Wireless LANs

Overview

• Wireless LAN uses wireless transmission medium.

• Problems like high prices, low data rates, occupational safety

concerns, and licensing requirements have been addressed.

• Popularity of wireless LANs has grown rapidly.

Topics covered:

1. Wireless LAN applications

2. Wireless LAN requirements

3. Wireless LAN Technology

1. Wireless LAN applications

Four application areas for wireless LANs:

a. LAN extension
b. Cross-building interconnect
c. Nomadic access and
d. Ad hoc networks
1. Wireless LAN applications -
a. LAN Extension

• Wireless LAN saves installation of LAN cabling, eases

relocation and other modifications to network structure
• But this motivation for wireless LANs was overtaken by
events like greater awareness of the need for LANs
• Also new buildings were designed to include extensive
prewiring for data applications.
• Second, with advances in data transmission technology, there
was an increasing reliance on twisted pair cabling for LANs
and, in particular, Category 3 and Category 5 UTP.
1. Wireless LAN applications -
a. LAN Extension

Reasons for increasing reliance on twisted pair cabling for LANs

are:
• Most older buildings already wired with Cat 3 cable
• Newer buildings are prewired with Cat 5
Thus, the use of a wireless LAN to replace wired LANs has not
happened to any great extent.
But in a number of environments, wireless LAN is an alternative to
a wired LAN.
Examples include
Buildings with large open areas
Manufacturing plants, stock exchange trading floors,
Warehouses
Historical buildings
Small offices where wired LANs are not economical
1. Wireless LAN applications -
a. LAN Extension

For example, a manufacturing facility typically has an office area

that is separate from the factory floor but that must be linked to it
for networking purposes.
Therefore, a wireless LAN will be linked into a wired LAN
on the same premises.
Thus, this application area is referred to as LAN extension.
Single Cell Wireless LAN Configuration(single CM)
Single Cell Wireless LAN Configuration(single CM)….

Includes
1. Backbone wired LAN
2. Control Module(CM) – interfaces to wireless LAN. Contains
• bridge or router to link wireless to wired
• polling or token passing scheme
• some of the end systems are standalone devices, such as a
workstation or a server.
• Hubs or other user modules (UMs) that control a number of
stations outside a wired LAN
 Multi-Cell Wireless LAN Configuration(multiple CM
interconnected by wired LANS

each CM supports a number of wireless end systems within its range.

Application is in Infrared LANs txns. limited to single rooms. So one
CM in each room is required.
Wireless LAN applications
b. Cross-Building Interconnect

• Connect LANs in nearby buildings

• Point-to-point wireless link used b/w buildings
• Connect bridges or routers
• Not a LAN as such but usual to include this application
under heading of wireless LAN
Wireless LAN applications
c. Nomadic Access
• Provides wireless link between LAN hub and mobile data
terminal like
—Laptop or notepad computer &
—Enable employee returning from trip to transfer data from
portable computer to server
• Also useful in extended environment such as campus or
cluster of buildings
—Users move around with portable computers &
—May wish access to servers on wired LAN
c. Nomadic Access
Wireless LAN applications
d. Ad Hoc Networking
• Ad Hoc Network is a peer-to-peer network
• Set up temporarily to meet some immediate need
• E.g. group of employees, each with laptop or palmtop, in
business or classroom meeting
• employees link their computers in a Network for duration of
meeting
• there is no infrastructure for an ad hoc network. Rather, a peer
collection of stations within range of each other may
dynamically configure themselves into a temporary network.

Compare all three..

Wireless LAN applications
d. Ad Hoc Networking
2. Wireless LAN Requirements
Same as any LAN
— High capacity, short distances, full connectivity, broadcast capability
• Throughput: make efficient use of wireless medium for max. throughput
• Number of nodes: should support hundreds of nodes across multiple cells
• Connection to backbone LAN: Use control modules to connect to both
types of LANs (wired and wireless)
• Service area: 100 to 300 m
• Low power consumption:Need long battery life on mobile stations
— Mustn't require nodes to monitor access points or frequent handshakes
• Transmission robustness and security:Interference prone and easily
eavesdropped. So design properly.
• Collocated network operation:Two or more wireless LANs in same area
• License-free operation
• Handoff/roaming: Move from one cell to another
• Dynamic configuration: Addition, deletion, and relocation of end systems
without disruption to users
 Technology

• Infrared (IR) LANs: Individual cell of IR LAN limited to

single room
—IR light does not penetrate opaque walls
• Spread spectrum LANs: Mostly operate in ISM (industrial,
scientific, and medical) frequency bands
—No Federal Communications Commission (FCC) licensing
is required in USA
• Narrowband microwave: Microwave frequencies but not use
spread spectrum
—Some require FCC licensing
Infrared LANs - Strengths and Weaknesses (advantages over
microwave radio LANs approaches.)

