WERABE UNIVERSITY

Department of Geography & Environmental Studies

Teaching material for:
Pre-University Remedial Program for the 2017 E.C. ESSLCE Examinees

Geography
Prepared by: Tizazu Adane(MA)
Werabe 2017
 Table of contents
UNIT 1: FOUNDATIONS OF GEOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHIC INQUIRY
1.1 The Science of Geography
1.1.1Meaning of Geography,
1.1.2. Scope of Geography
1.1.3 Branches of Geography
1.2 Geographic Inquiry Skills and Techniques
1.2.1 The Meaning of Maps, Basic Components of Maps, and Uses of Maps
1.2.2 Scale, scale conversion, measurement on maps (distance & area), position on Maps
1.2.3 Representation of Relief Features on Topographic Maps
1.2.4 Basic Concepts of Geographic Information System (GIS)

UNIT 2: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND AFRICA

GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES, CLIMATE SYSTEMS, NATURAL RESOURCES, AND
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES
2.1 Major Geological Processes
2.1.1 The Geological Time Scale
2.1.2 The Continental Drift Theory
2.1.3 Major Geological Processes, forces and Landforms Associated with them
2.2 Geology and Landforms of Ethiopia and Africa
2.2.1 Location, Size, and Shape of Ethiopia
2.2.2 Geological History of Ethiopia
2.2.3 Overview of the World‟s Major Landforms
2.2.4 Location of Africa and Major Landforms of Africa
2.2.5 Landforms of Ethiopia
2.3 Weather and Climate
2.3.1 Meaning of Weather and Climate
2.3.2 Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate
2.3.3 Measurements of Weather and Climate
2.3.4 Climate Classifications
2.3.5 Overview of World Climate Regions and Types
2.3.6 Climate of Ethiopia (Controls, Agro-climatic Zones, spatiotemporal variations of temperature and rainfall)
2.4 Climate Change
2.4.1 Basic Concepts of Climate Change
2.4.2 Trends in Global Climate Change
2.4.3 Causes and Consequences of Climate Change
2.4.4 Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies to Climate Change
2.5 Natural Resources
2.5.1 Meaning and types of Natural Resources
2.5.2 Overview of Major Natural Resources of the World
4 2.5.3 Drainage Systems and Water Resources of Ethiopia and their Significance
2.5.4 Biotic Resources of Ethiopia (Vegetation and Wildlife)
2.5.5 Resources under Pressure
2.5.6 Conflict over Resources, conflict Resolution Practices
UNIT 3: POPULATION GEOGRAPHY AND HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS
3.1 Population and Demographic Characteristics
3.1.1 Concept of Human Population
3.1.2 Overview of World Population Growth
3.1.3 Trends of Population Growth in Ethiopia
3.1.4 Africa‟s Major Demographic growth trends, distribution, structure& Settlement Patterns
3.1.5 Factors Responsible for Accelerated Population Growth and their Measures (Fertility, Mortality, and
Migration)
3.1.6 Population Composition and Distribution of Ethiopia
3.1.7 Settlement Patterns of Ethiopia (Urban and Rural)
3.1.8 Impacts of Population Growth on Sustainable Development in Ethiopia
3.2 Theories on Population Growth and Development

3.3 Population Policies

UNIT 4: ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY AND DEVELOPMENT
4.1 Major Economic and Cultural Activities in Ethiopia
4.1.1 Classification of Economic Activities
4.1.2 Contribution of Agriculture to the Ethiopian Economy, Problems of Ethiopian Agriculture.
4.1.3 Trade, Transport and Tourism and their contribution to Ethiopian economy
4.2 Major Economic and Cultural Activities of Africa
4.2.1 Major Factors Hindering the Growth of African Economy
4.2.2 Possible Solutions to the Problem of Unemployment in Africa
4.3 Geographic Location and Economic Development
4.3.1 Effects of Geographic Location on Development
4.3.2 Disadvantages of Landlocked Countries
4.3.3 Interregional Trade in Africa
4.4 Issues in Sustainable Development
4.4.1 The Concept of Sustainable Development
4.4.2 Sustainability Challenges
4.4.3 Multiple Faces of Poverty and Implications on Development
4.4.4 Globalization (Advantages and Limitations)
4.4.5 The Growth imbalance between Regions and Countries
UNIT 5: CONTEMPORARY GEOGRAPHIC ISSUES AND PUBLIC CONCERNS
5.1 Environmental Problems and Natural Resource Degradation
5.2 Unplanned Urbanization
5.3 Migration – Factors and Impacts on Africa
5.4 Coastal Pollution in Africa
5.5 Recurrent Droughts and Famines
 UNIT 1
FOUNDATIONS OF GEOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHY INQUIRY
1.1. The Science of Geography
1.1.1 Meaning of geography
From the ancient Greeks to modern-day geographers, geography has been defined differently. However, the various
definitions share some common ideas. Here are some of the most important definitions that geographers have
proposed:
 Geography is the description of the earth. Eratosthenes (276-196 BC)
 ``a synthesizing disciplines to connect the general with the particular through measurement, mapping, and a
regional emphasis.” (Alexander von Humboldt, 1845) 
 “Nothing less than an understanding of the vast interacting system between human beings
and their environment on the earth‟s surface.” (E.A Acreman, 1953) 
 «A science that is meant to provide accurate, orderly, and rational description and interpretation of the
variable character of the earth‟s surface.» (Richard Hartshorne, 1959) 
 “A science concerned with the rational development and testing of theories that explain and predict the
spatial distribution and location of various characteristics on the surface of the earth.” (M. Yeates, 1968)
 “Concerned with the locational or spatial variation in both physical and human phenomena at the earth`s
surface”. (Martin Kenzer, 1989).
 The study of the patterns and processes of human- built and environmental (natural) landscapes, where the
landscapes comprise real (objective) and perceived (subjective) space.” (Gregg Wassmansdorf, 1995) 
 “The study of the environment of the earth‟s surface and the relationship of humans to this environment,
which includes both physical and cultural geographic features.
1..1.2 Scope/Coverage of Geography
Scope refers to the extent of interest or focus in a certain subject. In other words, it refers to the capacity and limits
that an academic discipline treats. In this regard, geography is said to have a greater scope than mere locations. It
treats a wide range of phenomena on the planet earth. Generally the geo-sphere is considered as geography‟s scope.
The geo-sphere itself is made up of five sub spheres, namely the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere
(troposphere), biosphere and anthroposphere.
 Table 1.1. The geospheres of the earth
Geospheres Description Geography‟s related area of
study
Lithosphere The solid part – i.e. The rock layers of the Geomorphology, Soil
earth Geography
Atmosphere The lower parts of the atmosphere where Climatology
weather changes occur
Hydrosphere The water surfaces of the earth including Oceanography
oceans, seas, and lakes
Biosphere The parts of the earth that supports all sorts of Biogeography
life
Anthroposphere The earths cultural landscapes Cultural population Geography

The major areas that geography focuses on are:

 The earth, its position in the universe and its movements;
 The different physical features that constitute the earth‟s surface, the forces that cause them, their
variations from place to place and their changes over time;
 The different relationships between human beings and their natural environment. Also, the
interdependence and the impact that each has on the other;
 The conditions of the lower part of the atmosphere and the subsequent weather and climatic
conditions, together with their spatial distribution and variation
 The materials that make up the earth and its diverse land forms;
 The major economic activities of humans and the impacts on the environment
Therefore, it is possible to conclude that although wide in its scope, geography has certain areas that it focuses
upon.
1.1.3. Branches of Geography
Physical geography & Human geography

A, Physical Geography: This branch of geography studies the distribution of the natural features of the world,
such as climate, landforms, soil, vegetation, and drainage systems. Physical geography also considers causes,
effects and interactions of these features. Physical geography includes the following specialized fields of study:
 Climatology: studies factors that create climate and examines the variation and distribution of climate and
related causes and effects.
 Geomorphology: studies the distribution of landforms (such as mountains and plains) and the forces that
change them.
 Soil geography: studies the distribution of soils and their characteristics
 Biogeography: studies the distribution of plants and animals in relation to the environments that they
 inhabit.
 Oceanography: studies the location, causes and effects of ocean currents, waves and tides
B, Human Geography: This branch of geography studies the distribution and influence of human
aspects of our world, including cultures, population settlement, economic activities and political systems.
Human geography includes these specialized fields of study:
 Cultural geography: studies the distribution and interactions of cultures, including
peoples‟ beliefs and customs. It also examines the movement, expansion and interaction of cultures on the
surface of the earth. F Population geography: studies the distribution, growth and structure of population.
 Economic geography: studies production, consumption and exchange and the spatial distribution of goods
and services and factors affecting them.
 Political geography: studies the distribution of political systems and the ways people use them to exercise
power and make decisions.
 Urban geography: studies the development and characteristics of towns, cities and other urban centers.
 Historical geography: is the study of the geography of the past and how places or regions change over
time
1.2 Geographic Inquiry Skills and Techniques
1.2.1 The Meaning of Maps, Basic Components of Maps, and Uses of Maps
A map is a simplified, diminished, plain representation of all or part of the earth‟s surface as viewed
from vertically above. A map is a two-dimensional scaled representation of part or whole of the Earth
surface on a flat body such as piece of paper, black board, wood or cloth. Map reading encompasses a
systematic identification of natural features like mountains, rivers, oceans, hills, rocks, etc. and manmade
features like roads, railways, buildings, dam, etc.
Here are the main features of maps:
 A map represents all or part of the earth‟s surface. For example, a map might show a city such as Addis
Ababa, the entire world, or a section of a garden.
 A map is a two-dimensional (plane) representation. For example, a map might be printed on a piece of
paper.
 Maps show the earth‟s surface as if it were seen from directly above. This view is called a bird‟s-eye
view.
 All maps are smaller than the area they represent.
 Maps are drawn to scale. In other words, the features shown on a map have the same relative
proportions as they do in reality. For example, if one mountain‟s diameter is twice as large as that of
another mountain, the first mountain would be shown on a map as twice as large as the second.
 Maps are simplified representations.
  Most maps use generally accepted symbols to represent natural, artificial or cultural features of the
area they represent. They also use conventional notations to provide background information such as
the map‟s title, date and scale.
Components or elements of maps
A map should include the following components namely: the title, scale, direction, grid reference, legend, date,
place of publication and publisher, the magnetic declination (variation), and compass.
 Title of the map: Gives the map‟s name. For example, “Soil Map” explains that the map presents
information about soil.
 Year of publication: identifies the year in which the map was published. Because this information tells
you how old the map is, you might be able to judge whether the map‟s contents are current or might be
out of date.
 Author: identifies the copyright owner of the map and indicates who (or what organization) has
prepared the map.
 Place of publication and publisher: tells where the map was published and identifies the organization
that published the map.
 Scale: This information indicates the extent to which the area that is represented in the map has been
reduced.
 Legend/Key: explains the meaning of the signs and symbols used in the map.
 Type of projection: tells the kind of projection used in making the map.
 Direction or orientation (North) arrow: Shows the north direction on the map.
The magnetic declination (variation): is the difference between Magnetic North and True North. This will
be explained later in this unit.
Conventional Signs and symbols
Conventional signs and symbols are those signs and symbols that are used on maps through the
agreement of all map-makers of the world. They are used to represent the same detail on a map in all the
countries of the world. Signs and symbols help the map reader to understand maps. Therefore, the map
reader has to look first at the key or legend of the map. When you create a map, the symbols you select
should satisfy the following requirements.
 They should be uniform throughout the map.
 They should be easy to read and understand.
 The space occupation, orientation and size of the symbols should be constant.
Here are some of the symbols and conventional signs that are widely used and understood worldwide:
 Cities and towns are indicated by dots or patches of shading;
 Streams and bodies of water are often printed in blue; and
 Political boundaries are shown by dot lines/solid lines
 .

Figure 1 Conventional signs and symbols

Uses of Maps
Maps are used for identifying locations, distance, area and direction.
 Location: A map shows the exact site of a place as well as the general situation relative to other areas. For
example, Ethiopia‟s location can be expressed in terms of its neighbouring countries, external land masses
and water bodies. It is also possible to locate a place using astronomical grid references – parallels and
meridians.
 Distance: With the help of a map, we can measure the distance between places. This is done by using the
scale of the map. For example, the air distance between Hawassa and Addis Ababa can be calculated by
using a map of Ethiopia.
 Area: the size of a certain place, a country, a region, a continent can be calculated from a map. This is done
by measuring the length and the width of the given place on the map and by converting them to ground
distances with the help of the scale of the map.
 Direction: A map can enable us to identify the direction and bearing of any place on the map. This is
accomplished by referring to another place
1.2.2 Scale, scale conversion, measurement on maps (distance & area), position on Maps
Map Scale
Each map is a diminished representation of the whole world or a part of it. The exact degree to which the map
has been reduced in size is known as scale. Thus, scale is the ratio or proportion of the distance and areas
shown on the map to the corresponding distance and area on the earth‟s surface. Mathematically, it can be
shown as:
 Based on scale differences, maps can be classified into three:
 Large-scale maps
 Medium-scale maps
 Small-scale maps
a). Large scale maps
Large scale maps show a smaller geographic area with greater detail. Large-scales are greater than or equal to
1:50,000. (1cm on a map represent 50,000 cm on the ground) Large scale maps >1:50,000
b) Medium scale maps
These maps are prepared with scales that range between 1:50,000 and 1:250,000. Medium-scale maps cover wider
areas than large scale maps are but cover smaller areas than small-scale maps. They are also able to present more
detailed information than small-scale maps but are less detailed than large-scale ones.
Medium scale maps 1:50,000 – 1:250,000
3. Small scale maps
Small-scale maps tend to show a larger geographic area and less detailed. Small scale maps are those which are prepared with
scales less than or equal to 1:250,000. Small scale maps <1:250,000
Ways of Map Scale Expression
A map scale can be expressed on a map in three ways. These are:
a) Scale Statement
b) Representative Fraction
c) Graphic Scale
A) Scale Statement
It is a technique by which scale can be expressed in words. Example: One centimeter to one kilometer (1cm to
1km). One centimeter on the map represents one kilometer on the ground
B) Representative Fraction
In this method, a map scale is expressed as a ratio or fraction. However, Representative fraction is commonly
expressed in a ratio. Example: 1:400,000 (ratio) or (Fraction)
Conversion of a Map scale
sometimes it becomes necessary to change one form of map scale into another. So conversion of a map scale can be
done as follows.
A. RF to statement scale Focus 1km = 100,000 cm

Example: Given RF = 1:500,000

This implies that 1cm to 500,000cms. To change 500,000 cm into kilometers, divided it by 100,000 (Because 1km=
100,000cm) Therefore the answer is: 100 000/500 000 5km = 1cm to 5Kms
B. Statement of scale to RF
Example : Given 1cm to 10kms
First change 10kms into centimeters 1cm to 10 x 100,000 cms. RF is 1:1,000,000
Activity
Measurement of Distance
All distances obtained through measurements on maps and the use of the scale only are called map distances (MD)
which are expressed in cm. Map distance is the straight-line air distance which does not take into account ups and
downs of the earth‟s surface. . It is expressed in km or meter. We can find three different types of distances through
measurements and calculation. These are:
I. Distance along Straight-line
A straight-line distance is the one measured simply along a straight line without considering the real earth‟s
features. It is called air distance.
Example: Figure 1.3, straight line distance from B to C is 4 cmn (map distance measured using a
ruler). The scale of the map is 1:800000

Figure 1.3. Measurement of Straight line distance on a map

II. Distance along the Curved line
The distance along a curved line is called bending line curve. It includes distance along roads, railways,
rivers and coastal lines. To find the distance on the map in the case of a bending line distance in addition to
a ruler we need to use threads, strings or the edge of a pair of dividers. If the distance between two points
is shown in curved line, divide a curved line into nearly straight portions. Then, measure each portion
carefully and add the whole measurement together.
Example: what is the distance of the road shown below?

