can be easily compared across different subjects, times, or
locations.
● Advantages: It reduces observer bias because the researcher follows a
standardised method.
● Examples: Counting the number of times a teacher provides positive
feedback in a classroom or observing how many times a patient uses a
call button in a hospital ward.

2. Unstructured Observation

● Description: Unlike structured observation, unstructured observation

does not rely on a predefined system. The researcher observes freely
and records any behaviours, events, or actions they find relevant. This
method is more flexible and allows the observer to capture unexpected
behaviours.
● Purpose: Used for exploratory research, unstructured observation
helps generate hypotheses by providing a broad understanding of
complex or unpredictable situations.
● Advantages: Provides a rich, qualitative dataset and allows for the
discovery of new patterns or insights.
● Examples: Observing interactions in a busy emergency room without
predefined categories, focusing on any behaviours that seem important
or interesting.

3. Participant Observation

93
● Description: In participant observation, the researcher immerses
themselves in the group or setting being studied and actively
participates in the activities of the group. This allows the researcher to
gain an insider’s perspective while also observing behaviours and
interactions.
● Purpose: Participant observation is used to understand the culture,
practices, and experiences of a group from within. It provides in-depth
insights and helps the researcher experience the context from the
participants' point of view.
● Advantages: Provides a deeper, richer understanding of the social
context, offering insights that might not be visible through external
observation.
● Challenges: The researcher’s involvement can sometimes influence
the behaviour of the group, introducing bias.
● Examples: A researcher living in a rural village to study health practices
or a sociologist joining a subculture group to understand their norms
and behaviours.

4. Non-Participant Observation

● Description: In non-participant observation, the researcher observes

the group or individuals without actively engaging in their activities. The
observer remains detached and does not interfere with the subjects’
behaviour.
● Purpose: This method aims to collect data without influencing the
subjects, ensuring that their behaviour remains as natural as possible.
● Advantages: Reduces the risk of the observer affecting the behaviour
of the participants (observer effect).
● Challenges: The observer may not gain as deep an understanding as
with participant observation.
● Examples: Observing children’s play at a park without interacting with
them or watching how nurses manage patients in a hospital setting
without engaging in their activities.

5. Naturalistic Observation

● Description: Naturalistic observation involves observing subjects in

their natural environment, without any manipulation or intervention by
the researcher. This method is used to study behaviours as they occur
naturally, providing an authentic view of how people or animals behave
in everyday situations.

94
● Purpose: The primary goal is to observe behaviours that occur in real-
world settings without any artificial constraints.
● Advantages: Provides data that is ecologically valid and reflective of
real-life behaviours.
● Challenges: Lack of control over variables makes it difficult to establish
cause and effect relationships.
● Examples: Watching how animals interact in the wild or observing how
people use public spaces like parks or libraries.

6. Controlled Observation

● Description: In controlled observation, the researcher observes

subjects in a controlled environment where variables can be
manipulated. This is often done in laboratory settings where external
influences can be minimised.
● Purpose: Controlled observation allows researchers to study specific
variables by controlling the environment and isolating the factors they
want to examine.
● Advantages: Provides a higher level of control, making it easier to
establish cause and effect relationships.
● Challenges: The artificial setting may affect the authenticity of the
observed behaviour.
● Examples: Observing how subjects respond to different types of stimuli
in a psychology experiment or testing how different room designs
influence patient comfort in a simulated hospital environment.

7. Covert Observation

● Description: In covert observation, the subjects being observed are

unaware that they are being studied. The researcher does not reveal
their presence or purpose to avoid altering the subjects' behaviour
(Hawthorne effect).
● Purpose: This method is used to capture natural behaviour that might
change if the subjects knew they were being observed.
● Advantages: Reduces observer effect, leading to more genuine data.
● Challenges: Ethical concerns arise because subjects have not given
consent to being observed.
● Examples: Secretly observing customer behaviour in a store or
watching how employees follow safety procedures without informing
them.

8. Overt Observation

95
● Description: In overt observation, the subjects are aware that they are
being observed. The researcher informs the participants of their
presence and purpose, ensuring that observation is conducted ethically.
● Purpose: To collect data in a transparent and ethical way while still
observing behaviour and interactions.
● Advantages: Ethical concerns are minimised since participants are
informed.
● Challenges: Participants may alter their behaviour because they know
they are being watched.
● Examples: Conducting classroom observations where the teacher and
students are aware of the researcher’s presence or observing a
healthcare team’s performance during a shift.

9. Longitudinal Observation

● Description: Longitudinal observation involves studying the same

subjects over an extended period of time to observe changes and
developments in their behaviour.
● Purpose: This method is useful for studying trends, patterns, and long-
term effects of interventions or behaviours.
● Advantages: Allows researchers to track changes over time, providing
a more comprehensive understanding of behaviour.
● Challenges: Time-consuming and requires a significant commitment of
resources.
● Examples: Observing the development of children’s language skills
over several years or studying how patients’ recovery progresses after a
surgery over a long period.

