INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

Computer networks: are systems that consist of interconnected computing devices that can
communicate and share resources with each other. These devices can include computers, servers,
network devices (such as routers and switches), and other hardware like printers and storage
devices. The main purpose of a computer network is to enable data exchange and resource
sharing among these devices, which can be located in the same physical location or dispersed
across vast geographical areas.

Computer networks: are collections of computing devices (nodes) connected by

communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. These networks may
be as small as two devices connected directly, or as large as billions of devices indirectly
connected via the Internet.

Data communications refer to the transmission of digital data between two or more computers
through a communication medium. This process involves the transfer of data, such as text, audio,
video, and images, over various communication channels including cables, wireless signals,
optical fibers, and satellite links.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user
2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without
introducing any errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the
accuracy of the delivered data.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any
delay; such a data delivery is called real time transmission of data.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
 Geographical span
 Inter-connectivity
 Administration
 Architecture
Geographical span: refers to the physical area covered by a computer network. A computer
network can be sized based on its geographical reach. It can range from a small Personal Area
Network (PAN) connecting devices on your desk using Bluetooth to a Wide Area Network
(WAN) spanning entire continents, like the internet. it can be seen in one of the following
categories:
 It may be spanned across your table, among Bluetooth enabled devices, Ranging not
more than few meters.
 It may be spanned across a whole building, including intermediate devices to connect
all floors.
 It may be spanned across a whole city.
 It may be spanned across multiple cities or provinces.
 It may be one network covering whole world.
Inter-Connectivity: this can be described as the various ways devices connect to each other,
including a fully connected mesh where every device links to every other device, a bus-like
structure with geographically separated devices connected to a single medium, a linear structure
where each device connects to its immediate neighbors, a star-like structure with all devices
connected to a central device, and a hybrid structure that combines these methods.
Components of a network can be connected to each other differently in some fashion. By
connectedness we mean either logically, physically, or both ways.
 Every single device can be connected to every other device on network, making the
network mesh.
 All devices can be connected to a single medium but geographically disconnected,
created bus-like structure.
 Each device is connected to its left and right peers only, creating linear structure.
 All devices connected together with a single device, creating star-like structure.
 All devices connected arbitrarily using all previous ways to connect each other,
resulting in a hybrid structure.
Administration: From an administrator’s point of view, a network can be private network which
belongs a single autonomous system and cannot be accessed outside its physical or logical
domain. A network can be public, which is accessed by all.
Network Architecture: Computer networks can be discriminated into various types such as
Client-Server, peer-to-peer or hybrid, depending upon its architecture.
  There can be one or more systems acting as Server. Other being Client, requests the
Server to serve requests. Server takes and processes request on behalf of Clients.
 Two systems can be connected Point-to-Point, or in back-to-back fashion. They both
reside at the same level and called peers.
 There can be hybrid network which involves network architecture of both the above
types.
NETWORK APPLICATIONS
Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network. They provide numerous
advantages:
 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
 Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 IP phones
 Video conferences
 Parallel computing
 Instant messaging
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
1. Personal Area Network (PAN) is the smallest network which is very personal to a user.
This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has
connectivity range up to 10 meters. PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and
mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless printers, and TV remotes.
2. Local Area Network: A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under
single administrative system is generally termed as Local Area Network (LAN). Number of
systems connected in LAN may vary from as least as two to as much as 16 million. A
network that covers a small geographic area, like a single building or a campus.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A network that covers a larger geographic area
than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, typically a city. It can be in the form of Ethernet,
Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). Metro Ethernet is a service
 which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to expand their Local Area
Networks. For example, MAN can help an organization to connect all of its offices in a city
4. Wide Area Network (WAN): A network that spans large geographical areas, such as
cities, countries, or even continents. Generally, telecommunication networks are Wide Area
Network. These networks provide connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since they are
equipped with very high-speed backbone, WANs use very expensive network equipment.