Figure 1.4: Distance along the curved path

The road measures 8.4 cm on the map. The scale of the map is given as 1:50,000 or 1cm to 0.5km.
1cm =50,000cm
8.4cm = x

The road line distance (ground) = 8.4cm x

How to Find the Scale of a Map

There are two ways of finding a map scale, if it is not given:
A. By using the known distance between two points on the map
This method is used if the ground distance between two points or places shown on the map is given. Then use the
following procedure to obtain the scale:
i. Measure the distance between the two points on the map in centimeters.
ii. Divide the obtained distance on the map by the ground distance to obtain the ratio between the two. This gives
you the scale of the map. To understand this better see the following example. Let us say, if the straight-line
distance between Addis Ababa and Mekele is 555 km. using the following figure, calculate the scale of the map:
Using the distance between Addis Ababa and Mekele:

i. Measure the distance between Addis Ababa and Mekele by using a ruler approximately 3 cm. The
given air distance between the two places is 555 km.
ii. Find the ratio between the distance on map and the actual distance. This is the scale. 3cm to 555 km
= 1 cm to 185 km = 1: 18,500,000.

B. By using latitudes
In this method, the scale of the map can be obtained by using the values of latitudes.
For example, let us calculate the scale of the above Figure by using the 5o and 10o N latitude lines:
1. The degree difference between the two latitudes is 5o (10o – 5o).
1o latitude is about 111 km
2. The distance that 5o represents is 555 km (111 km × 5).
3. The distance between the two latitudes on the map is approximately 3 cm.
4. The scale of the map is, therefore: 3cm to 555kms = 1cm to 185 = 1: 18,500,000

Measurement on maps (distance & area), position on Maps

Some areas have regular or geometric shapes, such as rectangles, triangles, circles and squares. Others
have irregular or non-geometric shapes. Measurements in maps area: These procedures are important for
measuring areas on maps:

1. Measure the area of the feature on the map;

1. If the map scale is linear, convert it to areal;

Using the areal scale, convert the area on the map to actual ground area by using cross multiplication.
Measuring Regular-Shaped Areas
A regular shape is a geometrical shape such as a circle, triangle or square. If you are measuring an area with a
regular shape, use the mathematical formula for its geometric shape. Then calculate the ground area by using the
map‟s areal scale. The following table gives you some of geometric formulae for calculating the areas of regular
shapes

Table1.2: Geometrical formula

What is the ground area of the farmland? In the above sketch, the farm has a regular shape
 Measure the length and width of the rectangle on the map. Obtain its area on the map by multiplying the
length by the width (area of rectangle = l × w). This gives you the area of the farm on the map.

 Change the linear scale, which is 1 cm to 2 km, into areal scale by squaring it. This gives you the areal
scale: 1 cm2 to 4 km2. Convert the map area into ground area by using cross multiplication. In other words,
if 1 cm2 is to 4 km2, then what will 8 cm2 be? This gives you the ground area of the farm 32km2
 Without changing the given linear scale into areal scale, it is possible to calculate the area.

=4km

Therefore, Area = L x W; Area = 4km x 8km = 32km2;

Measuring Irregular-Shaped Areas
The area of the irregular shaped piece of land such as islands, farmlands, parks, etc. cannot be obtained
accurately by simple methods as the regular shapes. Such areas can be obtained by devices like planimeter
and other methods such as the grid square method.
Planimeter: is an instrument used to get accurate areas of both regular and irregular shaped features from maps.
Grid Square method: it deals with the area of purely irregular shape. It is manual and involves tremendous
labor.
Example: If the map of an irregular shaped lake is drawn with a scale of 1 cm to 2 km (Figure 1.7),
calculate the area of the lake on the ground?

Figure 1.7 A sketch map of a lake

To find the area of the lake, we follow the following steps:
a) Copy the boundary of the lake.
b) Draw grid lines at a uniform interval (for example, 1 cm apart) over the lake.
c) Count the number of grid squares within the lake:
• Number of full squares = 4
• Number of ¾ squares = 5 × ¾
• Number of ½ squares = 4 × ½
• Number of ¼ squares = 1 × ¼
Then, Area = [Full Cells + (half cells)/2 + (Quarter cells)/4] etc… X Cell value
Thus, total number of squares = 4 + 5 × ¾ + 4 × ½ + 1 × ¼ = 10
a) Calculate the approximate area of the lake.
• First, find the area of one square by using the scale.
Area = S2 = 1 cm × 1 cm = 1 cm2 or 2 km × 2 km = 4 km2
• Then, calculate the total area of the lake. If one square = 4 km2 10 Square =?
Therefore, the approximate area of the lake is 40 km square.
Position on Maps
The position of places on the earth‟s surface and upon maps can be given in a number of different ways. The
most important are through the use of:
 Latitude and longitude (international grid references)
 National Grid References (eastings and northings)

Position by the Geographic Grid

This is a method by which the position of a place can be given accurately with the help of a grid composed of a
network of lines known as parallels and the meridians.
If you study a globe carefully you will find that two sets of lines form a network on the surface of it. One set of
lines run from the North Pole to the South Pole. These lines are known as Merdians.

The other set of lines are running around the globe parallel to the equator. They are known as parallels. Using this
grid we can now give the accurate position of any place on the earth‟s surface. The parallels give the position in
degrees, minutes and seconds north or south of the equator. This is the Latitude of the place. The other set of lines,
the meridians, give the position of the point in degrees, minutes and seconds to the east or west of the zero degree
meridians. This is the longitude of the place.

Therefore, the geographic grid of point P is 45oN, 90oW Latitude and longitude sometimes are confused with two
other terms: parallel and Meridian.
Parallel: an imaginary line joining all points with the same latitude.
Meridian: An imaginary line joining all points with the same longitude.
Note that the first set of terms (latitude and longitude) deal with angles the second set (Parallel and Meridians) with
lines.
National Grid Reference System
What is a National Grid system?

How can a national grid system help us to identify the position of a place on a map?
A National grid is a network of horizontal and vertical lines printed on the face of a map. The network of grid lines
border squares. These squares may be divided into smaller and smaller squares. The size of a map‟s grid squares
depends on the scale of the map. For example, the sides of the squares on a large-scale or medium-scale national or
regional topographic map might represent 100 km, 10 km or 1 km. Each line is given a number. This numbering
begins at a particular point. This point is the southwestern corner of the whole grid for the country and it is called
the grid origin or the National grid origin.
National Grid reference system uses easting and northing. Eastings are lines that are drawn from north to south.
Northings are lines that are drawn from east to west
In Ethiopia, there are two ways of giving national grid reference they are four digit and six digit grid references.
Easting is always given before northing.
Six digit grid references is appropriate on a map drawn in large scale so that a greater in position can be obtained.
1.2.3 Representation of Relief Features on Topographic Maps
In order to read relief features from maps, you should first know how map –makers represent the uneven surface
of the earth on a plane sheet of paper, i.e., on a map. There are different ways of showing relief on maps. These
include:

 Physiographic diagrams
 Hachures
 Layer coloring
 Hill shading
 Form lines
 Contour
Traditional Methods
A. Physiographic Diagrams
Early map makers used to represent relief features by diagrammatic pictures known as physiographic diagrams.
They show three-dimensional pictures of landscapes as viewed from the side or oblique direction. This method
of showing relief is simple and easy to understand. However, it has the following disadvantages:

 It shows the side and oblique view of the landscape, unlike the modern relief map that gives you an
overhead view of an area.
 Some geographic details of an area would be hidden from view behind the “backs” of the pictures of
hills or mountains.
 Exact heights and slopes of the land forms are not indicated
 It lacks accuracy because it is drawn without scale.
B. Hachures
Hachures are short disconnected lines that represent slopes. They are drawn in the direction in which water
flows. Originally they were used to represent mountains and valleys on simple sketch maps.
Basically, hachures show the steepness of slopes. When slopes are steep, hachures are put close together.
For gentle slopes, the hachures are spaced wide apart. In addition, hachures representing steep slopes are
shorter than those representing gentle slopes.

Figure: Hachured map

This approach has significant limitations, such as:

 Flat areas are unshaded. Therefore, plateaus and plains can be confused.
 Hachures do not indicate height and exact gradients. They give only qualitative information.
 Hachures are laborious to draw and can be difficult to read and interpret.
Nowadays, hachures are not used alone. Instead, they are used in combination with contour lines to show
landforms like escarpments, depressions and craters. (contour lines are described in a later section of this unit).
C. Hill shading
What is hill shading? What are some of the limitations of hill shading?
Hill shading is also known as oblique illumination. It is a method of showing relief on a map, assuming an
oblique light that illuminates the landscape from the northwest corner of the map. Hence the northwest- facing
slopes are shaded lighter than are the east-facing and south-facing slopes. The steeper the slope is, the darker it
is shaded. Hill shading offers a quick general impression of the land configuration that it represents. But still it
has some limitations such as:

 It does not give absolute altitude.

 It fails to indicate clearly whether the ground is sloping upward or downward.
 It fails to indicate whether the unshaded areas are low or high-level areas. Hence, plateaus and plains
can be confused.
 Detailed map information can be obscured by shading.
In general, hill shading is now used in combination with spot heights and contours to overcome some of its
drawbacks.
D. Layer Coloring (Layer Tinting)
It is a method of showing relief by using colors. The series of colors for showing different altitudes starts from sea
level (see Figure). Identify the types of colors used to represent the different elevation zones in Figure

Figure: Map with layer coloring

Layer coloring has the following disadvantages:

 Color shading does not indicate gradual changes in slopes.
 The edges of the areas of different colors can suggest nonexistent physical boundaries.
 Dark colors can obscure details in the areas that they overlie.
 Some colors can create false impressions in the map reader‟s mind. For example, green might suggest
vegetation or a fertile area.
 E. Formlines
A formline is imaginary pecked or broken line joining points with the same approximate height on a map.
Usually they are drawn on topographic maps to show where survey work is incomplete or poorly accomplished.
Also, these lines are useful for showing sea depths.
Formlines have the following limitations:
 They are not drawn on a map at a fixed interval of altitude.
 Although they represent the relief of an area, they provide little or no reference to sea level.
 In many cases they are unnumbered.
 They are usually drawn with broken lines.
 Modern Methods Contour Lines or Isohypses
Contour lines are the most common and accurate way of showing relief on modern maps. A shoreline is a good
example of a contour line.

Properties of Contour Lines

i. Contour lines are imaginary lines used on a map to represent relief. Unlike the lines that represent
rivers, boundaries or coast lines, contours do not really exist on the earth’s surface. The only contour
line that exists both on the map and in the field is the sea level.
ii. A set of contour lines is drawn at a fixed height interval. For example in the following figure, contour
lines are drawn at 50-meter intervals. The difference in altitude between two successive contour lines is
known as vertical interval (V. I.) or contour interval (C. I.). The V. I. helps us to find out the heights of
unnumbered contour lines.

iii. Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another on maps except at vertical cliffs, waterfalls or
over hanging cliffs. For example, two or more contour lines run together and then separate to represent the cliff
shown in the figure below.
Figure: Contour lines showing a cliff

The cliff in the preceding diagram is a vertical mountain wall. It rises from 100 meters to 150 meters. The
crossing of contours occurs only in the case of an overhanging cliff. Usually contours representing a cave under
an overhanging cliff are shown with pecked lines.

Figure: An overhanging cliff

 iv. Contour lines never branch. If you see branching lines on a map, they represent features such as
rivers, roads, boundaries, etc.
v. A contour line joins all points of the same altitude. For example, an altitude of 250 m will be on the 250 m
contour line. The altitude of any point outside this line will be either greater or less than 250 meters.
vi. Contour lines are always numbered in the direction towards which altitude increases. These numbers
can be shown with or without breaking contour lines.

Figure: Numbering of contours

vii. Contour lines indicate the nature of slopes. When contour lines are far apart, they show gentle
slopes. But when contour lines are close together, they show steep slopes.

Figure: Contour-line spacing indicating slope steepness

viii. Contour lines can be printed with different thicknesses on a map. This is especially helpful in
mountainous areas where altitudes may vary considerably from summits to valley floors. In order to
make the reading of contour maps easier, every fifth or tenth contour line is printed thicker than the rest.
Such contour lines are called index contour lines, while the rest are called regular contour lines.
Contour lines can show different types of landforms, such as mountains, hills, plateaus, depressions, valleys,
spurs, ridges, gorges, passes, plains, etc. Many of these relief features are readily recognized from the shapes of
their contour lines.

Figure: Landforms represented both diagrammaticaly and by contour lines

B. Different Methods of Showing Altitude on Contour Maps

Contour lines show altitude and relief on modern maps. However, they do not show the specific heights of
individual features such as mountain peaks, hilltops, valley floors, towers, towns, roads or railways. Such
heights are indicated on maps, using the following methods:
a) Spot heights
 They are marked on the map with a dot followed by an altitude number:
 They provide accurate altitudes for individual points, such as those along a road, on a
mountain top, or between contour lines.
 Unlike contour lines, spot heights do not give a good visual impression of the general relief.
 They exist only on maps.
b) Trigonometrical points
 They exist both on maps and in the field.
 They mostly mark features such as hilltops and mountain peaks.
• On the ground, the relevant feature is permanently marked with a pillar (concrete).
• On maps, they are shown with a small triangle enclosing a dot, followed by the exact
altitude in meters.
c) Benchmarks
 They indicate precise heights along highways or railways.
 They are shown on stones, bricks or bronze plates on walls of buildings and other convenient
places
 They are useful for road construction engineers and others who wish to know the precise altitude of
a main transport network.
d. Calculating Altitude:

When the altitude of a point on a contour map is not shown by any of the above methods, it can be obtained by
measurement and calculation, using the interpolation method. This can be done only if the given point is
located between two contour lines. In order to find the altitude of point A in the figure, follow the procedures
given below.
i. Draw the shortest possible straight line that passes through point (A) and join the two contour lines
adjacent to it.
ii. Measure the length of this line: = 11 mm.
iii. Measure the distance on the map between the lower and upper contours up to point (A). They are
6 mm and 5 mm respectively.
iv. Find the vertical interval between the two contour lines: = 100 m.
v. Then determine the altitude of the point using the following formula:

Where:

d1 is distance of point A from the lower contour, VI is vertical interval,

d2 is distance of point A from the upper contour, LC is the lower contour and,
D is distance between the upper and lower contours, HC is the higher contour.

Figure: Altitudes shown on a contour map in different ways Scale 1:50, 000

Altitude of point A = 700+(6 𝑥100) = 754.55m or

11
Altitude of point A = 800 – (5 𝑥 100) = 754.55m
11
Therefore, the altitude of point A is 754.55 meters
Slopes and Gradients
A. Slopes on Contour Maps

What is slope? How can we determine the steepness of slopes on contour maps? What kinds of relations exist
between V.I. and slope? Slope is the upward or downward inclination of a natural or artificial surface. It is a
deviation of the surface from the horizontal.

On a map, steepness of a slope depends on:

 The distance between the contours drawn on the map. The closer the contours are, the steeper is the
slope representation and vice versa.
 The vertical interval (V.I.) between two successive contours. The bigger the V.I, the steeper is
the slope representation and vice versa.
Types of Slopes

Even slope
An even slope has a constant gradient from the bottom to the top. Gradient is the degree or rate of a slope. You
will learn more about gradient later in this unit. On a map of an even slope, the contour lines are evenly spaced
throughout. For example, study the slope represented in the following Figure.

Figure: Even slope

Concave Slop
In a concave slope; the contour lines are widely spaced at the base and are close together at the top. In other
words, a concave slope has a steep gradient at the top. The gradient becomes gentler towards the bottom (see the
following Figure).
 Figure: Concave slope
ii. Convex Slope

In a convex slope, the contour lines are close together at the base and widely spaced at the top. The slope has a
steep gradient at the bottom that becomes gentler towards the top. (See the following Figure).