10. Cross-Sectional Observation

● Description: Cross-sectional observation involves observing a sample

of subjects at one point in time to study behaviours across different
groups or settings.
● Purpose: To compare behaviours or outcomes across different
populations or environments at a single point in time.
● Advantages: Provides a snapshot of a specific phenomenon across
multiple groups, making it easier to compare differences.
● Challenges: Does not provide data on changes over time.
● Examples: Observing dietary habits in different age groups or
comparing nurse-patient interactions in different hospital wards.

11. Indirect Observation

96
 ● Description: Indirect observation refers to collecting data from
secondary sources, such as traces, records, or documents that provide
information about past behaviours rather than observing behaviours
directly.
● Purpose: Used when direct observation is not feasible or when
studying behaviours that have already occurred.
● Advantages: Allows researchers to gather historical data or analyse
trends without being physically present during the behaviour.
● Challenges: The data may be incomplete or biassed, and the
researcher has less control over how the data was initially recorded.
● Examples: Reviewing patient records to study medication adherence or
analysing social media posts to understand public opinion.

Conclusion:

Each type of observation method serves specific research purposes and

offers distinct advantages and challenges. The choice of observation type
depends on the research objectives, the nature of the study, ethical
considerations, and the environment in which the research is conducted.

D. Medical Records Review

Medical records review involves the collection of data from existing patient
records or health databases.

● Purpose: To obtain historical, clinical, or demographic data for research

purposes.
● Example in Nursing: A study using patient records to analyze trends in
hospital readmissions.

Strengths:

● Provides access to large amounts of pre-existing data.

● Non-invasive and cost-effective.

Limitations:

● Records may be incomplete, inaccurate, or inconsistent.

● Ethical issues related to patient confidentiality and data privacy.
● Limited to the data that has already been collected and documented.

Qualitative Data Collection Methods

97
Qualitative data collection methods focus on capturing rich, detailed
descriptions of participants’ experiences, beliefs, and perspectives. These
methods are more flexible and interactive, allowing researchers to explore
complex phenomena.

A. In-Depth Interviews

In-depth interviews involve open-ended questions that allow participants to

share their thoughts, feelings, and experiences in detail.

● Purpose: To explore participants’ perspectives and experiences in

depth.
● Example in Nursing: Interviews with patients to understand their
experiences with chronic illness management.

Strengths:

● Provides rich, detailed data.

● Flexibility to explore new topics or themes that emerge during the
interview.
● Encourages participants to share their personal experiences.

Limitations

● Time-consuming and resource-intensive.

● Difficult to analyse due to the volume and complexity of data.
● Potential for interviewer bias.

B. Focus Groups

A focus group is a group discussion led by a moderator, where participants

share their views on a specific topic.

● Purpose: To gather diverse perspectives and explore group dynamics.

● Example in Nursing: A focus group with nurses to discuss their
experiences with a new electronic health record system.

Strengths:

● Encourages interaction and debate, leading to a deeper understanding

of the topic.
● Allows for multiple viewpoints to be explored simultaneously.

98
Limitations:

● Group dynamics may influence individual responses.

● Not suitable for sensitive or personal topics.
● May be difficult to manage large groups effectively.

C. Observations (Unstructured)

Unstructured observation involves observing and recording behaviour in a

natural setting without predefined criteria or categories.

● Purpose: To capture the natural behaviour of participants in real-life

situations.
● Example in Nursing: Observing nurse-patient interactions in a
palliative care setting.

Strengths:

● Provides insights into real-life behaviours and interactions.

● Flexible and open-ended, allowing for the exploration of unexpected
behaviours.

Limitations

● Time-consuming and labour-intensive.

● Subject to observer bias.
● May not capture all aspects of the behaviour or situation.

D. Document or Artefact Analysis

Document or artefact analysis involves the review and analysis of existing

documents, such as policies, reports, or patient diaries, to gather qualitative
data.

● Purpose: To examine written materials or artefacts that provide insight

into the research problem.
● Example in Nursing: Analysing nursing policies to understand how
patient safety is addressed in a hospital.

Strengths:

● Provides access to historical or contextual data.

● Can be a non-intrusive method of data collection.

Limitations:

99
 ● Documents may be incomplete or biassed.
● Limited to what is available in the written record.

Mixed-Methods Data Collection

In mixed-methods research, both quantitative and qualitative data collection

methods are used in combination. This approach allows researchers to take
advantage of the strengths of both types of data collection.

● Example in Nursing: A study that uses surveys (quantitative) to

measure patient satisfaction and interviews (qualitative) to explore the
reasons behind patients' satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

Strengths:

● Provides a comprehensive understanding of the research problem.

● Allows for the validation and triangulation of results through multiple
data sources.

Limitations:

● Requires significant time and resources.

● Complex to design and analyse.