Internetwork: An internetwork, often simply called an internet, is a network of networks. It is

the largest network in existence, connecting WANs, LANs, and home networks globally. It uses
the TCP/IP protocol suite with IP addressing, primarily IPv4, though it is gradually transitioning
to IPv6 due to address space shortages. Internet is serving many proposes and is involved in
many aspects of life. Some of them are:
 Web sites
 E-mail
 Instant Messaging
 Blogging
 Social Media
 Marketing
 Networking
 Resource Sharing
 Audio and Video Streaming

NETWORK LAN TECHNOLOGIES

1. Ethernet is a foundational LAN technology invented in 1970 and standardized in 1980.

It operates over shared media, leading to potential data collisions managed by CSMA/CD
technology. To manage collisions, Ethernet employs Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). When a collision occurs, all devices stop transmitting,
wait for a random time, and then try to send their data again. Devices are connected using
NICs with unique MAC addresses. Traditional Ethernet (10BASE-T) operates at 10
Mbps, using coaxial or Cat-5 cables and follows a star topology with segment lengths up
to 100 meters.
 2. Fast Ethernet is an advanced version of traditional Ethernet, offering speeds up to 100
Mbps to support evolving technology needs. It can operate over UTP, optical fiber, and
wirelessly. The 100BASE-T standard uses Cat-5 cables and CSMA/CD for wired media,
while wireless Fast Ethernet uses CSMA/CA. The 100BASE-FX standard defines Fast
Ethernet over optical fiber, extending up to 100 meters in half-duplex and 2000 meters in
full-duplex mode.
3. Gigabit Ethernet: introduced in 1995, quickly surpassed Fast Ethernet by offering
speeds up to 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps). The IEEE802.3ab standardizes Gigabit Ethernet over
UTP cables, including Cat-5, Cat-5e, and Cat-6. For fiber optic connections, the
IEEE802.3ah standard applies. This technology supports much higher network speeds,
making it suitable for demanding applications and environments requiring fast data
transfer.
4. Virtual LANs (VLANs) provide a method to segment a single broadcast domain into
multiple broadcast domains, enhancing network organization and security. Traditional
Ethernet creates single collision and broadcast domains, but switches alleviate collision
domains by providing each device with its own. However, VLANs are necessary to
segment the broadcast domain, ensuring devices in one VLAN cannot communicate with
those in another without proper routing. This setup allows for better traffic management
and improved network performance. Traditional Ethernet networks use shared media,
which creates a single broadcast domain and a single collision domain.
- Broadcast Domain: A broadcast domain is a network segment where a broadcast
packet sent by any device is received by all other devices.
- Collision Domain: A collision domain is a network segment where data packets can
collide with one another when sent by multiple devices.

COMPUTER NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the network.
Both logical and physical topologies could be same or different in a same network.
1. Point-To-Point: this network directly connects two hosts using a single cable, forming a
straightforward communication path. Even if intermediate devices are involved logically,
 the hosts perceive the connection as a direct link, making the underlying network
complexity transparent to them. This setup ensures clear and efficient communication
between the two connected devices.

Advantages
 Simplicity: Easy to set up and configure, as it involves only two devices.
 Reliability: Provides a straightforward, direct path for communication, reducing
potential points of failure.
Disadvantages
 Limited Scalability: Not suitable for large networks, as it only connects two
devices.
 No Redundancy: If the connection fails, communication between the two hosts is
disrupted.

2. Bus Topology: In a bus topology, all devices (computers, servers, etc.) are connected to a
single communication line or cable. Multiple hosts sending data simultaneously can cause
data collisions. CSMA/CD technology is used to detect and manage collisions.
Alternatively, one host may be designated as the Bus Master to control access to the
communication line and prevent collisions.