Figure: Convex slope

iii. Terraced or Stepped Slope

In a terraced or stepped slope, the contour lines are alternatively close together and far apart in a regular pattern.
This means the gradient changes several times between the bottom and the top of the slope.

Figure: Terraced slope

 iv. Escarpment

An escarpment is the steep slope of a plateau, especially one where the plateau ends and the lowland starts.
You can also identify other two more slopes on either side of a mountain ridge. One slope is steep and the
other is gentle. The steep slope is called the scarp slope. The gentler slope is called the dip slope (see the
following Figure).

Figure: Dip and scarp slopes

A. Gradient on Contour Maps

What is Gradient? What are the three common ways of expressing gradient? How do you determine the rate of
change of slope between two points? Gradient (GR) is the degree or rate of change of slope or elevation between
two points. It is calculated using altitude difference (vertical distance) and map distance (horizontal distance)
between two points. Both AD and MD must be in the same unit of measurement. It can be expressed in any of
these three different ways:
1. As simple ratio: GD=

2. As a percentage: GD=

3. As degree: GD= X60o

Where; GR = Gradient, AD = Altitude difference and MD = map distance

Usually we express gradient as a percentage. This expression is the simplest to use, and it is relatively easy to
calculate.
1.2.4 Basic Concepts of Geographic Information System (GIS)
GIS stands for Geographic Information System. It is a tool for capturing, storing, manipulating, analyzing,
managing, and presenting various forms of geographic data. This technology's essential term is geography, which
indicates that the main part of the data is spatial. That is to say, the information used in it is linked to a specific
location.

Just as we use a word processor to write documents and deal with words on a computer, we can use a GIS
application to deal with spatial information on a computer. As indicated above the acronym GIS stands for
'Geographical Information System'. It consists of the following basic elements:
Digital Data – the geographical information that you will view and analyze using computer hardware and
software.
„ Computer Hardware – computers used for storing data, displaying graphics and processing data.
„ Computer Software – computer programs that run on the computer hardware and allow you to work with digital
data. A software program that forms part of the GIS is called a GIS Application. With a GIS application you can
open digital maps on your computer, create new spatial information to add to a map, create printed maps
customized to your needs and perform spatial analysis.

Gathering Data for GIS

GIS is made up of five fundamental components. These are Data, Software, Hardware, People, and Methods. Data is one of
the most essential aspects of it. GIS data is basically a spatial data that can be mapped. Spatial data can be obtained from
various sources. It might be data obtained directly from the ground or data gathered by others for their own purposes. The first
segment may include field survey data and remote sensing photos. The second part includes paper maps and current digital
data sets. Therefore, GIS data may be categorized into primary and secondary type, as we saw in the research method section.
a. Data generalization

To collect, symbolize and represent, the GIS data has to pass through the process of abstraction or generalization. Two key
factors must be addressed while collecting, representing, and symbolizing GIS data. These are selecting the level of
measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio) and choosing the dimensionalities of the features (point, line, area,
volume).
Level of measurement

In nominal measurement, the numerical values just “name” the attribute uniquely with no ordering of the cases implied. For
example, jersey numbers in basketball are measures at the nominal level. A player with number 30 is not more of anything
than a player with number 15, and is certainly not twice whatever number 15 is. In ordinal measurement the attributes can be
rank-ordered. Here, distances between attributes do not have any meaning.

For example, on a survey you might code Educational Attainment as 0 = less than high school; 1 = some high school; 2 = high
school degree; 3 = some college; 4 = college degree; 5 = post college. In this measure, higher numbers mean more education.
But is the distance from 0 to 1 the same as 3 to 4? Of course not. The interval between values is not interpretable in an ordinal
measure.
In interval measurement the distance between attributes does have meaning. For example, when we measure temperature (in
Fahrenheit), the distance from 30-40 is the same as the distance from 70-80. The interval between the values is interpretable.
Because of this, it makes sense to compute an average of an interval variable, whereas it does not make any sense to
do so for ordinal scales. But note that in interval measurement ratios do not make any sense 80 0c is not twice as hot as 400c
(although the attribute value is twice larger). Finally, in ratio measurement there is always an absolute zero that is meaningful.
This means that you can construct a meaningful fraction (or ratio) with a ratio variable. Weight is a ratio variable. In applied
social research most “count” variables are ratio, for example, the number of clients in the past six months. Why? Because you
can have zero clients and because it is meaningful to say that “…we had twice as many clients in the past six months as we
did in the previous six months.”

Features of dimensionality

Mapping Features Conceived as a Point: Many mapped phenomena exist at points, are referenced to as points in
reality, or conceived as points for mapping purposes. Such a feature has a locational attribute (X, Y coordinate) that
specifies its position on the earth. It might be measured in both quantitative and qualitative ways. Mapping Feature
Conceived as Line: Symbols portraying attributes of features conceived as lines are easy to find on the maps.
Examples of these symbols include coast line, rivers, administrative boundaries, roads, rail ways and flow and
movements between locations. Line features also represent qualitative and quantitative information/data.

Mapping features conceived as area: climate and soil are examples of attribute values collected at a point but
conceived as areas and mapped by area symbols. To represent area symbol, we use visual variables associated
with patterns (texture, arrangement, and orientation) for mapping features conceived as areas.
Symbolizing features Attribute as Volume: The statistical surface is one of the most important cartography related
to volume. It exists for any distribution that is mathematically continuous over an area, and is measured on an
ordinal, interval or ratio scale measurement. Dot Maps, Choropleth Maps and Isarithm map are the main examples
for portraying features attribute value as volume.

Figure: Features representation as volume with dot mapping and Choropleth

After viewing the above two considerations of the mapping feature and its attribute data, it is possible to make good
data generalization. Why do we need to generalize data? It is helpful to distinguish between important and
unimportant phenomena or events, and enhance map communication. Thus, each selected feature and its attributes
should contribute to the effective communication of information. Some the major elements of data generalization in
map making are stated below:
Classification – ordering, scaling and grouping features by their attributes and attribute values.
Simplification- determining important characteristics of the feature attributes, and eliminates unwanted details.
Exaggeration – enhancing or emphasizing important characteristics of the attributes.
Symbolization- the graphic coding of information and thereby placing it into a map context
b. Data representation
Proper representation of data is an important requirement in GIS work. In a GIS environment, there are four basic
ways of representation of data in a choropleth maps that all look different. Map readers may likely draw different
conclusions from those maps. In those maps data values, which are given below, are grouped into five classes using
different data classification methods. You can compare data classification methods by referring to a histogram and
noting where classes are divided in the histogram.
The natural break / Jenk‟s method divides data into the most homogeneous five classes. Notice that the fifth class
(53950–105350) in the natural break map, is internally homogeneous, and is distinct from the other classes.

Breaking points are determined through a clustering algorithm that maximizes similarity with class and difference between
classes. The default option for data classification in many GIS software is natural break because natural break organizes data
in itself, and works in most (if not all) cases.

Figure: Natural break Jenk‟s representation of Eastern African countries population, 2017
In an equal interval map, the data values are divided into five classes with equal intervals. To determine the
intervals, you divide the range (maximum value minus minimum value) by the number of classes. Classes are
equally divided at the interval. 105350-865=104485; thus, when we divide 104485/5=20897. The fifth class has the
range 84453-105350 in an equal interval map. While the equal interval method is easy to understand, it does not
fairly represent data when the data is highly skewed. For example, in the equal area map in Figure 8.8, the fourth
and fifth classes are overrepresented despite the low frequency of the data.

Figure Equal intervals representation of Eastern African countries population, 2017

A quantile map divides data in terms of percentiles. If data is grouped into five classes, the first class (865–11031)
represents the 0–20th percentile, the second class represents the 20– 40th percentile, and the fifth class (47615–
105350) represents the 80–100th percentile. In a quantile map, an equal number of ordered cases (units of
observation) are placed in each class.

Figure Quantile method representation of Eastern African countries population, 2017

Standard deviation calculates the mean and standard deviation from data, and determines breaking points by
subtracting multiples of standard deviation from the mean. The standard deviation method is useful when it is
important to convey how much data deviates from the average for each areal unit. In contrast to the equal interval

and quantile method and natural break, standard deviation takes into account the frequency distribution of data.

Figure Standard deviation method representation of Eastern African countries population, 2017

Using GIS software, you can also set your own breaking points to meet map requirements. For example, it would
make sense to group data into classes manually when you need to visualize income data by population size and
countries.
Data should be normalized as needed before mapping. Data normalization is intended to facilitate comparison of
data values that are often measured in different units. For example, if you are studying how prevalent obesity is in a
community, it would be more useful to look at obesity rates than the number of obese persons because variations in
base populations across communities make it hard to compare obesity prevalence equally. Examples of normalized
data include mortality rate, rate of population change, and median household income
GIS Data Analysis
We discussed some of the basic sources and methods of data collection and generalization in the previous section.
As shown in Figure 8.11, the GIS work process includes six key phases or steps. However, this part mainly focuses
on the fundamentals of data processing and analysis.

Figure: The major steps the GIS project follows

A GIS enhances the data analysis process by providing tools. This can help to create meaningful sequence and
show new relationships within or between data sets. Thus, it increases understanding of real world. This is done by
integrating data from many sources and analyzing multi-parameter data to offer answers and solutions to a given
problem. Spatial analysis is the vital part of GIS. Its operation can be grouped into two, the first one deal with no
new data generation that includes Attribute Query and Spatial Query or generally called querying. The second one
is concerned with generating a new data including proximity or buffering, overlay and network analysis.
Querying
Attribute Query: It‟s a process of selecting information by asking logical questions. Example: From a database of
a city parcel map where every parcel is listed with a land use code, a simple attribute query may require the
identification of all parcels for a specific land use type. Such a query can be handled through the table without
referencing the parcel map. Because no spatial information is required to answer this question, the query is
considered an attribute query. In this example, the entries in the attribute table that have land use codes identical to
the specified type are identified.

Spatial Query: Involves selecting features based on the location or spatial relationships, which requires processing
of spatial information. For instance, a question may be raised about parcels within one mile of the freeway and each
parcel. In this case, the answer can be obtained either from a hardcopy map or by using a GIS with the required
geographic information.
b. Analysis to generate new data
Students, let us take this spatial analysis concept a step further.
 Have you ever tried to figure out how to go from your house to your school in the least amount of time?
 Have you ever had trouble getting to the nearest health facility from your home?
  Assume your family has an ice cream parlor, a fruit market, a bakery, and so on.
 Has your family had difficulties in obtaining a new branch business center?
 GIS has a method to tackle these problems.
Proximity analysis
Proximity analysis is an important function in GIS as it covers a wide range of topics that help in answering many
spatial issues. One of the most basic questions asked of a GIS is “what is near to what?” Proximity tools can be
divided into two categories depending on the type of input the tool accepts, namely, features or raster. Therefore,
there are two forms of proximity analysis: Feature/ vector based proximity analysis and raster based proximity
analysis.
Feature (vector) based proximity analysis: For feature data, the tools found in the Proximity toolset can be used to
discover proximity relationships. Buffers are usually used to delineate protected zones around features or to show
areas of influence. For example, you might buffer a school by one Kilometer and use the buffer to select all the
students that live more than one Kilometer from the school to plan for their transportation to and from the school.

You could use the multi-ring buffer tool to classify the areas around a feature into near, moderate distance, and long
distance classes for an analysis. Buffers are sometimes used to extract data to a given study area or to exclude
features within a critical distance of something from further consideration in an analysis. You might use Near tool
to find the closest stream for a set of wildlife observations or the closest bus stops to a set of tourist destinations.
The tool will also add the Feature Identifier and, optionally, coordinates and the angle toward the nearest feature.
Figure: Buffered lines, points and multiple ring buffers
Raster-based distance tools: The ArcGIS Spatial Analyst extension Distance toolset contains tools that create raster
showing the distance of each cell from a set of features or that allocate each cell to the closest feature. Distance
tools can also calculate the shortest path across a surface or the corridor between two locations that minimizes two
sets of costs. Distance surfaces are often used as inputs for overlay analyses. For example, in a model of habitat
suitability, distance from streams could be an important factor for water-loving animals. You might use Euclidean
Distance as part of a forest fire model, where the probability of a given cell igniting is a function of distance from a
currently burning cell.
Euclidean distance is straight-line distance for a given set of input features; the minimum distance to a feature is
calculated for every cell. The figure shown below is an example of the output of the Euclidean Distance tool, where
each cell of the output raster has the distance to the nearest feature.

figure. Euclidian distance raster representation

Overlay analysis
Overlay analysis is an age-old technique of deriving new information from two or more layers of data covering
the same area. It is arguably the most powerful function of a GIS. Any mapped area of the earth‟s surface can be
subdivided (classified) into any number of different thematic “layers”. Thus, a typical map will conventionally
show rail lines, the road network, forested areas, urban areas, the river network, the coastline, etc., and each of
these themes can be mapped separately. Based on the input data used in the process, there are two kinds of
overly analysis. These are raster and vector overlay.

1.15. Union vector overlay function and output

Vector Overlays: The first type of overly operations we are going to discuss in this subsection is vector overlay.
A vector overlay involves combining point, line, or polygon geometry and their associated attributes. All overly
operations create new geometry and a new output geospatial data set. You should be cautioned that with certain
overly operations, very large attribute tables may result if the overly operations combine many layers, and each
layer has a very large attribute table. Additionally, it might be possible that the combined attribute tables would
cause duplicate attribute fields to exist. In these cases, you should consider reducing the number of transferred
attributes to the minimum required, and renaming duplicate fields so that there is no ambiguity. The vector
overlay has also three functions. These are clip, intersect and union.

Raster overlay: in this part we will discuss the raster overlay. Just like with vectors, we can perform overlay
analysis with raster sets using a different series of tools. As vector tools only work with vector layers, raster tools
only works with raster layers, and with the exception of a vector layer designating an extent in some raster tools,
there are no tools which combine vector and raster data sets for geo-processing. By “overlaying” one raster over
another, we can examine the cell values from one raster to another and find relationships. A faster way of
performing an overlay is to use raster data. If both raster layers are of the same resolution and their pixels are
aligned, then an overlay operation is merely matching corresponding pixels from both layers and combining their
attributes to form a new pixel in the composite layer. This involves no geometrical calculations and no creation of
new polygons. Unless the layers are extremely large, overlay analysis involving raster layers can be done
interactively. To process the raster overlay analysis, we may utilize a variety of functions. In general, we utilize
spatial analysis, overlay tools for one thing, and map algebra for the other.

Figure: Simple map algebra function for raster overlay analysis

Network analysis
In the context of GIS, a network is defined as a set of interconnected linear features through which resources can
flow. Common examples of networks include highways, railways, city streets, canals, rivers, transportation routes
etc. through which different vehicles and water can flow.. There are many spatial problems that require the use of
network analysis for their solution. These include:
 To find the shortest path (in terms of physical distance or least cost) that can be followed to visit a series of
features in a network, known as path finding,
 To assign one or more portions of a network to be served by a facility or business location, called
allocation,
 to find all portions of the network that are connected with the movement of a particular feature (e.g., city
transport), known as tracing,
 To depict the accessibility of a location and the interactions that occur between different locations (based
on a technique known as gravity modeling). This is widely used in economics, geography, engineering, and
urban planning, known as spatial interaction,
 To generate a distance matrix between different pairs of locations in the network, known as distance matrix
calculation, and
 To determine simultaneously the locations of existing and planned facilities, as well as the allocation of
demand to these facilities, known as location-allocation modeling
 UNIT 2

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND AFRICA

GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES, CLIMATE SYSTEMS, NATURAL RESOURCES, AND
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES

2.1 Major Geological Processes

2.1.1 Geological time scale

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 use the geological timescale for the explanation of the geological processes, resultant
features, and associated life-forms;
 describe the difference between relative and absolute ages of the Earth‟s rocks;
 Examine the geological eras of the earth.
 Examine the Geological Eras of the Earth.
1.2.1 Meaning of Geologic Timescale
Geological timescale is the time-frame (timetable) showing the possible age of the Earth and
its associated life-forms. It provides a review of Earth‟s history and the major changes that
occurred over time. It is developed by Earth scientists through the study of Earth‟s rocks.
Through the study of rocks, scientists determine the Relative and Absolute ages of rocks.