Infrared offers a number of significant advantages

over microwave radio approaches.
1. Unlimited Spectrum for infrared, so extremely
high data rates, but microwave radio spectrum is
limited.
2. Unregulated Spectrum (free, loose, free for all) for
infrared worldwide, but microwave radio spectrum
is regulated.
3. IR detect only amplitude of optical signals but
microwave Rxrs must detect frequency or phase.
Infrared LANs - Strengths and Weaknesses (advantages over
microwave radio approaches.)

3. Infrared shares some properties of visible light

Diffusely reflected by light-colored objects
• Use ceiling reflection to cover entire room
Does not penetrate walls or other opaque objects
• So more easily secured against eavesdropping than microwave
• And separate installation in every room without interference
4. Inexpensive and simple
Uses intensity modulation, so receivers need to detect only amplitude
Weakness : Background radiation from Sunlight & indoor lighting
• Radiation appears as Noise,
• So txr requires higher power and limiting range
• But txr power is limited by concerns of eye safety and power
consumption
Infrared LANs - Transmission Techniques

Three alternative transmission techniques for IR

data transmission:
1. the transmitted signal can be focused and aimed
(as in a remote TV control);
2. it can be radiated omnidirectionally; or
3. it can be reflected from a light-colored ceiling.
Infrared LANs - Transmission Techniques
• Directed-beam IR
—Point-to-point links
—Range depends on power and focusing
• Can be kilometers
• Used for building interconnect within line of sight
—Indoor use to set up token ring LAN
—IR transceivers positioned so that data circulate in ring
• Omnidirectional
—Single base station within line of sight of all other stations
• Typically, mounted on ceiling
—Acts as a multiport repeater
—Other transceivers use directional beam aimed at ceiling unit
• Diffused configuration
—Transmitters are focused and aimed at diffusely(to spread or
scatter widely or thinly) reflecting ceiling
Spread Spectrum LANs

Hub Topology
• Usually use multiple-cell arrangement
• Adjacent cells use different center frequencies
• Hub is typically mounted on ceiling
— Connected to wired LAN
— Connect to stations attached to wired LAN and in other cells
— May also control access
• IEEE 802.11 point coordination function
— May also act as multiport repeater
• Stations transmit to hub and receive from hub
— Stations may broadcast using an omnidirectional antenna
• Logical bus configuration
• Hub may do automatic handoff
— when signal weakening, hand off to another hub
Spread Spectrum LANs

Peer-to-Peer Topology

• No hub
• MAC algorithm such as CSMA used to control
access
• Preferred topology for Ad hoc LANs
Spread Spectrum LANs
Transmission Issues
• Licensing regulations differ from one country to another
• USA FCC authorized two unlicensed applications within the
ISM band:
— Spread spectrum - up to 1 watt
— Very low power systems- up to 0.5 watts
— 902 - 928 MHz (915-MHz band)
— 2.4 - 2.4835 GHz (2.4-GHz band)
— 5.725 - 5.825 GHz (5.8-GHz band)
— 2.4 GHz also in Europe and Japan
— Higher frequency means higher potential bandwidth
• Potential for Interference
— Devices at around 900 MHz, including cordless telephones, wireless
microphones, and amateur radio
— Fewer devices at 2.4 GHz; microwave oven
— Little competition at 5.8 GHz
• Higher frequency band, more expensive equipment
Narrow Band Microwave LANs

Using microwave radio frequency band with narrow bw.

• Just wide enough to accommodate signal
• Until recently, all products used licensed band
• At least one vendor has produced LAN product in ISM band