Advantages
 Simplicity: Easy to set up and extend, as it involves a single cable.
  Cost-Effective: Requires less cable compared to other topologies, making it
economical.
 Device Independence: Failure of one device does not impact the functionality of
other devices on the network.
Disadvantages
 Single Point of Failure: The shared communication line is a critical component;
if it fails, the entire network goes down.
 Performance Issues: As more devices are added, the likelihood of collisions
increases, leading to potential performance degradation.
 Limited Scalability: More suitable for small networks due to the collision and
performance issues.
3. Star Topology: In a star topology, all hosts (computers, servers, etc.) are connected to a
central device using point-to-point connections. Each host has a direct connection to the
central hub.
 Advantages
 Simplified Troubleshooting: Easy to diagnose and isolate faults since each
device is connected via a separate cable.
 Scalability: Adding or removing a host requires only a single cable connection to
the hub.
 Performance: Each host has a dedicated point-to-point connection, reducing the
likelihood of collisions and improving overall performance.

Disadvantages
 Single Point of Failure: The hub is a critical component; if it fails, the entire
network's connectivity is disrupted.
 Cost: More cabling is required compared to a bus topology since each host needs
an individual cable to the hub.
 Dependency on Hub: All communication must pass through the hub, potentially
creating a bottleneck if the hub's capacity is exceeded.
4. Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each host (computer, server, etc.) is connected to
exactly two other hosts, forming a circular network structure.

Advantages
 Simple Cable Management: Adding or removing hosts requires minimal
cable adjustments.
 Equal Access: Each host has equal access to the network, and data travels in a
single direction, reducing the chance of data collisions.
 Disadvantages
 Single Point of Failure: The failure of any single host or connection disrupts
the entire network, as the ring is broken.
 Dependency on Each Host: The network's functionality relies on each host;
any failure affects the entire ring.
 Latency: Data must pass through multiple intermediate hosts to reach its
destination, potentially increasing latency.
5. Mesh Topology: In mesh topology, each host (computer, server, etc.) is connected to one
or multiple other hosts. It involves either a full or partial point-to-point connection
network.
Types Of Mesh Topology
a. Full Mesh: Every host has a direct point-to-point connection with every other host.
b. Not all hosts are directly connected to every other host. Instead, some hosts have point-
to-point connections with a subset of other hosts.

Advantages
 High Reliability: Provides the most reliable network structure with multiple
pathways for data transmission.
 Fault Tolerance: Ensures continuous network operation even if one or more
connections fail.
 Efficient Data Routing: Data can be routed through multiple paths, optimizing for
the best route.
 Disadvantages
 High Implementation Cost: Requires significant investment in cables and network
interfaces.
 Complex Management: Difficult to manage and maintain due to the large number
of connections.
 Scalability Issues: Adding new hosts in a full mesh network increases complexity
exponentially.
6. Tree Topology (Hierarchical Topology): This topology structures the network in a
hierarchical manner, resembling a tree. It combines elements of both star and bus
topologies.

Advantages
 Scalability: Easily scalable by adding more devices or layers, suitable for large
networks.
 Manageability: Hierarchical nature makes it easier to manage and troubleshoot
by isolating different network segments.
 Centralized Control: Core layer allows for centralized management and control
of the network.
Disadvantages
 Single Point of Failure: If the core layer (root) fails, the entire network can be
affected, though not as severe as in a pure bus topology.
 Complexity: More complex to design, configure, and maintain compared to
simpler topologies.
 Dependency on Hierarchy: Each layer relies on the layer above it, making it
crucial to maintain robust connections between layers.
7. Daisy Chain Topology: In daisy chain topology, each host (computer, server, etc.) is
connected in a linear sequence to two other hosts, except for the end hosts, which are
connected to only one other host.