Ethical Considerations in Data Collection

Ethical considerations are paramount in data collection to ensure the

protection of participants and the integrity of the research. Key ethical
principles include:

● Informed Consent: Participants must be fully informed about the study,

including the purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits, and provide
voluntary consent.
● Confidentiality and Privacy: Researchers must protect participants'
personal information and ensure that data is collected and stored
securely.
● Minimising Harm: Data collection methods should be designed to
minimise physical, psychological, and emotional harm to participants.
● Right to Withdraw: Participants should have the right to withdraw from
the study at any time without any negative consequences.
● Cultural Sensitivity: Researchers must be respectful of cultural
differences and avoid methods that may offend or harm certain
populations.

100
Challenges in Data Collection

Some common challenges in data collection in nursing research include:

● Access to Participants: It can be difficult to access certain

populations, such as patients with rare conditions or those in remote
locations.
● Response Bias: Participants may provide socially desirable answers or
may not answer truthfully due to fear of judgement.
● Data Accuracy: Errors in data entry, measurement, or interpretation
can affect the validity and reliability of the findings.
● Ethical Dilemmas: Issues such as privacy, consent, and vulnerability
can complicate the data collection process.

Conclusion

Data collection is a fundamental step in the research process, shaping the

quality and credibility of nursing research. Whether using quantitative or
qualitative methods, researchers must carefully select appropriate techniques
based on the research question, study design, and ethical considerations.
Proper data collection ensures that nursing research generates valuable
insights that can improve patient care, inform health policies, and advance the
nursing profession.

Examples of Research instruments that must be completed by the researcher

are as follows:

1. Rating scales
2. Interview schedules
3. Tally sheets
4. Flow charts
5. Performance checklists
6. Anecdotal Records
7. Time-and-motion Logs

Examples of Research instruments that must be completed by the subjects or

respondents are as follows:

1. Questionnaires
2. Self-checklists
3. Attitudes scales
4. Personality character or Personality Inventories
5. Achievement or Aptitude Tests

101
 6. Performance Tests
7. Projective Devices
8. Sociometric Devices

Chapter 8

Methods of Data Analysis

Data analysis is a crucial phase of the research process that involves
organising, interpreting, and drawing conclusions from collected data. In
nursing research, proper data analysis ensures that findings are reliable, valid,
and meaningful, providing evidence that informs clinical practice, healthcare
policies, and patient care strategies. This chapter outlines various methods of
data analysis for both quantitative and qualitative research, discussing their
significance, techniques, and application in nursing research.

Definition of Data Analysis

102
Data analysis refers to the systematic process of examining, cleaning,
transforming, and modelling data to uncover useful information, draw
conclusions, and support decision-making. The choice of data analysis
method depends on the type of data collected (quantitative or qualitative), the
research design, and the research questions or hypotheses.

Statistics involves the collection, organisation, analysis and interpretation of

data.

Importance of Data Analysis in Nursing Research

Data analysis is vital in nursing research for several reasons:

1. Validates Hypotheses: Analysing data helps test research hypotheses

and answers research questions, providing evidence for or against
them.
2. Informs Decision-Making: Meaningful analysis contributes to
evidence-based decision-making in clinical settings.
3. Reveals Patterns and Trends: Data analysis identifies relationships,
trends, and patterns in data, improving understanding of nursing and
healthcare phenomena.
4. Ensures Research Rigour: Proper analysis ensures that findings are
accurate, reliable, and applicable to real-world nursing practice.
5. Supports Generalizability: Well-conducted data analysis enables the
findings to be generalised to broader populations, enhancing the impact
of the research.

Types of Data Analysis in Nursing Research

Data analysis methods in nursing research are generally divided into two
categories based on the type of data:

1. Quantitative Data Analysis: Focuses on numerical data and employs

statistical techniques to identify patterns, relationships, and differences.
2. Qualitative Data Analysis: Focuses on textual or visual data to
understand meanings, experiences, and perceptions.

Quantitative Data Analysis

103
Quantitative data analysis involves using statistical techniques to process
numerical data. It aims to summarise, interpret, and make inferences from
data, and is essential in research that seeks to measure variables and
establish relationships.

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics are used to summarise and describe the main features
of a dataset, providing a simple overview of the data.

● Purpose: To provide basic summaries about the sample and measures.

● Common Techniques:
○ Mean: The average of a set of values.
○ Median: The middle value in a dataset.
○ Mode: The most frequent value in a dataset.
○ Standard Deviation: Measures the amount of variation or
dispersion in a dataset.
○ Frequency Distribution: The number of times each value
appears in a dataset.
○ Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values.

Example in Nursing: A descriptive analysis of patient demographics, such as

age and gender distribution, among a group of patients undergoing a specific
treatment.

Strengths:

● Provides a clear and concise summary of the data.

● Easy to interpret and communicate to a wider audience.

Limitations:

● Does not allow for making inferences about the relationships between
variables.

Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics are used to make inferences or generalisations from a

sample to a larger population. These techniques help researchers draw
conclusions about the population based on sample data.