1.2.2. Relative and Absolute Age of Rocks

 Relative age
Relative age mainly depends on the analysis of the sequence of geological occurrences
without giving due regard to the exact time of origin. It focuses only on determining the
sequence of formation of events (whether the event had occurred before or later than the
other related one). This method principally depends on the study of sedimentary rocks
and often applies to local conditions interpretations. Geologists employ three basic
principles (rules) during the study of the relative age of rocks:

The principle of original horizontality indicates that layers of sediments are originally
placed horizontally under the action of gravity. This means that except for the disturbed
sequences, sedimentary rocks are always deposited in nearly horizontal beds. In the
hypothetical Figure 1.4a, the rock-layers A, B & C must have been developed in
horizontal beds because they have the same orientation. If the beds are no longer
horizontal, they must have undergone deformation after formation.
The principle of superposition asserts that in an undisturbed sequence of
sedimentary rock layers (beds) or lava flows, the overlying bed is younger than the
underlying

rock. For instance, in Figure 1.4b, the rock layers are placed from earliest (1) to latest (4).
A) Original Horizontality B) Superposition C) Cross-Cutting
Figure 2.1: Sample sedimentary rock-layers

The principle of cross-cutting relationships indicates that a rock-layer that cross-cuts another
rock-layer is said to be younger than the rocks it cross-cuts. This is a condition where older rocks
are cut by younger geologic features or igneous intrusions. In Figure 1.4c, layer 3 is an igneous
intrusion created after the formation of the sedimentary layers 1 and 2.

 Absolute date
Absolute age refers to the actual age of rocks given in numerical values through the
analysis of the spontaneous decay of radioactive isotopes. The term isotope refers to the
presence of an element in different forms.
Radioactive decay stands for the conversion of unstable (Parent) elements into daughter
(Stable) elements through the gaining or losing of particles in their nucleus. For instance,
Potassium-40 (40K) decays into Argon-40 (40Ar). Similarly, Carbon-14 (14C) changes
to Nitrogen (14N). Rubidium-87 (87Rb) converts also to Strontium-87 (87St). Likewise,
Uranium-235 (235U) change to and Lead-207(207Pb) (Table2.1).
Table 2.1 Parent and Daughter isotopes and time-taken (half-life) for conversion

The time taken to convert from parent element to Daughter element is commonly measured in
half-lives. The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for half of the parent isotope to change
to its product atoms. The relative proportions of the Parent and Daughter isotopes are used
to determine the number of half-lives. Before conversion, 100% of the Parent prevails and no
daughter product is formed. After one half-life, 50% of the Parent remains while 50% of the
atoms are changed to Daughter atoms. After two half-lives, the number of Parent isotopes is
again halved (25%) whilst the number of Daughter atoms increases by the same amount (to
75%). For more clarity please see Table 2.1.
Table 2.2 Proportion of Parent and Daughter isotopes during radioactive decay

As mentioned earlier, the geological timescale forms a division of geological processes

and life-forms based on standard time units through the study of fossil remains imprinted
in rock layers. The scale divides the age of the Earth into Eons, Eras, Periods, and Epochs
(Table 2.2). When the geological timescale was initially developed, the earliest fossils
were found not exceeding 600 million years (Ma) from the present (the Cambrian Period)
in age. Based on that, the part of the geological history of the earth before the Cambrian
Period (the time from 600-4500 Ma) is classified as Precambrian. Precambrian, thus,
means the time before Cambrian. Ma (Million years)
Table 2.3 geological time scale
Based on the geological timescale, the history of the formation of the Earth is classified into
four longer geological periods named Eons. Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic
are four major sub-divisions of the known Eons. The Hadean, Archean and Proterozoic Eons
are often called Precambrian by scientists to refer to the geological time before the emergence
of life on Earth. The Phanerozoic is the most recent Eon. It is further sub-broken into three
Geological Eras named Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic (see Table 1.3).

Geological eras
As can be learned from Table 1.3, four known Geological eras are identified in the history
of the Earth. They are the Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
The Precambrian is the oldest of all the geological eras. It covers the time from 600
million to 4.5 billion years (about 85% of the geological time of the Earth). It was the
time of solidification of the Earth and the formation of the oldest rocks. Rocks created
during that time are rich in base metallic minerals and are often called crystalline
basement complex rocks. Figure 1.7 indcate that they are often found along with the
continental Shields or Cratons (landscapes resisted long period of erosion) The Hadean
Eon of the Precambrian covers the time 4600 – 3900 Ma and not much is known about it.
Archean is the other Eon covering some 1400 (3900 – 2500 Ma). The latest of the three
Eons is the Proterozoic lasting from 2500–570 Ma.
The Paleozoic era covered the time from 600 to 250 Ma from the present. It is believed
that it marked the beginning of life and is commonly referred to as the age of ancient life.
Trilobites and shelled animals (see Figure 1.8) were the common species of the time. The
Devonian, the fourth period of the Paleozoic, was rich in fish species and referred to as
the age of fish. By the end of the Paleozoic, all continents of the Earth had joined together
and created the Supercontinent named Pangaea (Figure 1.9). The creation of Pangaea led
to extreme seasonal weather changes that caused the great extinction of Earth species.
Due to that, around 75% of the Amphibian species have perished.

Figure2.2 The Supercontinent (Pangaea) (Gabler et al., 2007)

The Mesozoic era marked the time from 250-70 Ma. It is often referred to as the era of
middle life and the age of Dinosaurs owing to their relative dominance. Turtles, snakes,
crocodiles, and lizards were among the life forms of the time. Low-lying areas were
occasionally flooded by shallow marine transgressions followed by depositions of red
sandstones and mudstones. Tropical areas were dominated by extensive swamps which
later became rich coal deposits. The mid-Mesozoic era was experiencing the splitting of
Pangaea into Laurasia and Gondwanaland (Figure 2.2). Igneous activities had initiated
also the development of volcanic mountain ranges in western North America. The end of
the Mesozoic era saw the emergence of land mammals but marked the mass extinction of
Dinosaurs (see Figure 1.8).
The Cenozoic era is the recent one covering the time since 70 Ma. As it forms the recent
geologic time, it is well known compared to the other Geological eras. Birds, mammals,
and flowering plants dominante succeeded on Earth. It is commonly named an era of
recent life and the age of mammals. During the beginning of the Cenozoic era the the
rifting of Pangaea has been fully achieved and the continents retained their present form.
Great volcanism and orogenic folding caused the formation of numerous volcanic, fault-
block, and Fold Mountains in the different parts of the Earth‟s continents. Glaciations
were experienced in some high-latitude areas while heavy rainfall occurred in other
localities. Extinction of some mammals happened in some localities.
2.1.2 The Continental Drift Theory
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 identify the continents that constituted Laurasia and Gondwanaland;
 explain the geological evidences that support continental drift theory;
 explain why Alfred Wegener continental drift theory was not easily accepted
The Continental drift theory presupposes that the earth‟s continents have moved over geologic
time relative to each other; thus, appearing to have “drifted” across the ocean bed. The
continental drift theory suggests that the present continents were formed from a single continent
called PANGAEA. During the Carboniferous period, some 350 million years ago, Pangaea was
located around the South Pole.
In the Triassic period of Mesozoic era, Pangaea started to break into several parts. The northern
part of Pangaea is known as LAURASIA. The southern part of Pangaea is known as
GONDWANALAND. Both continents are further subdivided into the present continents.
Through the process of drifting, the continents reached their present location. This process of
continental drift as a whole took place over millions of years.
Geological evidence favoring continental drift theory
What evidences are there in support of continental drift theory?
The concept was proposed by a German meteorologist Alfred Wegener in 1912. One of the basic
concepts that helped Wegener‟s continental drift theory the idea of a large united landmass
consisting of most of the Earth‟s continental regions.

In his theory, Wegener introduced the supercontinent of Pangaea to explain the ancient climate
similarities, fossil evidence and similarity of rock structures between Africa and South America,
as well as the outlines of the continents, especially the continental shelves, which seem to fit
together. Thus, Wegener used the following geological evidence, among others, to support his
theory:
1. Coastline Similarity: The coastlines of Africa and South America have remarkable similarity
in opposite side of the Atlantic Ocean. These coastlines fit together like pieces of a jigsaw
puzzle.
2. Rock type and structural similarities: When we fit the continents of Africa and South
America “back together again”, we find that:
 Similar rock types extend from one continent to the other
 The rocks are also the same age.
 Moreover, several mountain belts also extend from one continent to the next.
3. Fossil Evidence: cases of several fossil organisms had been found on either side of the
Atlantic Ocean, implying that the continents were once joined together. Fossils of Mesosaurus
are found on both sides of the Atlantic in South America and Africa. Mesosaurus was a small
reptile that lived about 250 million years ago.
4. Paleoclimatic Evidence: similarities of climatic data reconstructed from rock structure are
similar in the present continents.
Why Wegener‟s continental drift theory was not easily accepted? Do you know any other
research findings that could be easily accepted by the scientific community?
Wegener’s theory of continental drift was rejected by scientific community of the time. The
main reasons for this rejection were:
1. Wegener was not a geologist by profession, which of course was most welcome by his
opponents.
2. Most influential geoscientists at that time were based in the Northern Hemisphere, whereas
most of the conclusive data came from the Southern Hemisphere.
3. Wegener thought that Pangaea did not break up until Cenozoic era, and scientists
found it hard to believe that so much continental drift could have occurred in so
short a time.
4. The greatest problem remained the lack of direct evidence for the movements of
continents and the needed explanation for the mechanism.
Regardless of the controversies mentioned above, perhaps Wegener‟s most important legacy
is to have introduced the idea of lateral mobility of continents, that is, offering a paradigm
change from fixism to mobilism to the scientific community and the public. Hence, the theory
ignited a new way of viewing the Earth that led some scientists to start searching for an
explanation of how continents could move
2.1.3 Major Geological Processes, forces and Landforms Associated with them
At the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Distinguish between endogenic and exogenic forces of the earth;

 Explain processes like folding and faulting and their effect on the earth surface;
 draw a map to locate the major young fold mountains of the world;
 Draw a diagram to show the formation of horst mountains and rift valleys;
 Describe and locate a ring of fire and the countries found around this zone; and
 Examine the way in which the various internal and external forces affect the
present land surface.

The Earth is a dynamic planet. Geological processes occur constantly, some of them going on
invisible for us; while others causing a great damage. The term "geological processes" describes
the natural forces that shape the physical makeup of our planet earth. Plate tectonics, erosion,
chemical weathering and sedimentation are all examples of forces that significantly affect the
Earth‟s surface and account for its major features. The geological processes are closely studied
by geologists and earth scientists to:

 Improve the understanding of the planet‟s history;

 Help to locate useful resources, such as metal ores; and
 Aid the prediction of potentially disastrous events, such as earthquakes, tsunamis
and volcanic eruptions.

Some of the geological processes bring about changes on the surface of the earth. The forces
that bring about changes on the earth‟s surface are divided into two. They are:
1. Endogenic forces
2. Exogenic forces.

The forces which derive their strength from the earth‟s exterior or originate within the earth‟s
atmosphere are called exogenic forces or external forces. The endogenic forces, also called
internal forces, are used to describe pressure that originates inside the earth.

INTERNAL (ENDOGENIC) FORCES

When you go from your home to your school or another area, you find a lot of ups and downs.
Have you ever thought as to how these landforms were formed? What are the factors which are
responsible for their formation? Internal forces are forces that come from the inside of the earth.
These forces create irregularities or unevenness on the face of the earth. They form ups and
downs on the crust of the earth by breaking, bending, or folding the rock. Let us briefly examine
some of them: folding, faulting, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

FOLDING
Folding occurs when rock layers are pushed by earth movements sideways. The movement may
be only from one direction. It may also be from two directions. When rock layers are pushed
from two directions, they are compressed. The rock layers are folded (Figure 1.10). The layers of
rock bend up from an up fold or anticline. Those which bend down form a downward arch or syncline.

Figure2.3: Anticline, syncline

If compression continues then simple folds are changed into asymmetrical folds, over folds and
over thrust folds. (Figure 2.3)

Asymmetrical fold: one limb is steeper than the other.

Over fold: One limb is pushed over the other limb.
Over thrust fold: When pressure is very great, a fracture occurs in the fold and one limb is
pushed forward over the other limb.
Types of Fold Mountains
The Fold Mountains of the world are grouped into two: They are:
1. Young fold mountains 2. Old fold mountains
How can we classify Fold Mountains into categories?

During the last 400 million years, there have been three main mountain-building periods. These
periods experienced mountain-building processes known as orogenesis. Fold mountains formed
during the first and second mountain-building periods are known as old fold mountains.
The last and the recent is known as Alpine orogeny. Mountains belonging to this period include
the Andes, Rockies, Alps, Himalayas, Atlas and Australian Alps. They are called young fold
mountains. The old fold mountains are the oldest, dating back 250 to 300 million years, and they
are characterized by lower heights are more weathered. Scandinavian (Calidonides) Mountains,
Appalachian Mountains, and the Urals are some examples of old fold mountains.

Altai

Rockies Tian Shen

Kunlun
Atlas

Andes Australian
Drakensburg
Alps
FAULTING
What is the difference between folding and faulting? Where are the susceptible areas of folding
and faulting in the world?

A fault is a crack on the earth‟s crust. It is formed by the forces of tension and compression. A
fault may occur in the rocks along a single line. When this happens, rocks are displaced either
upward or downward.

Usually a series of faults could develop on the surface of the earth. These faults may be roughly
parallel to each other. Where parallel faults have occurred, the land in between may sink down or
may be forced to move upwards. These movements of the earth will result in the formation of the
following landforms:

1. Rift valleys 2. Block mountains

Rift valleys: They are formed when the land between two faults sinks down. The blocks on both
sides of the valley form plateaus. For example the East African Rift Vally.
Block Mountains: They are formed when the land between two parallel faults is pushed
upward. A block mountain is called horst. For example: the Afar Horst. (see Figure 2.5).
 Horst/ Block Mountain

Graben/ Rift Valley

EARTHQUAKES
The sudden shaking of the ground that occurs when masses of rock change position below
Earth‟s surface is called an earthquake. The shifting of the rock releases a great amount of
energy, sending out shock waves that travel through the rock, and cause the ground to shake.
These shock waves, called seismic waves by Earth scientists, may be powerful enough to alter
the surface, thrusting up cliffs and opening great cracks in the ground. Earthquakes occur most
often along geologic faults, which are fractures in the rocks of Earth‟s crust. Along faults, the
rock masses on opposite sides of the fracture strain against each other and sometimes “slip,”
causing an earthquake. The major fault lines of the world are located at the fringes of the huge
tectonic plates that make up the crust. Earthquakes, called temblors by scientists, occur almost
continuously. Fortunately, most of them can be detected only by sensitive instruments called
seismographs. A scale is used for reading it. It is called a Richter scale. It gives reading from 0
(no movement) to 9 (extremely severe). The Richter scale measures the effect in a logarithmic
scale. The effects of an earthquake increases significantly for each step up the scale. (Figure 2.6).
(The kilogram of Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 megajoules, which
is approximately the amount of energy released in the detonation of one kilogram of TNT.)

Causes of Earthquakes
Most of the worst earthquakes are associated with changes in the shape of Earth‟s outermost
shell, particularly the crust. These earthquakes are generated by the rapid release of strain energy
that is stored within the rocks of the crust. The strongest and the most destructive quakes are
associated with ruptures of the crust, which are known as faults. Although faults are present in
most regions of the world, earthquakes are not associated with all of them.