Advantages
 Simple Setup: Easy to set up and expand by adding additional hosts at either end
of the chain.
 Low Cost: Minimal cabling is required compared to other topologies like mesh.
Disadvantages
 Single Point of Failure: Each connection is a single point of failure; if any link
fails, the network splits into two disconnected segments.
 Reliance on Intermediate Hosts: Intermediate hosts act as relays for data,
meaning that a failure in any intermediate host can disrupt communication
between other hosts.
 Limited Scalability: Adding a large number of hosts can increase latency and
make the network more susceptible to failures.
8. Hybrid Topology: A network structure that combines two or more different types of
topologies (such as star, ring, mesh, bus, or tree) is known as a hybrid topology.
 Advantages
 Flexibility: Allows the creation of a network that leverages the strengths and
compensates for the weaknesses of its component topologies.
 Scalability: Can easily expand by adding new elements without a complete
redesign, accommodating growth and changes in network size and configuration.
 Reliability: Can be designed to provide redundancy and fault tolerance by
incorporating robust elements of different topologies (e.g., mesh’s redundancy
with star’s simplicity)
Disadvantages
 Complex Implementation: More difficult to design, configure, and maintain due
to the integration of multiple topologies.
 Cost: Can be more expensive to implement and maintain because of the
complexity and the need for more advanced networking equipment.
 Troubleshooting: Identifying and resolving issues can be challenging due to the
diverse nature of the combined topologies.

COMPUTER NETWORK MODEL

Computer Network Model: A structured framework used to design and understand network
communications, dividing the complex task of network engineering into multiple distinct layers.
Each layer is responsible for specific functions and operates independently of the others while
cooperating to achieve overall network communication.
Purpose
 Simplify Network Design
 Standardization
 Modularity

LAYERED TASKS
in the layered architecture of network models, the entire network process is divided into smaller,
specific tasks, each assigned to a dedicated layer. These layers work independently but in a
coordinated manner to handle network communication. Each layer communicates with its peer
layer on the remote host, processing tasks through encapsulation and decapsulation. This
structured approach ensures efficient, modular, and manageable network design, facilitating clear
communication and task execution across the network.

OSI Model
OSI model is a conceptual framework used to understand and implement network
communication protocols. is divided into seven layers, each with specific functions and
responsibilities:
1. Application Layer: This layer is responsible for providing interface to the application user
2. Presentation Layer: This layer defines how data in the native format of remote host
should be presented in the native format of host.
3. Session Layer: Manages and controls the connections between computers.
4. Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery between hosts.
5. Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and writing data from and onto the
line.
6. Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling, wiring, power output, pulse rate
etc.
7. Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address assignment and uniquely addressing
hosts in a network.

Internet Model: is a set of communication protocols used for the Internet and similar
networks. Unlike the OSI model, which is a theoretical framework, the Internet Model is a
practical framework used for real-world communication over the Internet. The model defines a
four-layered architecture that facilitates communication across diverse network environments.
 Application Layer: This layer defines the protocol which enables user to interact with the
network
 Transport Layer: This layer defines how data should flow between hosts.
 Internet Layer: Internet Protocol (IP) works on this layer. This layer facilitates host
addressing and recognition.
 Link Layer: This layer provides mechanism of sending and receiving actual data.
COMPUTER NETWORK SECURITY
Computer Network Security is essential for protecting the integrity, confidentiality, and
availability of data and network resources. All security threats are intentional i.e. they occur only
if intentionally triggered. Security threats can be divided into the following categories:
 Interruption: is a security threat in which availability of resources is attacked.
 Privacy-Breach occurs when an unauthorized person accesses or intercepts data meant for
the original authenticated user, compromising their privacy.
 Integrity threats involve unauthorized alteration or modification of communication,
where an attacker intercepts and sends falsified data to the receiver, misleading them to
believe it's from the original sender.
 Authenticity threats occur when an attacker impersonates a legitimate user to access
resources or communicate with others.

Cryptography: is the practice of securing information by transforming it into a code to prevent

unauthorized access. It is a technique to encrypt the plain-text data which makes it difficult to
understand and interpret.

CRYPTOGRAPHY ALGORITHMS
1. Secret Key Encryption uses the same key for both encrypting and decrypting
data. The sender and receiver both have this secret key, so the sender encrypts the data
with the key, and the receiver uses the same key to decrypt it. For example, DES is a
type of secret key encryption.
2. Public Key Encryption uses a pair of keys: a public key, which is shared openly,
and a private key, which is kept secret. Senders use the public key to encrypt data, and
the receiver uses their private key to decrypt it. For example, RSA is a type of public
key encryption.
 3. Message Digest involves sending a hash value, not the actual data. The receiver
computes their own hash from the received data and compares it with the sent hash. If
they match, the data is accepted; otherwise, it’s rejected. For example, MD5 is a type of
message digest used in authentication.