Licensed narrowband RF & UnLicensed narrowband RF

• ISM band(unlicensed bands) - Industrial, Scientific and

Medical Radio band. Ex equipment are Microwave ovens,
cordless phones, medical diathermy machines, military radars and
industrial heaters
Licensed Narrowband RF
• Microwave frequencies usable for voice, data, and video licensed within
specific geographic areas to avoid interference
— Radium 28 km
— Can contain five licenses
— Each covering two frequencies
— Motorola holds 600 licenses (1200 frequencies) in the 18-GHz range
— Cover all metropolitan areas with populations of 30,000 or more in
USA
• Use of cell configuration
• Adjacent cells use nonoverlapping frequency bands
• Motorola controls frequency band
— Can assure nearby independent LANs do not interfere
• All transmissions are encrypted
• Licensed narrowband LAN guarantees interference-free communication
• License holder has legal right to interference-free data channel
Unlicensed Narrowband RF
• 1995, RadioLAN introduced narrowband wireless LAN using
unlicensed ISM spectrum
— Used for narrowband transmission at low power
• 0.5 watts or less
— Operates at 10 Mbps
— 5.8-GHz band
— 50 m in semiopen office and 100 m in open office
• Peer-to-peer configuration
• Elects one node as dynamic master
— Based on location, interference, and signal strength
• Master can change automatically as conditions change
• Includes dynamic relay function
• Stations can act as repeater to move data between stations that
are out of range of each other
14-1(F) IEEE 802.11 and 17.3 (S)

IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN,

called IEEE 802.11, which covers the physical and data
link layers.

Topics discussed in this section:

Architecture n Services
MAC Sublayer
Physical Layer

14.27
IEEE 802.11 – Architecture and Services
1. Architecture
• 802.11 architecture includes
 Basic service set (BSS)
 Extended service set (ESS)
IEEE 802.11 Architecture
IEEE 802.11 – Architecture and Services
BSS
 covers the physical and data link layers.
• Smallest building block for wireless LAN is basic service set
(BSS)
— Contains Number of stations
— With Same MAC protocol
— Competing for access to same shared wireless medium
• BSS is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an
optional central base station, known as the access point (AP).
• BSS with an AP - connect to backbone distribution system (DS)
through access point (AP)
—AP functions as bridge
• MAC protocol may be distributed or controlled by central
coordination function in AP
• BSS generally corresponds to cell
• DS can be switch, wired network, or wireless network
Figure 14.1 Basic service sets (BSSs)

(Cannot send data to other BSSs)

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BSS Configuration

• Simplest: each station belongs to single BSS

—Within range only of other stations within BSS
• Can have two BSSs overlap
—Station could participate in more than one BSS
• Association between station and BSS dynamic
—Stations may turn off, come within range, and go out of
range
Extended Service Set (ESS)

• Two or more BSS interconnected by DS (backbone

distribution system)
—Typically, DS is wired backbone but can be any network
• Appears as single logical LAN to LLC
Access Point (AP)
• Logic within station that provides access to DS
—Provides DS services in addition to acting as station
• To integrate IEEE 802.11 architecture with wired
LAN portal
• Portal logic implemented in device that is part of
wired LAN and attached to DS
—E.g. Bridge or router
Figure 14.2 Extended service sets (ESSs)

14.35
Categorizing Services - 9

1. Station services implemented in every 802.11 station

Including AP stations
2. Distribution services provided between BSSs
May be implemented in AP or special-purpose device
• Three services used to control access and confidentiality
• Six services used to support delivery of MAC service data
units (MSDUs) between stations
Categorizing Services - 9

1. Distribution of messages within DS

 Distribution
 Integration
2.Association related services
 3 types based on mobility(type of station)
 No transition
 BSS transition
 ESS transition
 3 types based on association with AP
 Association – initial. b/w station n AP
 Reassociation – established association to be transferred from one
AP to another. (so station can go from one BSS to another)
 Disassociation – existing association terminated
Categorizing Services - 9

3. Access and Privacy Services –

• Authentication,
• Deauthentication
• Privacy
Services
Service Provider Category
Association Distribution system MSDU delivery
Authentication Station LAN access and
security
Deauthentication Station LAN access and
security
Dissassociation Distribution system MSDU delivery
Distribution Distribution system MSDU delivery
Integration Distribution system MSDU delivery
MSDU delivery Station MSDU delivery
Privacy Station LAN access and
security
Reassocation Distribution system MSDU delivery
Medium Access Control (MAC)
Sublayer

MAC layer covers three functional areas

• Reliable data delivery
• Access control
• Security
—Beyond our scope
Medium Access Control Sublayer -
Reliable Data Delivery
• 802.11 physical and MAC layers subject to unreliability
• Noise, interference, and other propagation effects result in loss
of frames
• Even with error-correction codes, frames may not successfully
be received
• Can be dealt with at a higher layer, such as TCP
• 802.11 includes frame exchange protocol for reliable data
delivery
Medium Access Control Sublayer –
Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) Protocol

• DCF protocol uses CSMA as acess protocol.