● Purpose: To test hypotheses and examine relationships between

variables.
● Common Techniques:

104
 ○ T-test: Compares the means of two groups to determine if they
are significantly different.
○ Chi-square Test: Tests the association between categorical
variables.
○ ANOVA (Analysis of Variance): Compares the means of three
or more groups.
○ Correlation: Measures the strength and direction of the
relationship between two variables.
○ Regression Analysis: Predicts the value of a dependent variable
based on one or more independent variables.

Example in Nursing: A t-test to determine if there is a significant difference in

recovery times between two groups of patients receiving different treatments.

Strengths:

● Allows for the testing of hypotheses and drawing conclusions.

● Facilitates generalization from the sample to the population.

Limitations:

● Requires assumptions about the data, such as normality and equal

variances.
● Sensitive to outliers or missing data, which can distort results.

Advanced Statistical Techniques

More complex statistical methods are often employed in large-scale or

longitudinal nursing research projects. These techniques include:

● Multivariate Analysis: Analyzes multiple variables simultaneously to

understand their relationships.
● Factor Analysis: Identifies underlying relationships between variables
and groups them into factors.
● Survival Analysis: Used to analyze time-to-event data, such as the
time until a patient relapses after treatment.

Strengths:

● Provides deeper insights into relationships between multiple variables.

● Useful for large datasets and complex research questions.

Limitations:

105
 ● Requires advanced statistical knowledge and specialized software.
● Difficult to interpret without a thorough understanding of the methods.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data analysis focuses on identifying patterns, themes, and

meanings within non-numerical data, such as interviews, focus groups, and
observations. Unlike quantitative analysis, qualitative analysis is more
interpretive and subjective.

Thematic Analysis

Thematic analysis involves identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns or

themes within qualitative data.

● Purpose: To explore recurring themes or concepts in the data.

● Process:
1. Familiarization: Reading and re-reading the data to become
familiar with the content.
2. Coding: Assigning labels (codes) to segments of the data that
relate to the research questions.
3. Generating Themes: Grouping similar codes together to form
broader themes.
4. Reviewing Themes: Ensuring the themes accurately represent
the data.
5. Defining and Naming Themes: Finalizing and naming the
themes for reporting.

Example in Nursing: A thematic analysis of patient interviews to identify

common themes regarding their experiences with chronic pain management.

Strengths:

● Provides rich, detailed insights into participants’ experiences.

● Flexible and applicable to a wide range of qualitative data.

Limitations:

● Time-consuming and labor-intensive.

● Subjective interpretation may lead to bias.

Content Analysis

106
Content analysis is a systematic technique for analyzing text or visual
content by categorizing it into themes or patterns.

● Purpose: To quantify and analyze the presence of specific words,

phrases, or concepts in qualitative data.
● Process:
1. Coding: Breaking the data into manageable categories or codes.
2. Counting Frequency: Measuring how often specific codes
appear in the data.
3. Interpreting Patterns: Drawing conclusions based on the
frequency and context of codes.

Example in Nursing: A content analysis of patient diaries to quantify the

emotional states expressed during their treatment journey.

Strengths:

● Suitable for both qualitative and quantitative analysis.

● Allows for the analysis of large amounts of data efficiently.

Limitations:

● Focuses on manifest content and may miss deeper meanings or

nuances.
● May oversimplify complex data by reducing it to numerical counts.

Narrative Analysis

Narrative analysis examines the stories or accounts provided by participants

to understand how they make sense of their experiences.

● Purpose: To explore how individuals construct meaning through their

personal narratives.
● Process:
○ Identifying the structure, content, and meaning of narratives.
○ Analyzing how participants’ stories reflect their understanding of
the world.

Example in Nursing: Analyzing patient narratives to understand how they

cope with a cancer diagnosis.

Strengths:

● Captures the richness and complexity of individual experiences.

107
 ● Useful for exploring how people understand and make sense of their
lives.

Limitations:

● Time-intensive and requires skilled interpretation.

● Subjectivity in interpretation may lead to biased conclusions.

Grounded Theory Analysis

Grounded theory is an inductive method that develops a theory grounded in

the data collected from participants.

● Purpose: To generate a theory based on participants' experiences

rather than testing a pre-existing theory.
● Process:
1. Data Collection: Collecting qualitative data through interviews,
observations, etc.
2. Open Coding: Identifying initial codes and categories in the data.
3. Axial Coding: Organizing codes into broader categories or
concepts.
4. Selective Coding: Integrating the categories to form a theory that
explains the phenomenon.

Example in Nursing: Using grounded theory to develop a theory on how

nurses cope with workplace stress.

Strengths:

● Produces new theoretical insights grounded in empirical data.

● Useful for generating hypotheses and explaining complex phenomena.

Limitations:

● Complex and iterative process that requires experience.

● Time-consuming and requires continuous data collection and analysis.

Mixed-Methods Data Analysis

In mixed-methods research, both quantitative and qualitative data are

analyzed to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research
problem.

108
 ● Purpose: To combine the strengths of both types of analysis and gain a
fuller picture of the research findings.
● Example in Nursing: A study that uses statistical analysis to measure
the prevalence of a disease (quantitative) and thematic analysis to
understand patients’ experiences with the disease (qualitative).