Shock Waves
The shifting rock in an earthquake causes shock waves called seismic waves to spread through
the rock in all directions. In a great earthquake, shocks may be felt by people thousands of miles
or kilometers away from the center. Seismographs can pick up the waves on the other side of the
world. There are two broad classes of seismic waves:

Body waves and surface waves.

Body waves travel within the body of the Earth. They include P, or primary waves and S, or
secondary waves. P waves spread in the crust from the point of rupture, which is called the
focus of the earthquake. The point of which the wave originates is what we call the Earthquake
focus. The point on the Earth‟s surface immediately above the focus is termed the epicenter of an
earthquake. P waves alternately compress and expand the rock through which they pass, and
vibrate in the same direction in which the waves travel.

S waves vibrate at right angles to the direction of wave travel. These secondary waves are
the location of an earthquake many thousands of miles away. After both P and S waves have
moved through the body of the Earth, they are followed by two types of surface waves, which
travel along the Earth‟s surface. These are named Love and Rayleigh waves, after the scientists
who identified them. Because of their larger amplitude, surface waves are responsible for much
of the destructive shaking that occurs far from the epicenter. Surface waves, which travel more
slowly than body waves, are the most powerful shake waves.
Effects of Earthquakes
Earthquakes often cause dramatic changes at the Earth‟s surface. In addition to the ground
movements, other surface effects include changes in the flow of groundwater, landslides, and
mudflows. Earthquakes can do significant damage to buildings, bridges, pipelines, railways,
embankments, dams, and other structures. Earthquakes can lead to devastating fires. Fire
produced the greatest property loss following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, when 521
blocks in the city center burned uncontrollably for three days. Fire also followed the 1923 Tokyo
earthquake, causing much damage and hardship for the citizens.

Underwater earthquakes can cause giant waves called tsunamis (Figure1.15). Violent shaking
of the seafloor produces waves that spread over the ocean surface in ever-widening circles.
In deep water a tsunami can travel as fast as 800 kilometers per hour. By the time a tsunami
reaches shore, it has gained tremendous size and power, reaching heights as great as 30
meters. Tsunamis can be catastrophic, with the potential to wipe out coastal settlements.

Global of Occurrence Earthquake

Most earthquakes take place on one of the two great earthquake belts that girdle the world.
The belts coincide with the more recently formed mountain ranges and with belts of volcanic
activity.
1. Earthquake belt circles the Pacific Ocean along the mountainous west coasts of North and South
America and runs through the island areas of Asia. It is estimated that 80 percent of the energy released in
earthquakes comes from this belt, which is called the Circum-Pacific Belt or the Ring of Fire

2. Less active belt passes between Europe and North Africa through the Mediterranean region. It then
runs eastward through Asia and joins the Ring of Fire in the East Indies. The energy released in
earthquakes in this belt is about 15 percent of the world total.

3. There are also remarkably connected belts of seismic activity, mainly along mid oceanic ridges
including those in the Arctic Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the western Indian Ocean and along the
Great Rift Valley of East Africa.

The focus of an earthquake may occur from quite close to the surface down to a maximum depth
of about 700 kilometers. More than 75 percent of the seismic energy produced each year,
however, is released by shallow focus earthquakes, that is, quakes with foci less than about 60
kilometers deep. Most parts of the world experience at least occasional shallow focus
earthquakes.

About 12 percent of the total energy released in earthquakes comes from intermediate
earthquakes, those with foci ranging from about 60 to 300 kilometers deep. About 3 percent of
the total energy comes from deeper earthquakes. The deeper focus earthquakes commonly occur
in Benioff zones, which dip down into the mantle at places where two tectonic plates converge A
Benioff zone extends down along the plate that is being subducted.
VOLCANISM
Volcanism is the process by which molten rock or magma, together with gaseous and solid materials is
forced out on the surface of the earth. This movement could be very slow or sudden. With slow
movement, the materials could spread over the surrounding area gently. If the movement is
violent, the materials will be thrown high into the sky and then fall back in the surface of the
earth. Magma may reach the surface of the earth through two types of openings:
1. Vents and 2. Fissures

Vents are holes or openings like a pipe throw which magma flows out into the surface of the
earth. If lava emerges via vent, it builds up a volcano (a cone shaped mound).

Fissures are large and narrow cracks or fractures in a rock. Molten materials may move upward
along the cracks and spread out over the surroundings. If the lava emerges via a fissure, it
builds up a plateau. During the formation of lava plateau, there is little or no explosive activity
through the fissures; lava gently spreads over large area.

Volcanoes
The word volcano refers to the form or structure, usually conical, produced by accumulations
of erupted material. In some volcanic eruptions, the molten rock called magma when it is
underground and lava when it reaches the surface, flows slowly out of the vent.
Occurrence
Volcanoes occur mainly near the boundaries of tectonic plates. They form along belts of
tension, where plates diverge, and along belts of compression, where plates converge. Nearly
1,900 volcanoes are active today or are known to have been active in historical times. Of
these, almost 90 percent are situated in the Pacific Ring of Fire.

The Mediterranean-Asian belt, which accounts for most of the world‟s earthquakes outside
the Ring of Fire, has few volcanoes except the Indonesia and Mediterranean which have more
numerous ones.

Oceanic volcanoes are strung along the world‟s oceanic ridges, while the remaining active
volcanoes are associated with the Great Rift Valley of East Africa. Volcanic activity typically
alternates between short active periods and much longer dormant periods.
1. An extinct volcano is one that is not erupting, and is not likely to erupt in the future.
Example, Mount Zuqualla, Ethiopia.
2. A dormant volcano is currently inactive but has erupted within historic times, and is likely to
do so in the future. Example: Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
3. An active volcano is one that has erupted or thought to have erupted during the last 500 years.
Example: Erta Ale, Ethiopia.

Volcanoes are usually classified by shape and size. These are determined by such factors as
the volume and type of volcanic material ejected, the sequence and variety of eruptions, and
the environment. Among the most common types are

1. Shield volcanoes,
2. Strato volcanoes
3. Cinder cones.
4. Craters, and
5. Calderas

Shield volcanoes are volcanoes that have a low, but broad profile created by highly fluid lava
flows that spread over wide areas. The lava, usually composed of basalt, cannot build up a cone
with sides much steeper than 7 degrees (Figure1.19). The Hawaiian Islands are composed of
shield volcanoes that have built up from the seafloor to the surface some 5 kilometers above.

Figure1.2.8: Shield volcano

Strato volcanoes are the most common volcanic form. They are steep cones composed of
alternating layers of lava and pyroclastics, or rock fragments. These volcanoes are characterized
by a steep profile and periodic, explosive eruptions (Figure1.20). The lava that flows from them
is highly viscous, and cools and hardens before spreading very far.

Figure2.9Strato volcanoes

Cinder cone volcano is a conical hill of mostly cinder-sized pyroclastics. The profile of the
cone is determined by the angle of repose, that is, the steepest angle at which debris remains
stable and does not slide downhill (Figure2.10)
Other landforms created by volcanoes include
craters and calderas.

Calderas are large, basin-shaped depressions. Most of them are formed after a magma chamber drains
and no longer supports the overlying cone, which then collapses inward to create the basin (Figure1.12).
Figure 1.12: Calderas; Segara Anakan Crater Lake, Rinjani Mt., Indonesia

When magma cools and solidifies within the crust intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks are formed
deep beneath the Earth‟s surface. Thus, intrusive land forms are the results of part of the magma
that solidifies within the crust: Some of the intrusive igneous rocks include batholith, dyke, and
sill (Figure1.24).
Batholith is a very large dome shaped intrusion of igneous rock. It is located several kilometers
deep in the crust, and extends over hundreds of square kilometers. Sometimes, it forms the core
of a mountain.
Sill is a near horizontal intrusion of igneous rock between two rock layers. The cooled rock
forms a sheet of more or less parallel to the surrounding layers of rocks.
Dike is formed as the magma rises up through a near vertical crack. As the magma cools, it
forms a vertical sheet of rock or a wall like structure.
Volcanic eruptions
Styles of eruption and types of lava are associated with different kinds of plate boundaries. Most
lava that comes from vents in oceanic divergence zones and from mid oceanic volcanoes are
basaltic. Where ocean plates collide, the rock types basalt and andesite predominate. Near the
zone where an ocean plate and a continental plate converge, consolidated ash flows are found.
The eruption of Krakatoa (1883) unleashed a tsunami, a large seismic sea wave that swept the
coasts of Java and Sumatra and drowned more than 36,000 people.

1.4.2. EXTERNAL (EXOGENIC) FORCES

They are forces that act on the surface of the earth from the outside. These forces/agents include
running water, wind, moving ice, sea waves, etc. Usually external forces level the up and
down of the earth. This process occurs in two ways: 1. Denudation and 2. Deposition

1.4.2. EXTERNAL (EXOGENIC) FORCES

They are forces that act on the surface of the earth from the outside. These forces/agents include
running water, wind, moving ice, sea waves, etc. Usually external forces level the up and down
of the earth. This process occurs in two ways: 1. Denudation and 2. Deposition

Denudation is the lowering of the land by wearing away the surface of the earth. Denudation
consists of i). Weathering and ii). Erosion
WEATHERING
Weathering refers to the gradual break down of rocks into pieces. These rocks lie on the surface
of the earth. How do rocks break down into small fragments? Weathering of rocks takes place in
two ways. They are:
1. Physical (Mechanical) weathering
2. Chemical weathering
1. Physical weathering is the process by which rocks are broken into smaller pieces. Each
fragment has similar chemical characteristics like the original. There are three important physical
processes that cause rocks to break down into pieces.
They are:
i). Thermal expansion and contraction
Thermal expansion and contraction: In hot and dry areas, temperature brings change on the
surface of the rocks. In such areas, at daytime, rocks are heated greatly. This causes the surface
layers of rocks to expand. At night temperature becomes low. The same layer which has
expanded at daytime contracts at night. Due to this contraction and expansion process, the rock
layers peel off and fall to the ground. It is just like peeling an onion. The process of breaking
rock layers caused by changes of temperature is called exfoliation.
ii). Frost action iii). Plant and animal action

Frost action:
When water freezes, its volume increases. If water in the cracks of rocks freezes, it expands and
pushes the sides of the cracks. Then the cracks widen and deepen. Frost action is very common
in the cooler areas of the world. Due to frost action rocks break up into pieces. Then, the
fragments collect around the lower slopes of the rocky outcrops. Such rock collections are called
screes.
Plants and animals action:
The roots of some plants, especially trees, enter the cracks of rocks. When the roots continue to
grow, they need more space. Then, they force the cracks and widen them. This leads to the
breaking down of the rock. Creatures such as worms, rabbits, moles, make holes in the ground to
find food and shelter. While doing this, they break up rocks.

2. Chemical weathering:

This involves complete changes in the internal structure of rocks. How does the structure of rock
change permanently? Chemical weathering can occur because of:

i. Rain action ii. Plants and animals

Rain action
Water is the most important agent of chemical weathering. This is not true for pure water. But
rain water dissolves oxygen and carbon dioxide as it falls through the atmosphere. Therefore,
such water is not pure. Some minerals like iron will rust when they become in contact with
rainwater that has dissolved oxygen from the atmosphere. Rusting makes iron weak and
breakable. Minerals that have carbonates are dissolved when they come in contact with rainwater
that has carbonic acid. Limestone is one example.

Solution - removal of rock in solution by acidic rainwater. In particular, limestone is weathered

by rainwater containing dissolved CO2, (this process is sometimes called carbonation).
Hydrolysis - the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and soluble salts.

Chemical weathering is most active in limestone. When water flows between layers of limestone,
it dissolves and erodes parts of the rock and forms holes. These holes become larger and wider as
they continue to be eroded. Finally, very large underground water holes called caves are formed.
Rivers that pass through limestone areas often flows underground through caves, e.g. Weyb river
in Bale or Sof Omar (Figure2.14).

In underground cave, water passes slowly through the roof of the cave. Thus, a drop of water
(now a solution) hangs to the ceiling of the cave. When the drop of water falls, small amounts of
the solution is left as a deposit on the ceiling. After a long time, these small deposits build up to
form a limestone column that hangs down from the ceiling. This is known as stalactite. The
water drops that falls from the ceiling form small deposits on the floor. These deposits slowly
build upward and form other limestone columns from the floor. We call these stalagmites. After
a long time, a stalactite hanging down from the ceiling may join with a stalagmite growing
upward to form a pillar. Thus, the ceiling and the floor of the cave are connected by such pillars
Figure 2.14 Weyb river in Bale or Sof Omar
How do animals and plants act as agents of chemical weathering?
Bacteria in the presence of water break down certain minerals in the soil. Plants also absorb
minerals. Moreover, decaying vegetation produces organic acid which causes a further break
down of minerals. All these actions help to weaken and breakup the rocks.
EROSION AND DEPOSITION
Soil erosion is the movement of soil and rock particles from one place to another. The major
agents of erosion include:
 Running water
 Underground water
 Wind
 Sea waves
 Glaciers
Running water erosion:
Running water includes all sorts of water that flows on the surface of the earth. Among the
external forces, running water is more powerful in shaping the surface of the earth. The ability of
running water to erode and transport materials is directly related to its speed. Running water
flowing along a steep slope is very powerful. Therefore, it can wear and tear the land surface
strongly. As a result, large amount of rock materials are removed from the slope and then
transported elsewhere. On the other hand, the rate of erosion by running water also depends on
vegetation cover. Areas that have rich vegetation cover are less affected by erosion.
Running water results in different types of landforms (Figure1.27). Some of them are the
following:
Landform associated with runoff: they occur by the erosion activity of surface water moving
down a slope or across a field. This type of erosion includes:

Sheet erosion: It occurs when surface water moves in a wide flow. This moving water erodes
top soil evenly. This type of erosion may not be noticeable until much damage has been done.
Rill erosion: It occurs when surface water cuts small channels or ditches in the soil.
Gully erosion: This happens when floods join together and cut the ditches wider and deeper.
Gully erosion can become severe where all or most of the vegetation has been removed.
Landform associated with a river course: various types of landforms are formed along the course
of rivers. These landforms grouped as follow:

Landforms associated with the upper course of a river: In its upper course, a river is swift
and strong. And therefore, it cuts a deep gorge or canyon.
Landform associated with a middle course of river: In this part, the river valley becomes wider
and larger. The volume of water increases because of the many tributaries that join the main
river. The place where a tributary joins the main river is called confluence. Landform associated
with the lower course of a river: In its lower course, a river flows slowly. It has a wide and flat-
floored valley. Due to the slow movement of the river, most material carried in suspension are
deposited. These materials do form different features along the course of the river.

Types of upper course landforms V-shaped valley: They are narrow and steep-sided valleys in
the upper course of a river. They have the shape of the letter “V”.
Gorge: It is a valley that is deep and narrow with steep walls. The rock walls are nearly vertical.
Waterfalls: They are formed when a river flows over a hard rock which cannot be eroded. The
soft rock is eroded fast. Thus, the hard rock will remain hanging over which water flows.
Interlocking spurs: fingers of land that jut out in to the river valley that stream and rivers are
forced to flow around in the upper course. Rapids: fast turbulent section of the river where the
bed has relatively steep gradient Waterfalls: commonly form where water rushes down steep
hillside in the upland areas.

Types of middle course landforms

Meanders: It is the winding of a river. The river makes zigzag movements (Figure 1.29). The
river erodes its way against soft rocks than hard rocks. Whenever the river comes against hard
rocks, it is forced to change direction.
Ox-bow Lake: It is a crescent-shaped lake occupying a cut-off channel that has been abandoned.
It is bent like the shape of the letter „U‟ (Figure2.15)
Figure2.15

Types of lower course landforms

Flood plain: It is a land surface formed from sediments deposited along the banks of the lower
course of a river. Flood plain is therefore, a low-lying flat plain along the lower course of a river.
Delta: It is a triangular piece of land found at the mouth of a river, the name originated from the
Greek letter delta.