PHYSICAL LAYER INTRODUCTION

The Physical Layer in the OSI model is responsible for the actual hardware and signaling used
for network connections. It handles the physical aspects such as cables, connectors, and electrical
signals to transmit binary data. The Physical Layer takes data frames from the Data Link Layer,
converts them into electrical pulses or signals, and sends them over wired or wireless media.

SIGNALS: A signal is an electromagnetic representation of data that can be either analog or

digital.
 Digital signals are discrete in nature and represent sequence of voltage pulses
 Analog signals are in continuous wave form in nature and represented by continuous
electromagnetic waves.

TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
 Transmission impairment refers to any degradation or distortion of a signal as it travels
through a communication medium, which can reduce the quality and reliability of the
transmitted data.
 Transmission impairment happens when a signal loses strength or gets distorted while
traveling, which can make the data less clear or accurate.

Attenuation is when a signal gets weaker as it travels over a distance, making it harder for the
receiver to interpret the data accurately.
Dispersion occurs when a signal spreads out and overlaps as it travels, which can blur the data.
The amount of spreading depends on the signal's frequency.
Delay distortion happens when signals travel at different speeds or frequencies, causing some
bits to arrive out of order. This can be a major issue in digital communications, where timing is
crucial.
Noise: is random interference that disrupts analog or digital signals, affecting the clarity of the
information. It includes:
 Thermal Noise: Noise caused by heat affecting electronic conductors.
 Intermodulation: Noise from interference when multiple frequencies share a medium.
 Crosstalk: Noise from signals in one medium interfering with signals in another.
 Impulse Noise: Noise from sudden disturbances like lightning or short circuits.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
refers to the channels through which information is sent between computer systems. There are
two main types:
 Guided Media: Includes physical cables like UTP, coaxial, and fiber optics, where data
is transmitted directly between sender and receiver.
 Unguided Media: Includes wireless methods like radio waves, where data is broadcast
over the air and can be received by anyone within range.

CHANNEL CAPACITY
The speed of transmission of information is said to be the channel capacity. It depends on
numerous factors such as:
 Bandwidth: The physical limitation of underlying media.
 Error-rate: Incorrect reception of information because of noise.
 Encoding: The number of levels used for signaling.

MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is a method of combining multiple data streams into one single signal to be sent
over a single medium. It uses a multiplexer (MUX) to combine the streams and a demultiplexer
(DMUX) to separate and direct them to their intended destinations.

SWITCHING
is a process where data is sent from a source to a destination through a network of interconnected
devices. These devices receive, store, and analyze the data before forwarding it to the next device
on the path to the destination.
Digital Transmission
Digital transmission involves converting data into a digital format so it can be used by computers
and transmitted effectively over networks. Data and signals can exist in both analog and digital
forms.
Digital-to-Digital Conversion
involves transforming digital data into digital signals that can be transmitted over a
communication medium. There are two main techniques for achieving this: line coding and
block coding.
Line Coding: is the process of converting digital data into digital signals. There are three types
of line coding schemes available:
1. Unipolar: Uses a single voltage level to represent binary data.

2. Polar: Uses two voltage levels, one positive and one negative. It is available in four types:
- Polar NRZ: Uses two different voltage levels for '1' and '0', with no return to zero
between bits.
NRZ-L: Signal level depends on the bit value directly.
NRZ-I: Signal inverts on a '1', providing better synchronization for sequences of
identical bits.
- Return to Zero (RZ): Uses three voltage levels (positive, negative, zero) to represent
data and maintain synchronization. Positive voltage for '1', negative voltage for '0', and zero
voltage between bits.
- Manchester encoding divides each bit time into two halves, with a transition in the
middle: a high-to-low transition represents 0, and a low-to-high transition represents 1,
ensuring synchronization.
- Differential Manchester This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It
also transits at the middle of the bit but changes phase only when 1 is encountered.