Strengths:

● Provides a richer and more complete understanding of the research

problem.
● Enables cross-validation of findings through different methods.

Limitations:

● Requires expertise in both quantitative and qualitative analysis.

● More time-consuming and complex to integrate data from different
sources.

Software Tools for Data Analysis

Several software tools are available to assist in data analysis, including:

● Quantitative Analysis Software:

○ SPSS, SAS, R, Stata (for statistical analysis)
● Qualitative Analysis Software:
○ NVivo, ATLAS.ti, MAXQDA (for coding and thematic analysis)

Ethical Considerations in Data Analysis

Ethical considerations are essential in data analysis, particularly in ensuring

the integrity of the research process and protecting participants' rights. Key
ethical principles include:

● Confidentiality: Researchers must maintain the confidentiality of

participant data and ensure secure data storage.
● Data Integrity: Researchers must avoid manipulating data to fit desired
outcomes, ensuring that findings are accurate and truthful.
● Transparency: The data analysis process should be transparent,
allowing others to understand and replicate the findings.

Challenges in Data Analysis

Some challenges in data analysis in nursing research include:

109
 ● Handling Missing Data: Missing data can affect the validity of the
results, requiring strategies such as imputation or exclusion.
● Bias and Subjectivity: Researchers must be cautious of personal
biases influencing the interpretation of the data, especially in qualitative
analysis.
● Data Overload: Large datasets can be overwhelming and difficult to
manage, requiring efficient data organization and reduction techniques.

10 Conclusion

Data analysis is a critical component of nursing research that transforms raw

data into meaningful insights. Both quantitative and qualitative methods
have their strengths and limitations, and researchers must carefully select the
appropriate techniques based on their research questions and the type of data
collected. By employing rigorous data analysis methods, nursing research can
provide valuable evidence that enhances patient care, informs clinical
practice, and shapes healthcare policies.

chapter 9

Statistics

The word statistics, which is derived from the word 'state', entered the English
vocabulary in the eighteenth century. It was used then, and still is used, to
mean one or more sets of numerical data on various items like population,
taxes, wealth, exports, imports, crop production, etc., which are of interest to
state officials. There are two ways to use the word statistics. If we say
'statistics is', we are generally referring to the science of statistics. If we say
'the statistics are', we are refemng to numbers such as batting averages, the
number of unemployed during the month of October, or the number of deaths
from malaria during a given year. It is hard to come up with a concise
definition of statistics because it is a broad subject that has many facets.
Commonly, it is believed that statistics involves the collection, organisation,
analysis, and interpretation of data.

Chapter 9

Discussion, Conclusion, Limitation, and Recommendations

This chapter marks the final stages of a research study, where researchers
interpret and contextualise their findings, acknowledge the study’s limitations,

110
and propose recommendations for practice, policy, or future research. In
nursing research, this stage is crucial for translating evidence into actionable
insights that can improve patient care, healthcare systems, and nursing
practice.

Discussion

The discussion section is where the researcher interprets the findings of the
study, comparing them with previous literature, and highlights the implications
for nursing practice. This section should address whether the research
questions or hypotheses were answered and what the findings mean in the
context of existing knowledge.

Interpretation of Findings

● Summarising Key Results: The researcher should begin by

summarising the main findings of the study. This involves restating
significant results and explaining their meaning.
● Linking to Research Questions: The findings must be explicitly
connected to the original research questions or hypotheses. Were the
hypotheses supported or rejected? Did the study answer the research
questions?
● Contextualising with Literature: The researcher should compare the
study’s findings with the results of previous studies in the literature. Are
the findings consistent with or different from earlier research? This helps
to position the current research within the broader body of nursing
knowledge.
● Implications for Nursing Practice: The discussion should emphasise
the practical implications of the research for nursing practice, education,
and healthcare delivery. For example, how can the findings inform
clinical decision-making or improve patient outcomes?

Example: If the study found that patient education on medication adherence

improved compliance, the discussion should explore how this can be
integrated into nursing interventions and policies.

Explanation of Unexpected Findings

Sometimes, the results of a study may differ from expectations or previous

research findings. The discussion should offer plausible explanations for these
discrepancies. This may include:

● Differences in study design, sample, or methodology.

111
 ● Unanticipated external factors influencing the results.
● Potential biases or confounding variables.

Addressing unexpected findings is important for transparency and for

providing insights that could guide future research.

Strengths of the Study

The discussion should also highlight the strengths of the study, such as:

● A large or representative sample size.

● Use of a robust research design or innovative methodology.
● Contribution to an under-researched area in nursing.

By identifying the strengths, researchers can emphasise the reliability and

potential impact of the study’s findings.

Conclusion

The conclusion section provides a concise summary of the study’s key

findings and their implications. It serves as the final takeaway for readers and
highlights the main contributions of the research.

Summary of Key Findings

The researcher should briefly summarise the most important results, focusing
on how they answered the research questions or tested the hypotheses. This
is a synthesis of the main points without introducing new information.