Wind action:
It is very powerful in desert and semi-desert areas. Because of the work of wind, different
features are formed in these areas. The most common features include: Sand dunes are little hills
of sand (Figure2.16) formed when sand collects around obstacles, such as rock or bits of
vegetation.

Barkhan is a hill with the shape of crescent moon or quarter moon. Loess deposits are fertile
soils in deserts deposited by wind. There are large loess deposits in North China.

The work of the sea: the sea water performs both erosion and deposition activities. The most
important features formed along the coastlands include:
Beach is strip of land along the sea coast covered by varied types of sediments (Figure1.32).
Spit is a low-lying, narrow deposits of sand or silt attached at one end to the land moving deep
into the sea in the other end (Figure2.16).
Lagoon is an area of salt water separated from the sea by loose sand banks (Figure2.16)
 Figure2.16

Mass wasting:
Mass Wasting refers to the down slope movements of rock, regolith, and soil under the
influence of gravity. Actual gravity is the controlling factor for mass wasting. There are also
other factors. The major ones are:
 Water;
 The angle of the slope, and
 The activities of people.
How do water and the angle of slope cause mass wasting? Let us examine them briefly.

Water: We know that a portion of rain water that falls on land soaks into the ground. Part of the
sacked water collects into pores of the sediments. Such water could reduce the cohesion, among
the particles which results in lack of internal resistance. Subsequently, the materials are set in
motion by the force of gravity.

The Angle of the Slope: The steepest slope at which materials remain firm varies from 25 to 40
degrees. This depends on the size and shape of the particles. For example, the larger and more
angular particles maintain the steepest slopes. If the angle is increased, the rock debris will adjust
by moving down slope.

Activities of people: People often create favorable conditions for mass wasting along steep and
unstable slopes. This happens due to farming and overgrazing of the areas. In different parts of
Ethiopia, mass wasting occurred several times. This phenomenon resulted in the destruction of
human life and properties.
2.2 Geology and Landforms of Ethiopia and Africa
2.2.1 Location, Size, and Shape of Ethiopia
Location of Ethiopia
A location is a place where a particular point or object exists. In spatial distribution, every place
has its own particular location in relation to its surroundings. In geography, the term location is a
much more abstract concept than what an ordinary person knows. This important term is usually
expressed in two ways: relative location and absolute location
A. Relative Location of Ethiopia
Vicinal Location Ethiopia is a landlocked country that is surrounded by five neighboring
countries.
Table 2.1: Ethiopia’s Boundary Line length as Shared with Neighboring Countries

Table 2.1 indicates that Ethiopia shares the longest length of boundary line with Somalia while the
Republic of Djibouti shares the smallest boundary line length.
Strategic (Global, Geological) Location
Strategic location is also called natural or global location. Consequently, Ethiopia‟s
strategical location can be described in the following ways. It is found:
 in northeastern (Horn) Africa;
 to the southwest of the Asian continent;
 in the Nile Basin;
 to the south of Europe;
 to the northwest of the Indian Ocean;
 to the southwest of the Red Sea; and
 to the south of the Mediterranean Sea.
Absolute (Astronomical) Location
Absolute location is expressed as a geographical extent, in terms of latitudes and longitudes. The absolute
location of Ethiopia is expressed as follows.
Ethiopia is located between 3o N – 15o N latitudes and 33o E– 48o E longitudes.
As a result, Ethiopia‟s extreme points lie
 at Badime in the north (Tigray)
 Moyalle in the south (Borena) ,
 Akobo in the west (Gambella) and
 The tip of Ogaden in the east (Ogaden).
Size of Ethiopia
Ethiopia is the tenth largest country in Africa, with a total area of 1,106,000 square
kilometers. It contains about 0.7 percent of the world‟s land area and about 3.6 percent
of Africa‟s land mass.
Table 2.2: Comparison of Ethiopia’s Areal Size with its Neighbors

The Horn of Africa takes its name from the horn-shaped land formation that forms the easternmost point
of the African continent, projecting into the Indian Ocean south of the Arabian Peninsula. Ethiopia is the
largest country in the Horn. This status in size, in combination with its status of having a
large population, confers many advantages to Ethiopia in the Horn area.
 Advantages of large size

Advantages: Ethiopia‟s large size lets it:

 enjoy diverse agro-ecological zones, resulting in a wide variety of fauna and flora;
 possess a large amount of arable land;
 have a great variety of mineral resources; and
 be the home of diverse ethnic groups
 disadvantages of large size Its large size forces Ethiopia to:
 require expensive administrative expenditure;
 have a large army to protect its sovereignty;
 require great financial power to construct infrastructural facilities; and
 Face challenges for effective administration and socio-economic integration.
Shape of Ethiopia
Countries of Africa and the world at large vary not only in location and size but also in shape.
Some countries have nearly circular (compact) shapes, others have elongated (linear) shapes, and
still others have truncated (shortened) shapes. These shapes have implications on the
administrative, defense and economic integration, both within the country and with respect to
outside areas.
When you compare the shape of Ethiopia with the other countries, you find that Ethiopia has
more or less compact (circular) shape. Its shape is considered to be compact or essentially
circular because the extreme north-south and east-west spans of the country cover comparable
distances. You can easily see this approximate circularity in your school atlases and wall maps.
There are three theoretical indicators of the compactness of an area:
 the boundary - circumference ratio (B/C);
 the area - boundary ratio (A/B); and
 the actual area - area of the inscribing circle (A/A’)
NOTE Each of these theoretical assumptions is based on a value of 1 as indicating a perfectly
compact shape except A/B ratio. They consider 0.5 –1.5 values as deviating only slightly from
circular/compact and therefore indicating approximate compactness. In contrast, smaller values
indicate greater divergence from compactness, especially as they approach zero (0). These small
values reflect tendencies to elongation or truncation. On the other hand, A/B ratio compares the
total area of a country under consideration with the total boundary length of the same country.
The larger the areal size per unit boundary length is, the more compact the country is. For
example, let‟s use the boundary-circumference ratio to measure Ethiopia‟s degree of
compactness or index of compactness. In the ratio, circumference is based on the assumption of a
circle having equal area with the country under consideration. The formula to find the
circumference of a circle having equal areal size as the country under consideration is 2πr
(π=3.14 ). The value of radius (r) is not given, and it should be computed. It is going to be
calculated taking an area of a circle that is assumed to have equal areal size as the country under
consideration. Thus, area of the circle is calculated taking the following formula (i.e. A=πr2).
Example
The B/C ratio of Ethiopia can be calculated as follows: Given
 The total boundary length of Ethiopia: = 5260Kms
 Circumference of a circle having an area similar to area of Ethiopia (=1,106,000Km2).
Solution:
C=2πr , The value of π is 3.14, while the value of “r” is derived from the circle whose area is
2
equal to Ethiopia‟s area (i.e., 1,106,000Km2). πr = 1,106,000Km r2= 352,229.3 Hence, r= 593.5
Kms Therefore, C= 2πr Circumference of area of Ethiopia (if it were
circle) =2 x 3.14 x 593.5 = 3727.18
B/C ratio of Ethiopia = 5260/3727.18 =1.411
This value implies that the shape of Ethiopia has a deviation of 41% from the assumed
theoretical circular shape it ought to have.
The compact shape has militaristic advantage as stated earlier. This can be well explained by
considering an area and borderline length ratio. The index of compactness using A/B ratio for
Ethiopia is indicated hereunder.

It implies that if 1 km borderline is safeguarded by national army, 210 km2 of the hinterland will
become free from the assault of an enemy. Another way of estimating the compactness of shape
of any country is considering the ratio of area of the country to the area of the smallest inscribing
circle. In the ratio, area the circle is based on the assumption of smallest inscribing circle that
touches the north, south, east and west boundaries of Ethiopia described earlier in the “Absolute
Location” section.
The ratio of actual area to the area of the smallest inscribing circle (A/A‟) for
Ethiopia can be calculated using the following formula:

N.B. Lower value near 0 indicates elongation and a higher value near 1 suggests
more compactness.
.2.2.2 Geological History of Ethiopia
The geological history of Ethiopia is part of the geological processes that acted within and upon
the earth‟s surface for many millions of years in the past. To describe the geology and history of
life on Earth, scientists have developed the geological time scale. The geological time scale
measures time on a scale involving four major geological eras. Each era is divided into periods,
the periods into epochs, epochs into years and years into major occurrences.
Each geological era is distinguished from the others based on grounds of the following three
characteristics:

 The relative positions of the continents;

 The character of the prevailing climate; and
 The predominant life form (plants and animals).

Summary of Major Geological Events in the Horn

Let‟s begin by considering the different geological eras and then study the events that took place
in those eras. Here are the geological eras, in chronological order.
 The Precambrian Era – the oldest era (from 4.5 billion years to 600 million years ago.
 The Paleozoic Era (from 600 million years to 250 million years ago).
 The Mesozoic Era (from 250 million years to 70 million years ago).
 The Cenozoic era (from 70 million years to the recent time).
The Precambrian Era (from 4.5 Billion to 600 Million years ago)
 The Precambrian Era is the oldest and longest geological era, covering about 5/6 of
the earth‟s geological time.
 Frequent orogenic movements, intensive volcanic activities, denudation during
the later periods, formation of folded mountain ranges in a NNE – SSW
direction are major geological events during this era.
 The oldest rock formed – the old crystalline basement.
 The first forms of life emerged, such as amoeba, and jellyfish. Today, in a few areas
of Ethiopia, outcrops of old crystalline basement complex rocks are found on the
surface, due to continuous denudation.
 In central and northern Tigray.
 In Mettekel, Assossa, Illubabor and the Abbay.
 In central Sidama, southern Omo, southern Bale and Borena.
 In central, western and northern Eritrea

The Paleozoic Era (from 600 Million – 250 Million years ago)
The main geological events of the Paleozoic era were denudation and peneplanation.
 No significant structural formation took place.
 The massive denudation activity resulted in the formation of inselbergs in some parts of
Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Known for the predominance of invertebrates.
Mesozoic Era (from 250 Million – 70 Million years ago) an Era of Reptiles
This era was marked by alternate slow sinking and uplifting of the landmass (Epeirogenesis) of
the Horn of Africa. The Mesozoic Era was an era of sedimentary rock formation in Ethiopia. The
Mesozoic era has three distinct periods as indicated hereunder.
The most important geological occurrences of the Mesozoic era in the Horn were the
sinking and uplifting of the landmass.
 In the Triassic Period 250-180millions , the landmass sank due to internal forces.
This event was followed by transgression of a nearby sea into the mainland of
today‟s Somalia, and southeastern Ethiopia. During the Triassic Period, the oldest
sedimentary rock known as Adigrat sandstone was formed.
  In the Jurassic Period 180-135 millions , the transgression of the sea continued
into the mainland in the northwest direction. This event deposited another
sedimentary rock known as Hintalo limestone.
 In the Cretaceous Period135-70millions, the landmass began to rise and the sea
started to regress towards the southeast, depositing sedimentary rock known as
Upper Sandstone. Upper Sandstone is the youngest sedimentary rock, and therefore
overlies the rest.
 Upper Sandstone is the youngest and thinnest in the southeast, and is the oldest and
thickest in the northwest.
 The Adigrat sandstone is older and thicker in the southeast and progressively
decreases in age and thickness to the northwest. .

NOTE The transgression of the sea extended up to northwestern Ethiopia, as far as central
Tigray and the western slopes of the western highlands. The sedimentary rocks formed in the
Mesozoic Era were later buried by overlying Cenozoic igneous rocks. However, the sedimentary
rocks have been exposed at the surface in some areas of Ethiopia. They are thinnest (because
they are the youngest) in the southeast and thickest (because they are the oldest) in the northwest.

One can see them exposed at the surface mostly in the southeastern lowlands of Ethiopia, central
Tigray, and in the Abbay and Wabishebelle gorges. (For more information, look at the geological
map of Ethiopia.) The Mesozoic is also known for the predominance of reptiles. Huge reptiles,
such as dinosaurs, were dominant. However, at the end of this era, two other significant
biological events occurred:
 one was the disappearance of the dinosaurs, and
 the other was the emergence of mammals, birds and flowering plants.
The Cenozoic Era (from 70 Million to Recent Years)
it is the most recent geological era. During this era very significant structural, climatic and
biological events have occurred in Ethiopia. Thus, geologic events of the Cenozoic era have
greatly resulted in the development of very recent landforms in the Horn of Africa in general and
Ethiopia in particular.
The Cenozoic Era is divided into two periods namely, Tertiary and Quaternary. To make this
lesson simple and comprehendible, we shall discuss only the geological events of this era into
events of each of the Periods.
a. Geologic Events of the Tertiary Period - (70 million - 2 million years ago) In the
Tertiary Period, the uplifting that began in the Cretaceous Period of the Mesozoic Era
continued and reached its maximum height. In Ethiopia and the Horn it formed huge
blocks of dome over the greater part of the region. As the uplifting continued through
time, great cracks opened in the crust and resulted in the pouring out of extensive basaltic
lava (known as the Trappean lava series). The lava resulted in the formation of:
 the Northwestern Highlands,
 the Southeastern Highlands, and
 the Somali plateaus
As the cracking and faulting continued during the period, it formed the Great East
African Rift Valley System – of which the Ethiopian Rift Valley System is part. The Great East
African Rift system extends from Palestine-Jordan in the north to Malawi-Mozambique in the
south, for a distance of about 7,200 kilometers. Of these, 5,600 kilometers is in Africa, and 1,700
kilometers in Eritrea and Ethiopia.
b. Geologic Events of the Quaternary Period (2 million - recent years) This period is
known for its recent volcanic activities that took place after the formation of the Rift
Valley. In the Quaternary Period, the structures which were formed in Ethiopia and the
Horn are:
 the Afar Horst that extends into Djibouti,
 the active volcano of Ertalle in Afar,
 the dormant volcanic mountain of Fentalle in Eastern Oromia,
 the extensive lava field and sheets of Metahara,
 thermal springs and fumeroles of the rift valley, and
 the Pluvial rainfall in Africa and the resultant deposition that took place in the
lowlands of Ethiopia including the Rift Valley.
NOTE The Cenozoic Era in its Quaternary Period is assumed to be the period in which modern man
evolved.
2.2.3 Overview of the World’s Major Landforms
Landforms are physical features on the Earth‟s surface that form terrain of an area. Mountains,
plateaus, and plains are the three major types of landforms. Minor landforms include hills,
gorges, valleys, and basins.

Tectonic plate movement and volcanic activities (internal processes) in the Earth‟s interior can
create landforms by pushing up mountains and hills. Erosion by water and wind (external
processes) can erode land and create minor landforms like gullies, river valleys ,and gorges. Both
processes happen over a long period , sometimes millions of years. For example, it took a very
long period to cut the deep Abbay Gorge between the towns of Goha Tsiyon in North Shewa,
Oromia, and Dejen in East Gojam, Amhara National Regional State. The Abbay Gorge thus cuts
down about 1000 m deep between the two towns mentioned above.

The major landforms (mountains, plateaus and plains) are widely distributed on the earth‟s
surface. The surface of the Earth is covered by land and water. The landforms make up
continents and the water forms oceans. Continents are the largest landmasses in the world. The
Earth is divided into seven continents, from largest to smallest are; Asia, Africa, North
America, South America, Antarctica,Europe, and Oceania (Australia).