• If station has frame to transmit, it listens to medium
• If medium idle, station may transmit
• Otherwise must wait until current transmission complete
• No collision detection
— Not practical on wireless network
— Dynamic range of signals very large
— Transmitting station cannot distinguish incoming weak signals from
noise and effects of own transmission
• DCF includes delays
• Interframe space
Medium Access Control Sublayer -
Interframe Space
• Wait for a delay known as interframe space (IFS)
• Using IFS, rules for CSMA:
1. Station with frame senses medium
2. If busy station defers (delays) transmission
• Continue to monitor until current transmission is over
3. Once current transmission over, start another IFS
• If remains idle, back off random time and again sense
• If medium still idle, station may transmit
• During backoff time, if becomes busy, backoff timer is halted and
resumes when medium becomes idle
• To ensure stability, binary exponential backoff used
Figure 14.3 MAC layers in IEEE 802.11 standard
Figure 14.4 CSMA/CA flowchart

14.45
Network Allocation Vector (NAV)

For collision avoidance

When one station sends an RTS frame, other stations start
their NAV.
Then, before checking if channel is still busy or is now idle,
check if NAV has expired.

14.46
Figure 14.5 CSMA/CA and NAV (frame exchange time line)
Medium Access Control Sublayer -
Point Coordination Function (PCF)

• Alternative access method implemented on top of DCF

• Implemented only in infrastructure n/ws (not in AD Hocs)
• Used in time sensitive txns
• Has a centralized contention free polling access method
• AP performs polling of stations
• Uses PIFS (PCF IFS) when issuing polls
• Point coordinator polls in round-robin to stations configured
for polling
Medium Access Control Sublayer -
Priority
• Use three values for IFS
• SIFS (short IFS):
— Shortest IFS
— For all immediate response actions (see later)
• PIFS (point coordination function IFS):
— Midlength IFS
— Used by the centralized controller in PCF scheme when issuing polls
• DIFS (distributed coordination function IFS):
— Longest IFS
— Used as minimum delay for asynchronous frames contending for
access
Figure 14.6 Example of repetition interval
Medium Access Control Sublayer -
MAC Frame Fields (1)
• Frame Control:
— Type of frame
— Control, management, or data
— Provides control information
• Includes whether frame is to or from DS, fragmentation information, and
privacy information
• Duration/Connection ID:
• Addresses:4
— Number and meaning of address fields depend on context
— Types include source, destination, transmitting station, and receiving
station
• Sequence Control
• Frame Body
• Frame Check Sequence
—32-bit cyclic redundancy check
Medium Access Control Sublayer -
Frame Types - 3

3 categories of frames:

1. Management frames

2. Control Frame

3. Data frames
Medium Access Control Sublayer -
Frame Types cont…
1. Management Frames

• Used to manage communications between stations

and Aps
• E.g. management of associations
—Requests, response, reassociation, dissociation, and
authentication
Medium Access Control Sublayer -
Frame Types cont…
2. Control Frames
• Assist in reliable data delivery
• Power Save-Poll (PS-Poll)
• Request to Send (RTS)
• Clear to Send (CTS)
• Acknowledgment (ACK)
• Contention-Free (CF)-end
—Announces end of contention-free period
• CF-End + CF-Ack:
-- Acknowledges CF-end
—Ends contention-free period and releases stations from
associated restrictions
Medium Access Control Sublayer -
Frame Types cont…
2. Control Frames
Medium Access Control Sublayer -
Frame Types cont…
3. Data Frames – Data Carrying
• Data and control info
• Eight data frame subtypes
• First four carry upper-level data from source station to
destination station
• Data
• Data + CF-Ack
— Only sent during contention-free period
— Carries data and acknowledges previously received data
• Data + CF-Poll
• Data + CF-Ack + CF-Poll
Medium Access Control Sublayer -
Frame Types cont…
3. Data Frames – Not Data Carrying
• Null Function
—Carries no data, polls, or acknowledgments
—Carries power management bit in frame control field to AP
—Indicates station is changing to low-power state
Addressing mechanisms
Case 1, 2, 3, 4
Figure 14.9 Addressing mechanisms

14.59
Figure 14.10 Hidden station problem

So, collision occurs at A

14.60
 Hidden station problem

Solution: use of handshake signals RTS & CTS

The CTS frame in CSMA/CA handshake can prevent collision

from
a hidden station.

14.61
Figure 14.12 Exposed station problem

14.62
Required Reading
• Data and Computer Communications, William
Stallings, Chapter 17, 7th Edition.
• Data Communication and Networking, Behrouz A.
Forouzan, Chapter 14, 4th Edition.