Example: If a study examined the impact of nurse-led patient education on

managing chronic illness, the conclusion might state: "The findings
demonstrate that nurse-led education significantly improves self-management
behaviours and reduces hospital readmissions among patients with chronic
illnesses."

Implications for Nursing Practice

The conclusion should clearly state how the research contributes to improving
nursing practice. This could include:

● New strategies for patient care.

● Improvements to nursing workflows or protocols.
● Enhancements in patient outcomes based on the findings.

112
Example: "The study's results support the integration of structured patient
education programs into routine nursing care for patients with diabetes."

Broader Implications

In addition to direct nursing practice, the conclusion may consider broader

implications for healthcare policy, education, or management. For instance,
how might the findings influence nursing curricula, staffing models, or health
policies?

Limitations of the Study

Every research study has limitations, and acknowledging these is important

for maintaining transparency and credibility. The limitations section outlines
the potential weaknesses or constraints that may have affected the study’s
outcomes.

Common Limitations in Nursing Research

● Sample Size and Generalizability: A small or non-representative

sample may limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations
or settings.
● Study Design: The choice of design (e.g., cross-sectional,
observational) may affect the strength of the conclusions. For example,
cross-sectional designs cannot establish causality.
● Measurement Issues: Limitations related to the accuracy, reliability, or
validity of measurement tools or instruments used.
● Bias: Potential sources of bias, such as selection bias, response bias,
or researcher bias, may influence the results.
● External Validity: Limited by geographic, cultural, or institutional factors
that may not apply to other settings.

Addressing Limitations

Researchers should not only list the limitations but also discuss how these
limitations were mitigated or managed during the study. Additionally, it’s
important to explain the extent to which these limitations impact the overall
validity or reliability of the findings.

Example: "While the sample size was relatively small, the use of random
sampling helped mitigate selection bias, and the findings provide valuable
insights into the population studied."

113
Recommendations

Based on the findings and limitations, the recommendations section

suggests practical steps for nursing practice, policy, or future research.

Recommendations for Nursing Practice

Recommendations should be actionable and based on the study’s results.

They may include:

● Changes or improvements in nursing interventions or protocols.

● Adoption of new practices or technologies in patient care.
● Strategies for improving patient outcomes based on the research
findings.

Example: "It is recommended that healthcare organisations integrate nurse-

led patient education into chronic illness management programs to improve
patient self-care and reduce hospital admissions."

Recommendations for Policy

For studies that have broader implications for healthcare systems, the
researcher may suggest policy changes at institutional, regional, or national
levels. These recommendations should be based on the study’s evidence and
address existing gaps or issues.

Example: "Policymakers should consider allocating resources to develop

comprehensive training programs for nurses on effective patient education
strategies."

Recommendations for Future Research

Research often generates new questions or areas for further investigation.

The researcher should propose directions for future studies, considering:

● Unanswered questions or limitations from the current study.

● New variables or populations to explore.
● Additional research methods or designs that could address existing
gaps.

Example: "Future research should focus on larger, multi-site studies to

validate the effectiveness of nurse-led education across different healthcare
settings."

Conclusion

114
 synthesises the findings, strengths, and limitations of the research, while also
offering practical recommendations for future practice, policy, and research.
The discussion interprets the results and their relevance to nursing, the
conclusion highlights the key takeaways, the limitations provide a
transparent evaluation of the study's weaknesses, and the recommendations
offer actionable insights for advancing the field of nursing. Together, these
elements ensure that nursing research is applied meaningfully to enhance
clinical practice, improve patient outcomes, and guide future investigations.

Chapter 10

Writing Research Proposal and Report

Writing a research proposal and report are essential components of the
research process. For nursing professionals, these documents provide a
structured way to present research ideas, gain approval for studies, and
communicate findings to the broader scientific and clinical community. This
chapter covers the purpose, structure, and tips for writing both a research
proposal and a research report in nursing research.

The Research Proposal

A research proposal is a formal document that outlines a plan for a research

project. It serves to explain what the researcher intends to study, why the
study is important, and how the research will be conducted. A well-written
research proposal is essential for gaining approval from institutional review
boards (IRBs), ethical committees, and potential funding organisations.

Purpose of the Research Proposal

The main purposes of a research proposal are:

● To communicate the research problem and its significance.

● To demonstrate the feasibility of the research design and methods.
● To secure approval from ethical boards and institutions.
● To obtain funding or support for the research project.

