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Lecture 5

Chapter 25 covers the fundamentals of electric current, including how charges move in conductors, the calculation of resistance, and the role of electromotive force (emf) in circuits. It discusses the properties of resistivity, temperature effects on conductivity, and the concept of superconductivity. Additionally, the chapter explains Ohm's law, internal resistance, and the relationship between energy and power in electric circuits.

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2 views

Lecture 5

Chapter 25 covers the fundamentals of electric current, including how charges move in conductors, the calculation of resistance, and the role of electromotive force (emf) in circuits. It discusses the properties of resistivity, temperature effects on conductivity, and the concept of superconductivity. Additionally, the chapter explains Ohm's law, internal resistance, and the relationship between energy and power in electric circuits.

Uploaded by

seymennebi087
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Learning Goals for Chapter 25

Looking forward at …
• the meaning of electric current, and how charges move in a
conductor.
• how to calculate the resistance of a conductor from its dimensions
and its resistivity or conductivity.
• how an electromotive force (emf) makes it possible for current to
flow in a circuit.
• how to do calculations involving energy and power in circuits.
• how to use a simple model to understand the flow of current in
metals.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Introduction

• Electric circuits contain


charges in motion.
• In a flashlight, the amount of
current that flows out of the
bulb is the same as the amount
that flows into the bulb.
• It is the energy of the charges that decreases as the current flows
through light bulbs.
• Circuits are at the heart of modern devices such as computers,
televisions, and industrial power systems.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Current
• A current is any motion of charge
from one region to another.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Direction of current flow
• A current can be produced by positive or negative charge flow.
• Conventional current is treated as a flow of positive charges.
• In a metallic conductor, the moving charges are electrons —but the current
still points in the direction positive charges would flow.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Signs of charge carriers
• In general, a conductor may
contain several different kinds
of moving charged particles.
• An example is current flow in
an ionic solution.
• In the sodium chloride solution
shown, current can be carried
by both positive sodium ions and negative chlorine ions
• The total current I is found by adding up the currents due to each kind of
charged particle.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Current density
• We can define a vector current density that includes the direction of the
drift velocity:

• The vector current density is always in the same direction as the electric
field, no matter what the signs of the charge carriers are.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Resistivity
• The resistivity of a material is the ratio of the electric field in the material to
the current density it causes:

• The conductivity is the reciprocal of the resistivity.


• The next slide shows the resistivity of various types of materials.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Resistivities at room temperature (20°C)
Substance ρ (Ω ∙ m)
Copper 1.72 ×10−8

Conductors Gold 2.44 ×10−8


Lead 22 ×10−8
Pure carbon (graphite) 3.5 ×10−5
Semiconductor:
Glass 1010 – 1014
Teflon >1013
Insulators
Wood 108 – 1011

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Resistivity and temperature
• The resistivity of a metallic conductor
nearly always increases with
increasing temperature.
• Over a small temperature range, the
resistivity of a metal can be
represented approximately:

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Temperature coefficients of resistivity

Material α [(°C)−1]
Aluminum 0.00039
Carbon (graphite) −0.0005
Copper 0.00393
Iron 0.0050
Lead 0.0043
Silver 0.0038
Tungsten 0.0045
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Resistivity and temperature
• The resistivity of graphite (a semiconductor) decreases with
increasing temperature, since at higher temperatures, more
electrons “shake loose” from the atoms and becomemobile.
• Measuring the resistivity of a small semiconductor crystal is a
sensitive measure of temperature; this is the principle of a type of
thermometer called a thermistor.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Superconductivity

• Some materials show a


phenomenon called
superconductivity.
• As the temperature decreases,
the resistivity at first decreases
smoothly, like that of any metal.

• Below a certain critical


temperature Tc a phase
transition occurs and the resistivity suddenly drops to zero.
• Once a current has been established in a superconducting ring, it
continues indefinitely without the presence of any driving field.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Resistance and Ohm’slaw
• The resistance of a conductor is
• The potential across a conductor is given by Ohm’s law:
V = IR.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Ohmic resistors
• For a resistor that obeys Ohm’s law, a graph of current as a function of
potential difference (voltage) is a straight line.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Nonohmic resistors
• In devices that do not obey Ohm’s law, the relationship of voltage to current
may not be a direct proportion, and it may be different for the two
directions of current.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Electromotive force and circuits
• Just as a water fountain requires a pump, an electric circuit requires a
source of electromotive force to sustain a steady current.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Electromotive force and circuits
• The influence that makes current flow from lower to higher
potential is called electromotive force (abbreviated emf and
pronounced “ee-em-eff”), and a circuit device thatprovides emf is
called a source of emf.
• Note that “electromotive force” is a poor termbecause emf is not
a force but an energy-per-unit-charge quantity, like potential.
• The SI unit of emf is the same as that for potential, the volt
(1 V = 1 J/C).
• A typical flashlight battery has an emf of 1.5 V; this means that the
battery does 1.5 J of work on every coulomb of charge that passes
through it.
• We’ll use the symbol (a script capital E) foremf.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Internal resistance
• Real sources of emf actually contain some
internal
resistance r.
• The terminal voltage of the 12-V battery
shown at the right is less than 12 V when it
is connected to the light bulb.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Table 25.4 — Symbols for circuit diagrams

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Potential changes
• The figure shows how the potential
varies as we go around a complete
circuit.
• The potential rises when the current
goes through a battery, and drops
when it goes through a resistor.
• Going all the way around the loop
brings the potential back to where it
started.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


Energy and power in electric circuits

• The box represents a circuit


element with potential
difference Vab = Va − Vb
between its terminals and
current I passing through it in
the direction from a toward b.
• If the potential at a is lower than at b, then there is a net transfer of energy
out of the circuit element.
• The time rate of energy transfer is power, denoted by P, so we write:

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.


© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.
For the circuit that we analyzed
in Example 25.5, find the rates
of energy conversion (chemical
to electrical) and energy
dissipation in the battery, the
rate of energy dissipation in the
4-Æ resistor, and the battery’s
net power output.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Ltd.

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