Figure world Map

Oceans are large areas of salt water between the continents. Although all the oceans
are connected, making them one big ocean, they are divided into five smaller oceans
that are separated by their location and the way the water in them moves. These
oceans are the Arctic Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and the
Southern Ocean. The oceans together cover huge areas of the Earth. They cover seventy one
percent of the Earth. The Pacific Ocean is both the largest and the deepest ocean, which covers
one-third of the Earth‟s surface. Oceans are important factors for creating or forming coastal land
features such as islands, peninsulas, isthmuses. An island is a piece of ground that is
completely surrounded by water. Islands can be big or small in any part of the world. The largest
island in the world is Greenland. Australia is bigger than Greenland but it is considered as a
continent instead of an island.
Two more coastal land features that involve a little land and a lot of water are peninsulas, and
isthmus. A peninsula is a piece of land that has water on three sides but it is connected on the
fourth side to the mainland. The two well-known peninsulas are Italy and Florida. An isthmus is
a narrow strip of land with water on both sides connecting two larger pieces of land. A well-
known example is the Isthmus of Panama that connects North America to South America.

The major landforms of the world create unique areas where people around the world want to
know, explore, and visit. These landforms generally divide continents and countries into
different physiographic divisions. Let us find out important physiographic regions formed by
these landforms in the world.

I. Mountain

Mountains are the largest elevated and most recognizable landforms on the Earth‟s
surface. They have steep sides, and high peaks, that stand out from the surrounding
land. Around mountains, we may find smaller, less steep landforms called hills.

Mountains are usually formed when rock layers are pushed together from opposite
sides. Thus, the pressure exerted from the movement forces the land in the middle to rise. The
low areas between mountains are called valleys. Mountains may also be formed by volcanic
activity when lava and other materials build up on the surface, but mountains are not the only
landforms that can be made by volcanoes. The highest landform on Earth is Mt. Everest. It is a
peak in the Himalaya‟s Mountain range. It is located between Nepal and Tibet. It measures 8,849
meters above sea level. It is part of the Himalaya Mountain range that runs across several
countries in South and Southeast Asia such as India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and
Afghanistan. The mountain range extends 320 to 400 kms in width and 1500 kms in length. The
Himalayas were formed about 40 to 50 million years ago when the Indian tectonic plates collided
with the Eurasian plate. Indian tectonic plate and the Eurasian plates are continental crust and
have the same density. Therefore, when the two plates collide, pushing upwards at their edges
formed the Himalayan Mountains.

II. Plain

Another major type of landform is plain. Plains are large areas of flat low land with
no hills or mountains in them. The Great Plains in the mid United States is a good
example of a large plain. Plains are very important areas for crop cultivation and
animal husbandry (ranch).

III. Plateaus
Plateaus are large areas of raised land that are flat on top. Plateaus may be formed
by volcanic activity beneath the earth‟s surface. Sometimes the pressure of the
magma beneath is not strong enough to break through the crust and create a volcano,
hence, instead, the land is pushed upwards, plateaus may stand all by themselves in
otherwise flat land or may sometimes be close to other plateaus.
2.2.4 Location of Africa and Major Landforms of Africa
The continent of Africa is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Gulf
of Aden, the Indian Ocean, and the Atlantic Ocean. It is divided into half by the
Equator.
Africa is the second largest and second most populous continent on earth after Asia
in both cases. Africa‟s areal size is 30.37 million Km2, hence, it covers 6% of the
Earth‟s total surface area and 20% of its land area. Africa‟s total population was
estimated to be 1.3 billion people in 2020. Therefore, Africa accounts for about 16%
of the world‟s population.
figure Africa - Location and Countries
Africa is home to 54 recognized sovereign states. This division of Africa into almost
two equal parts (lengthwise) across the equator makes the climatic and physical
conditions in the north repeat themselves in the south. For example, the Kalahari
Desert is exactly similar to the Sahara in the southern part of Africa; the Karoo in
southern part of the continent matches the Maghreb, and the conditions in the Cape
area are almost identical to those of the Mediterranean region in the north.

MAJOR LANDFORMS OF AFRICA

Landforms are the results of volcanic and tectonic processes. These processes form
major landforms of the world as mentioned in the section 1.1 above. Similarly, in Africa there
are several recognizable major landforms. Understanding landforms is very important because as
part of a landscape, landforms greatly affect human perception and interactions with the
environment. Landforms provide a physical context for describing the landscape, topography,
and ecological units within the environment. Understanding the physical and historical context of
the landscape is necessary in order to understand the temporal and spatial scales of ecosystems.

Landforms are ecologically important elements because ecosystems (which consists of all the
organisms and the physical environment with which they interact) develop within landform
regions, and material and energy flows occur within the landform system. Landforms also affect,
modify, and influence climate. The effect can be recognized in both large areas as macroclimate
and small areas as microclimate. Effects of landforms on ecosystem patterns and processes
include:
1 Landform attributes (elevation, steepness of slope, and aspect) produce many different
patterns which determine the ecological potential of an area.
2 Landform regions affect the flow of organisms, energy ,and material.
3 Landform regions affect the spatial pattern of non-geomorphic disturbance by fire and
wind.
4 Landforms may resist changes that geomorphic processes create; hence they protect biotic
features and processes.
In Africa , there are four significant landform regions. Each of these regions contains
eight major physical regions: the Atlas Mountains, the Sahara, the Sahel, the savanna,
the rainforest, the Rift Valley and African Great Lakes, the Ethiopian Highlands,
mountains and desert systems of South Africa. Some of these regions cover large
bands of the continent, such as the African massif of the Sahara and Sahara Desert.
1 African Alpine System

The Atlas Mountains make up the Maghrib (meaning „west‟ in Arabic) region including
Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. The mountain range extends for more than 2,000 kilometers,
from the Moroccan port of Agadir in the southwest, to the Tunisian capital of Tunis in the
northeast. The topography of the mountain forms a high divide between the Mediterranean Sea
in the north and the Sahara Desert in the south.

2 African Massif

I. The Sahara Desert The Sahara is a desert on the African continent. With an area of 9,200,000
square kilometers, it is the largest hot desert in the world. It covers the entire region of North
Africa, from the Atlantic coast in the west to the Red Sea in the east. The Sahara
borders the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlas Mountains in the north, extending
south into Sudan and a region known as the Sahel. The Sahara encompasses whole or large parts
of ten countries in North Africa. These countries are Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali,
Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan, and Tunisia.
Figure map of Sahara desert

I, The Sahel
The Sahel is a vast semiarid region of North Africa, to the south of the Sahara that
forms a transitional zone at the south of the desert and comprises the northern part
of the region known as the Sudan. Sahel is an Arabic word (sahil) meaning “shore”.
It refers to the 5,000 kilometers stretch of savanna that is the shore or edge of
the Sahara Desert. The Sahel spreads west to east from Mauritania and Senegal to
Somalia. Countries in the Sahel include: Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Niger, Nigeria,
Burkina Faso, Chad, Sudan and Eritrea. The Sahel lands are grasslands and savannahs, with
scrub areas to the north, alternating areas of trees, mainly acacias in the south.
 Figure map of Sahel region
The semiarid grassland of the Sahel has natural pasture (land covered with grass and other low
plants suitable for grazing animals), with low-growing grass and tall herbaceous perennials.
Hence, there is plenty of forage for the livestock (camel, pack ox, and grazing cattle and sheep).
The landscape of the Sahel is similar to the savanna type. However, it tends to merge into desert
because of human activities and climate change.

III. The Savanna

The Savanna is a transitional region between rainforest and the Sahel grassland. The
African savanna region is a tropical grassland with few trees and shrubs (a shrub is
a woody plant smaller than a tree and has a very short stem with branches near the
ground). The trees in the Savanna region are drought resistant trees. The tree and
shrub species in the savanna usually shed their leaves during the dry season. The
shedding of the leaves is an adaptation process of the trees to the all year-round hot
temperature of the Savanna. This adaptation reduces water loss from the plants.
Figure the savanna

Based on vegetation types, the Savanna region has two important parts – woodland
and thorn tree tall grass Savana. In Savana woodland, the trees are widely spaced
because there is not enough soil moisture during the dry season to support a full
tree coverThe open spacing lets a dense lower layer where grasses develop. The woodland has an
open, park-like appearance.

In the tropical savanna woodland of Africa, the trees are of medium height. Tree
crowns are flattened or umbrella-shaped, and the trunks have thick, rough bark.
Some species of trees are xerophytic forms – adapted to the dry environment with
small leaves and thorns. Others are broad-leaved deciduous species that shed their
leaves in the dry season. Fires occur frequently in the savanna woodland during the
dry season, but the tree species are mostly fire resistant.

IV. The Tropical Rainforest

Tropical rainforests occur both to the north and south of the Equator. The rainforests
near the equator are known as equatorial rainforests. These forests are very diverse and contain
large number of plant and animal species. Flora is highly diverse in the
equatorial rainforests where a square kilometer may contain as many as 100 different
tree species as compared to 3 or 4 in the temperate zone. Broadleaf evergreen trees
dominate the vegetation cover.

Six African countries – Cameroon, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo,
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea makeup the Congo Basin of
the Tropical Rainforest. Other areas where the rainforest is found include; Ghana, Ivory Coast
and Madagascar.

The various trees of the tropical rain forests are closely spaced together and form a thick
continuous canopy some 25 to 35 meters tall. Sometimes the canopy is interrupted
by the presence of very tall trees (up to 40 meters) that have wide buttressed bases for
support. Most plants are evergreen with large, dark green, leathery leaves. Epiphytic
and herbaceous plants as well as vines (lianas) and ferns are very characteristic of
the tropical rainforest.

The rainforest climate is wet all the year or it has a short dry season. Annual rainfall,
which exceeds 2000 to 2250 millimeters, is evenly distributed throughout the year.
Temperature and humidity are relatively high throughout the year.
Decomposition is rapid in the tropical rainforests because of high temperature and
high moisture. Meanwhile, due to the frequent and heavy rainfall in the area, tropical
soils are subject to extreme chemical weathering and leaching. These environmental
conditions also make tropical soils acidic and nutrient poor.

3 East African Highlands and Rift System

I, The Rift Valley and African Great Lakes

The Rift Valley of East Africa was formed by normal faulting. It was formed as the
land stretched by forces moving in opposite direction creating rupture and splitting
apart the land in between. This creates an area called graben. This is an elongated
block of the earth‟s crust lying between two faults and displaced downward relative
to the blocks on either side in a rift valley.
The Rift Valley System is a unique feature of Africa‟s physiography. It begins from
the Red Sea and extends through the Ethiopian landmass to the Lake Victorian
region where it subdivides into an east and west segment and continues southward
through Lake Malawi to Mozambique. Its total length is estimated to be 5,600 km.
The average width of the Rift Valley System ranges between 32 km and 80 km.
The Rift Valley lakes are series of lakes in the East African Rift valley that runs
through eastern Africa from Ethiopia in the north to Malawi in the south, and includes
the African Great Lakes in the south. Many of the lakes are freshwater lake with
great biodiversity in them, while others are alkaline or salty lakes.

The Ethiopian Rift Valley lakes are the northernmost of the African Rift Valley
lakes. In central Ethiopia, the Main Ethiopian Rift, also known as the Great Rift
Valley, splits the Ethiopian highlands into northwestern and southeastern halves, and
the Ethiopian Rift Valley lakes occupy the floor of the rift valley between the two
highlands.
Lake Victoria lies at an elevation of 1,134 meters above sea level, with an area of 68,800 square
kilometers is the largest lake in Africa. It is not in the rift valley, but instead occupies a
depression between the eastern and western rifts formed by the uplift of the rifts to either side.
II. The Ethiopian and Eritrean Highlands

Ethiopia has some of the most spectacular scenery in Africa. Much of the country is
set on a high plateau, with a massive central highland complex of mountains divided
by the deep Great Rift Valley and a series of lowlands along the periphery (edges) of
the higher elevations. The wide diversity of terrain produces regional variations in
climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, and settlement patterns.

Ethiopia‟s northwestern highlands extend into Eritrea, reaching elevations of more

than 2,000 meters above sea level. Eritrea shares the northeast section of the Ethiopian
high plateau, which in appearance looks more like a set of rugged uneven mountains.
The plateau, also known as the Northwestern Highlands, rise on the western scarp
of the Great Rift Valley and projects northward from Addis Ababa in Ethiopia to the
Red Sea coastline in Eritrea. It descends to the Red Sea coast in a series of hills.

4 Southern Africa Platforms

Mountains and Desert Systems of Southern Africa

The region of the African continent south of the Congo and Tanzania is named
Southern Africa. This landform region has a very diverse landscape. It includes
escarpment, mountains, grassland, and desert landscapes. The Tropic of Capricorn
runs straight through the middle of the region, indicating that the southern portion is
outside the tropics or there is a temperate part in the region.
he Ukhahlamba (Drakensberg) escarpment is the most recognizable landscape in
the region. The average altitude of the escarpment is almost 3,000 m above sea level.
Two important deserts form large part of southern Africa. The first one is the Kalahari Desert,
which lies mainly in Botswana. It is an extensive desert region with an arid mixture of grasslands
and sand. When there is adequate rainfall, the grasslands provide excellent grazing for wildlife.
The Kalahari is home to game reserves and national parks. The second is Namib Desert, found
along the west coast of Namibia. It is a desert land affected by the cold ocean current of
Benguela that borders the area. Hence, the Namib desert was formed partly because of the cold
ocean current nearby. The highveld is the portion of the South African inland plateau. The
Highveld slopes gently downwards and is bounded by the Great Karoo to the south, the Kalahari
Desert to the west and the Bushveld to the north.

The highveld is home to some the South Africa‟s most important commercial farming
areas, as well as its largest concentration of metropolitan centers, especially the Gauteng
conurbation, which accommodates one-third of South Africa‟s population. The continuation of
the Great Escarpment to the south separates the Highveld from KwaZulu-Natal. The southeastern
portion of the Great Escarpment or the Ukhahlamba (Drakensberg) forms the boundary between
KwaZulu-Natal and Lesotho.
2.2.5 Landforms of Ethiopia
 Landforms are the work of two opposite forces endogenic and exogenic.
These landforms are the results of two opposite forces:
 the endogenic force that originates from inside the earth. For example, volcanic
activity and tectonic forces, and
 the exogenic force that originates at the surface (denudation and penepalantion). It is a
combination of these two forces that created the existing landforms of Ethiopia
 Altitude varies from about 116 meters below sea level at the Dallol depression (Kobar
sink) to 4620 meters above sea level at Ras Dashen in Semein.
 If 1000 meters is chosen as a demarcating contour line between highlands and lowlands,
56 percent of Ethiopia‟s land is highland. This makes Ethiopia “Roof of Northeastern
Africa.”
 It is the only country in the region with such a high proportion of elevated surface. This
elevated surface is bisected diagonally by the Rift Valley which extends from Syria to
Mozoambique across the East African.
The relief of Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three main physiographic divisions:
Highlands, lowlands and Rift valley.
1, The Highlands of Ethiopia
Highlands are lands with altitudes of over 1000 meters above sea level (masl).
 The Horn‟s highlands are: The Northwestern Highlands and The Southeastern
Highlands.

A, The Northwestern Highlands of the Horn

Stretch from Ras Kassar in Eritrea to the highlands of Gamo-Goffa in southwestern Ethiopia.
They are separated from the southeastern highlands by the Rift Valley, which is part of the Great
East African Rift Valley. They consist of the
 the Plateau of Tigray,
 the North Central Massifs,
 The Plateau of Shewa and the Southwestern Highlands.
The Plateau of Tigray

The Plateau of Tigray is the most northerly plateau in Ethiopia. It is separated from the Eritrean
plateau by the Mereb River. It lies to the southeast of the upper course of the Mereb/Gash River
and to the northeast of Tekkeze River Gorge.
 It is an area composed largely of sandstones and limestones, as the overlying basalt have
been eroded. As a result, the soils are poor and thin.
 Exposed to severe erosion due to long periods of human inhabitation.
 There are very high mountains on this plateau with elevations of over 3000 meters
above sea level.
 Three of these are: Mount Tsibet (3988 m.a.s.l), Mount Ambalage (3291 m.a.s.l) and
Mount Assimba (3248 m.a.s.l).