Structure of a Research Proposal

A research proposal generally follows a standardised structure, which includes

the following sections:

1. Title Page
○ The title of the proposed research.

115
 ○ Name of the researcher and any affiliated institutions.
2. Abstract
○ A brief summary (150-250 words) of the research problem,
objectives, methodology, and significance of the study.
3. Introduction/Background
○ Provides an overview of the research topic.
○ Clearly states the research problem or question.
○ Reviews the relevant literature to establish the importance of the
study.
○ Outlines the theoretical framework or rationale for the study.
4. Research Objectives or Hypothesis
○ States the specific aims of the research or the hypotheses that
will be tested.
5. Research Questions
○ Lists the key questions the research aims to answer.
6. Literature Review
○ Summarises existing research related to the topic, identifying
gaps that the proposed study seeks to address.
7. Research Design and Methodology
○ Study Design: Describes whether the study will be qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed-methods.
○ Population and Sample: Identifies the target population, sample
size, and sampling methods.
○ Data Collection Methods: Explains how data will be gathered
(e.g., surveys, interviews, clinical tests).
○ Data Analysis Plan: Describes the statistical or thematic analysis
methods that will be used.
○ Ethical Considerations: Discusses how participant rights and
confidentiality will be protected.
8. Timeline
○ A proposed schedule for each phase of the research, from data
collection to analysis.
9. Budget (if applicable)
○ A detailed estimate of the costs associated with the research
project, such as materials, personnel, and equipment.
10. References
○ A list of all the scholarly sources cited in the proposal.

Tips for Writing a Strong Research Proposal

116
 ● Be Clear and Concise: Clearly state the research question, objectives,
and methodology without unnecessary jargon.
● Justify the Study: Emphasise the significance of the research and how
it will contribute to nursing practice or healthcare.
● Be Realistic: Ensure that the proposed research design and methods
are feasible within the available time, resources, and funding.
● Review Guidelines: Adhere to any specific guidelines provided by
funding agencies or review boards.

The Research Report

A research report is a detailed account of the entire research process, from

the initial proposal to the analysis and interpretation of findings. This
document is the final step in a research project and is often shared with peers,
published in journals, or presented at conferences. In nursing research, a
clear and thorough research report is critical for disseminating findings that
can improve patient care and inform clinical practice.

Purpose of the Research Report

The research report serves several key purposes:

● To communicate research findings to the academic and clinical

communities.
● To contribute new knowledge or insights to the field of nursing.
● To inform evidence-based practice and guide future research efforts.

Structure of a Research Report

A research report typically follows a formal structure, including the following

sections:

1. Title Page
○ Title of the research.
○ Name of the researcher(s) and institutional affiliations.
○ Date of submission or publication.
2. Abstract
○ A concise summary of the research objectives, methodology,
results, and conclusions (150-300 words).
3. Introduction
○ Provides background information on the research topic.
○ Clearly defines the research problem and its significance in the
context of nursing.

117
 ○ Reviews relevant literature and theoretical frameworks.
4. Research Objectives and Questions
○ Reiterates the goals of the study and the specific research
questions or hypotheses being addressed.
5. Methodology
○ Study Design: Describes the research design and rationale for
choosing it.
○ Population and Sample: Explains how the sample was selected
and provides details about the participants.
○ Data Collection: Describes the tools and methods used for
collecting data.
○ Data Analysis: Provides details on the statistical or qualitative
analysis techniques employed.
○ Ethical Considerations: Summarises how ethical standards
were upheld, such as obtaining informed consent and protecting
confidentiality.
6. Results
○ Presents the findings of the study in a clear and logical manner.
○ For quantitative studies, use tables, charts, and statistical
analyses to display data.
○ For qualitative studies, present themes, categories, and quotes
from participants.
○ Avoid interpreting the findings in this section—just present the
data.
7. Discussion
○ Interprets the results in relation to the research questions and
literature.
○ Discusses the implications for nursing practice, policy, or
education.
○ Addresses unexpected findings and offers explanations.
8. Conclusion
○ Summarises the key findings and their significance.
○ Provides final insights on the contribution of the study to nursing
research and practice.
9. Limitations
○ Acknowledges any limitations that may have affected the study’s
results or generalizability.
10. Recommendations
○ Proposes practical recommendations for nursing practice,
healthcare policy, or future research.

118
 11. References
○ Lists all scholarly sources cited in the report, using the
appropriate referencing style.
12. Appendices (if applicable)
○ Includes additional materials such as questionnaires, consent
forms, or detailed data tables.

Tips for Writing a Clear Research Report

● Be Organized: Follow the standard structure to ensure the report is

easy to read and understand.
● Be Objective: Present the findings in a neutral, unbiased manner,
avoiding over-interpretation or unsupported claims.
● Use Visual Aids: Incorporate tables, graphs, and charts to help present
quantitative data clearly.
● Ensure Consistency: Ensure consistency between the objectives,
methods, and findings to maintain the logical flow of the report.

Ethical Considerations in Research Writing

When writing a research proposal or report, ethical considerations should be

emphasised throughout:

● Honesty in Reporting: Researchers must accurately report their

findings, avoiding manipulation or omission of data.
● Acknowledging Sources: Properly cite all references and credit
contributions from other researchers or institutions.
● Participant Confidentiality: Ensure that the anonymity and
confidentiality of study participants are maintained in the report.

Differences Between Proposal and Report

While both the proposal and report share similar structures, they serve
different purposes:

● Proposal: A forward-looking plan outlining the research project before it

begins.
● Report: A backward-looking document detailing the research process
and findings after the project has been completed.

119
Conclusion of Chapter 10
Writing a research proposal and report is an integral part of the research
process in nursing. The proposal outlines a plan for the research, securing
approval and funding, while the research report communicates the outcomes
and significance of the completed study. Mastery of these writing formats is
essential for disseminating new knowledge, advancing evidence-based
nursing practice, and contributing to the broader healthcare community.
Proper organization, clear writing, and adherence to ethical standards ensure
that both proposals and reports are effective and impactful.

Chapter 11

APA Format for Referencing and Other Formats

Proper referencing and adherence to formatting styles are crucial in academic
writing and research. The American Psychological Association (APA) format is
widely used in nursing and healthcare research. This chapter covers the APA
referencing style, including its key elements and how to apply it, as well as
briefly discussing other common referencing formats.

APA Format for Referencing

The APA format, currently in its 7th edition, provides guidelines for citing
sources in research papers. Adhering to APA style ensures clarity and
consistency in referencing, which helps readers locate the original sources of
information.

General APA Formatting Guidelines

Font: Use a legible font such as 12-point Times New Roman.

Margins: Set 1-inch margins on all sides.

Line Spacing: Double-space the entire document, including the reference list.

Page Numbers: Include page numbers in the top right corner of each page.

Header: Include a page header (title of the paper) on the top left of each page.

In-Text Citations

In-text citations are brief references within the text of your paper that direct
readers to the full citation in the reference list.

120
Author-Date Format: Include the author’s last name and the year of
publication in parentheses.

Example: (Smith, 2020)

Direct Quotations: For quotes, include the page number.

Example: (Smith, 2020, p. 15)

Multiple Authors: For a work with two authors, include both last names.

Example: (Smith & Jones, 2020)

For three or more authors, use the first author’s last name followed by "et al."

Example: (Smith et al., 2020)

Reference List

The reference list appears at the end of your paper and provides full details of
all sources cited in-text.

General Format:

Books:

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Publisher.

Example: Smith, J. (2020). Introduction to nursing research. Springer.

Journal Articles:

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue

number), page range. DOI (if available)

Example: Jones, M. (2019). The impact of nurse-led interventions on patient

outcomes. Journal of Nursing Science, 25(3), 45-58.
https://doi.org/10.1234/jns.2019.025

Websites:

Author, A. A. (Year, Month, Date). Title of web page. Website Name. URL

Example: Doe, J. (2021, June 15). Evidence-based practice in nursing.

Nursing Resources. http://www.nursingresources.com/evidence-based-
practice

121
Formatting Details:

Hanging Indent: Use a hanging indent for each reference, where the first line
is flush left, and subsequent lines are indented by 0.5 inches.

Alphabetical Order: Arrange references alphabetically by the last name of

the first author.

.4 Examples of Common References

Book with One Author:

Smith, J. A. (2018). Principles of nursing practice. Health Publishers.

Book with Multiple Authors:

Brown, L. R., & Green, K. M. (2020). Advanced nursing practice. MedBooks.

Journal Article:

Davis, R. P., & Lee, T. (2021). Assessing patient satisfaction in nursing care.
Nursing Care Journal, 32(4), 12-25. https://doi.org/10.5678/ncj.2021.032

Website:

American Nurses Association. (2022). Nursing advocacy and leadership.

https://www.nursingworld.org/advocacy-leadership

Other Referencing Formats

In addition to APA, several other referencing styles are used in academic

writing, including:

Modern Language Association (MLA) Style

In-Text Citations: (Author Page Number)

Example: (Smith 45)

Works Cited: Lists sources at the end of the paper. The format for books,
articles, and web pages is similar to APA but with different punctuation and
ordering rules.

Chicago Manual of Style

Notes and Bibliography: Uses footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations and
a bibliography at the end.

122
Example: Smith, John. Introduction to Nursing Research. Chicago University
Press, 2020.

Author-Date: Similar to APA with in-text citations and a reference list.

Example: Smith, John. 2020. Introduction to Nursing Research. Chicago

University Press.

Harvard Style

In-Text Citations: (Author Year)

Example: (Smith 2020)

Reference List: Similar to APA but with slight differences in punctuation and
formatting.

Vancouver Style

In-Text Citations: Use numbers in superscript or brackets.

Example: [1] or ^1

Reference List: Organised numerically in the order in which sources are cited
in the text.

Choosing the Right Referencing Style

The choice of referencing style depends on the requirements of the

publication, institution, or funding agency. Always check the guidelines
provided for specific formatting rules.

Conclusion

Correct referencing and formatting are essential for maintaining the credibility
and readability of research documents. The APA format is commonly used in
nursing research, providing a clear and consistent method for citing sources.
Understanding and applying different referencing styles, such as MLA,
Chicago, Harvard, and Vancouver, ensures that researchers can meet varied
requirements and effectively communicate their findings. By adhering to these
standards, researchers contribute to the integrity and accessibility of academic
work.

123
124