The North-Central Massifs

 These are the most rugged and dissected plateaus of Ethiopia. They are capped by
basalts and surrounded by deep gorges. Within each of the plateaus are small arable
lands known as ambas. The ambas are isolated from one another by gorges.
 The Tekezze, together with its tributaries, is the main river that drains the region.
Tekezze River has divided the North Central Massif area into western and eastern
massifs, which are connected by the Yejju-Wadla-Dilanta plateau. The western massifs
make up the massifs of South Gondar (Semein), while the eastern ones make up the
Lasta and Wollo Massifs.
 South of these is found the Gojjam Massif. The Gojjam Massif is the most extended
tableland and is comparatively less dissected. It is formed on the core of the
AmedamitChoke Mountains. It is carved by the Abbay River that effectively separated it
from the Shewa plateau in the south and the Amahara Saynt Massif in the northeast.
 The Semein Massif is dominated by Ras Dashen, while the eastern forms the watershed
of the Nile drainage basin.
 The North-Central Massifs are made up of numerous high mountains. They are known
for the production of cereals, such as teff, pulses and oil seeds.
 Famous mountain peaks on these massifs are
 MT. RAS DASHEN (in Semein) – 4620 masl ,
  MT. LEGEDA (in Gondar) – 4532 masl ,
 MT. ANALU (in Gondar) – 4480 masl ,
 MT. TEFAW LEZER (in Gondar) – 4456 masl ,
 MT. KOLO (in Lasta) – 4300 masl , MT.
 GUNA (in Gondar) – 4231 masl ,
 MT. ABUNA YOSEPH (in Lasta) – 4190 masl ,
 MT. HEY (in Gondar) – 4154 masl ,
 MT. BIRHAN (in Gojjam) – 4100 masl.

The Plateau of Shewa

 A dome-shaped plateau that serves as a watershed between the Awash and Abbay River
basins. It extends westwards into western Wellega through Horo Guduru and forms a
crescent shape which causes the Abbay to swerve and drain northwards.
 Separated from the plateau of Gojjam by the Abbay gorge in the north, from the
southeastern highlands by the Awash River and the Rift Valley and from the Highlands
of Keffa by the Ghibe River.
 Drained by the tributaries of the Abbay River in the west and the Awash River in the
east.
 Its high mountains are found on its northeastern and south eastern margins; they are:
Mt. Abbuye Meda (on the northeastern margin, 4000 masl) and Mt. Guraghe (on the
southeastern margin, 3721 masl).
The Southwestern Highlands
 These include the highland areas of Wellega, Illubabor, Gamo Goffa and Keffa. These
Ethiopian highlands lie south of the Abbay trough which is greatly eroded due to torrential
rain that pours down on in the area for almost all of the year. It is the wettest region of the
country with a total average annual rainfall of above 1500 mm.
 Drained northwards by the Dabus and Diddeessa( tributaries of the Abbay River),
westwards by the headstreams of the Baro-Akobo River , southwards by the Omo-Ghibe
River (ends in Lake Turkana) , eastwards by the right-bank tributaries of the Omo-Ghibe
(the GojebGhibe River of Jima and Yem zone).
  The general elevation of these highlands is relatively low, when compared to that of the
Northern and Eastern Highlands. Only a few areas are above 2500 meters. The highest
points in the region are the: Gamo-Konso Highlands (in GamoGoffa), Maji-Korma
Highlands (in Keffa Zone) , Kulo-Konta Highlands (Keffa zone) , Benishangul mountain
(in Benshangul Gumuz) , Tullu Wallel (in West Wellega).
 Mt Gughe has the highest altitude: 4200 masl. It is found in the Gammo plateau.
 These highlands are well-known for the production of coffee, inset and maize.

B, the Southeastern Highlands of Ethiopia

 The Southeastern Highlands of the Horn include the plateaus of Hararghe, Sidama, Arsi,
Bale and Somali highlands.
Their formation is similar to that of the North and Southwestern Highlands; and they are capped
by basaltic rock. They are the main sources of the Wabishebelle and Genalle rivers
They are bounded in the west by the fault line of the Rift Valley, in the east by the Ogaden
Lowlands and in the south by the Elkerie and Borena Lowlands.
The Plateau of Hararghe
The Plateau of Hararghe rises sharply from the fault line of the Rift Valley and extends gently to
the east up to Jijiga. After Jigjiga, a fall in elevation takes place, giving way to the Ogaden
Lowlands.
Drained by the left-bank tributaries of the Wabishebelle River. The basaltic rocks have been
worn away, exposing limestone and earlier sedimentary rocks.
The area and its foothills are significant producers of coffee, chat, sorghum and millet.
The highest points of this plateau are Mount Gara Muleta (3381 masl) and Mount Jebel Tita
(3122 masl).

The Plateau of Arsi

This plateau area consists of the Gugu and Chillalo Massifs. It is an extendingly rolling plateau;
It is a very suitable plateau for farming. These features are due to the fact that erosion on the
Arsi plateau has been comparatively low.
The Arsi plateau is known for its wheat. The highest points are Mount Chillallo (4136 masl),
Mount Bada (4139 masl) and Mount Kaka (4180 masl).
The Bale Massif
 It is next to the Arsi Plateau but is separated from it by the headstreams of the
Wabishebelle
 River (popularly known as the Wabe).
 In the north, the massif consists of a flat form that is similar to basaltic plateaus. In the
south, the massif consists of huge mountains.
 Dominated by Mount Tulu Dimtu (4377 masl) and Mount Batu (4307 masl).

The Plateau of Sidama

 This plateau area is next to the Bale Massifs, but is separated from them by the Genalle
River. The area constitutes the southwest extension of the southeastern highlands.
 The plateau slopes away gently to the south and is drained by the Dawa River and its
tributaries.
 The Jemjem is the dominant part of the plateau.
The Somali Highlands
 The highlands are the extension of the southeastern highlands of Ethiopia. Their average
altitude doesn‟t exceed 1500 masl. They rise gently in the west and descend sharply to
the Indian Ocean coasts.
2. The Rift Valley System
 The Ethiopian Rift Valley System is part of the Horn‟s Rift Valley System, which is part
of the Great East African Rift System. The Great East African Rift System is a set of
fractures in the earth‟s crust that extend from the Dead Sea in the north, through the Red
Sea, and then across East and Central Africa to Mozambique in the south.
 Major faulting and rifting took place at the end of the Tertiary Period of the Pleistocene
Epoch as a result of tectonic epeirogenic activity. These events formed the Great East
African Rift System. It has been the scene of intense volcanic activity and minor
faulting. Even today, active volcanic activity exists there. It is therefore, the most
unstable physiographic division of the area.
 Runs diagonally from northeast to southwest and divides Ethiopia east-to-west. It covers
a total length of 1700 kilometers in Ethiopia and Eritrea.
Subdivisions of the Ethiopian Rift Valley System
Covering a length of 1700 km, the Ethiopian Rift Valley System comprises 18 percent of
the country‟s total area. It is subdivided into three main parts: The Afar Triangle (northern)
, the Main Ethiopian Rift (central) and the Chew-Bahir Rift (southern).

The Afar Triangle (Northern Subdivision)

The northern subdivision of the Ethiopian Rift Valley System, i.e., the Afar Triangle, is the
largest and widest part of the system. Its altitude is generally low, ranging from 116 meters
below sea level at the Kobar Sink to about 900 meters above sea level at Awash.
Characterized by faulted depressions (the Dallol Depression), grabens (also called troughs)
and volcanic mountains. Covered by extensive salt plains and lakes (Lake Assale and Lake
Afrera). The Afar triangle is bounded by parallel fault lines on the east and west. Its floor is
made up of grabens such as the Tendaho Graben , volcanic ash and lava deposits , Lacustrian
and fluvial deposits and Volcanic mountains such as Mount Fentalle.

The Afar Triangle has special characteristics that do not exist in other regions of Ethiopia. It
consists of fossil rich sediments, rich archeological sites which have shown us that the area
was the home of the ancient ancestors of primates and hominids.

The Main Ethiopian Rift (Lake Region or Central Part)

The central subdivision of the Ethiopian Rift system, i.e., the Main Ethiopian Rift, covers the
area from the lower awash basin up to Lake Chamo. The most elevated part of the Ethiopian
Rift Valley. It is also the wettest, most densely vegetated, and most densely populated.
Sedentary farming is practiced here. The area also includes numerous lakes of enormous
aesthetic value.

The Chew-Bahir Rift (Southern Subdivision)

It Is also known as the Omo-Ghibe trough. It is the smallest section of the Ethiopian Rift
System. It consists of an extensive shallow marshy area covered by tall grasses. In the
vicinity of Arba Minch, this part of the Ethiopian Rift valley system is split into the Ganjuli
and the Galena Valleys by the Amaro mountain range.
3. The Lowlands of the Horn

These landform divisions occupy the peripheries of Ethiopia on its eastern and western
sides, running from north to south. They are generally below the 1000 meter contour line
and have relatively harsh and very hot climates. The lowlands constitute more than 35
percent of the total area of the country. They are inhabited mainly by pastoralists. The
lowlands of the Horn are subdivided into Western lowlands and Southeastern lowlands.

a. The Western Lowlands

These lowlands extend from western Eritrea in the north up to the Omo-Ghibe River in the
south, bordering the Sudan. They have a general elevation of 500 – 1000 masl. These
lowlands are sub- divided into the Setit and Barka Lowlands (in Eritrea), the Tekezze and
Angereb Lowlands (in Tigray and Amhara regions), the Abbay Dinder Lowlands (in
Benishangul Gumuz Region), the Baro-Akobo Lowlands (in Gambella), the Omo-Ghibe
Lowlands (in SNNP). They are characterized by arid and semi–arid conditions. The Baro-
Akobo lowland is the wettest lowland. Because of climatic hardship in most parts of these
lowlands, the communities practice nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralist ways of life.
However, there are notable towns, such as Humera, Kurmuk, Omedla and Metema that serve
as business centers for the communities living along the Ethio-Sudanese border.

b. The Southeastern Lowlands

Like the Western Lowlands, the Northeastern and Southeastern Lowlands run from
northwest to southeast. They begin in Djibouti and run all the way to Somalia in the
southeast, bordering the Indian Ocean. They consist of the Red Sea coastal plains (in
Eritrea), the Afar plains (in Afar) which are included in the Afar Triangle, the Ogaden plains
(in Somali region), the Elkeri plains (in Bale), the Borena plains (in Oromiya) , the Benadir
plains (in Somalia) and Djibouti. These lowlands are highly extensive lowlands. They are
characterized by low annual rainfall-often below 500 mm. Most of these lowlands are
covered by sandstones and recent marine deposits. The people practice a pastoralist way of
life because of the harsh climate.
2.3. Weather and climate
2.3.2 Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate
The word “weather” and “climate” are closely related but have quite different meaning. Weather refers to
the condition of the atmosphere in terms of temperature, rainfall, pressure, wind, moisture, cloud cover,
humidity etc. observed in a certain place over a short period of time. It is a phenomenon which varies
very much from hour to hour, even from day to day. While climate is a pattern of weather condition
experienced in an area over a long period of time. It considers the trends, fluctuation and vibration that
may occur in departure from the average conditions in time and space. A large area can experience only
one type of climate.
Major Elements of Weather and Climate
The major elements of weather and climate are temperature, rainfall, winds, air pressure, clouds, etc.
A, Temperature
Temperature is the amount of hotness or coldness of an object. The sun is the primary heat source for the
earth and its atmosphere. The sun‟s energy is called insolation or solar radiation, and this turns into heat
energy at the earth‟s surface. How is energy transferred in the atmosphere? Not all the energy that
originates from the sun reaches the earth‟s surface. Heat transfer takes place in three ways. These are
• Radiation
• Conduction
• Convection
Radiation is the transfer of energy from one body to another by means of electromagnetic
waves. Energy transmitted from the sun reaches the earth‟s surface through the process of
radiation. Electromagnetic waves usually travel through empty space. When these
electromagnetic waves come in contact with an object, they transfer the heat to that object. The
sun warms the earth through radiation of electromagnetic waves.
Conduction refers to the transfer of heat through molecular contacts within and between bodies.
Molecules are always in motion. The process of conduction is more important in solids. Air and
water are poor conductors of heat. Convection is the transfer of heat due to differences in
density. As gas or liquid either warms and rises or cools and falls, it creates convection currents.
Convection is the method by which heat moves through gases or liquids. As gas or liquid is
heated, it warms, expands and rises because it becomes less dense. When the gas or liquid cools
it becomes dense and falls. Heat gained through radiation or conduction usually transfers by
convection.
Measuring and Recording Air Temperature
What is the instrument that is used to measure temperatures? Explain how air temperature is
measured and recorded? We measure temperature with thermometer. There are two types of
thermometers: maximum and minimum thermometers.
A maximum thermometer is a mercury-in-glass thermometer that has a constriction near the bulb
end. When the temperature of air rises, the mercury in the thermometer expands and forces its
way into the stem past this constriction. But when the bulb cools, none of the mercury above the
constriction moves back into the bulb. Therefore, the length of the mercury in the stem remains
the same. The end of the mercury thread, which is the farthest from the bulb, registers the highest
temperature reached in a day. The freezing point of mercury is –38.83℃,, and the boiling point
is 356.73℃,. Alcohol freezes at a temperature of negative one hundred thirty degree Celsius (–
130℃,)
A minimum thermometer has alcohol as its liquid, and it sets a metal index. When the
temperature falls, the alcohol column drags the index towards the bulb end. When the
temperature rises, the alcohol column expands and runs past the index without disturbing it.
Thus, the end of the index moves the farthest from the bulb and gives the lowest temperature
attained in a day. Alcohol thermometers may be used to measure temperatures from -130℃,
(freezing point of alcohol) to 785oC (boiling point of alcohol). The standard thermometer for
environmental measurements needs only to cover the range between -30℃, to 50℃,. Maximum
and minimum thermometers are kept in a box-like shelter which is known as a Stevenson screen.

The temperature of the air changes from time to time. Typically we measure the daily and annual
variations. The change between the highest and the lowest temperatures during 24 hours of a day
is known as the daily march of temperature or the diurnal range. The change of temperature from
month to month within a year is known as the annual march of temperature. To describe this
temperature variation, we have to use records for a long period of time. We use words like
average and range to indicate the variations. Daily average (mean) temperature: is obtained by
adding the maximum and minimum temperatures of a day and dividing the sum by two.

Example 1: If the maximum daily temperature is 25℃, and the minimum daily temperature is 5℃, daily

average temperature = =15℃

 Monthly average (mean) temperature is calculated by adding all daily averages and dividing
the sum by the number of days of the month.
 Annual average is obtained by adding the average monthly temperatures and dividing the sum
by 12.

 Daily (diurnal) range is the difference between the maximum and minimum temperature in a
day. Example 2: If the maximum temperature is 25℃, and the minimum temperature is 5℃,
Daily range = maximum – minimum = 25℃ – 5℃ = 20℃. Annual range is the difference
between the temperatures of the hottest and coldest months in a year. Example 3: If the hottest
month is 40oC, and the coldest moth is – 10℃, Annual range = 40℃− (−10℃) = 50℃.

Table 2.5: Average annual temperature for Addis Ababa

Activity 1.
By referring to the above Table
a. Calculate annual range of temperature
b. Calculate annual average (mean) temperature.
c. Convert the data into graphs
2. When do the maximum and minimum temperatures of the month occur in Ethiopia? Why?
B. Rainfall
Rainfall is liquid precipitation. Any moisture that falls from the clouds towards the earth‟s
surface is called precipitation. Precipitation may occur in the form of rain, snow, hail, sleet and
drizzle. Precipitation is part of the water cycle or hydrological cycle. The water cycle begins as
water is changed from liquid to vapour by evaporation and transpiration of water vapour. Once
water vapour is formed, it expands and cools. Then, condensation occurs, forming clouds, and
the water falls as snow, sleet or rainfall. The whole process is powered by solar energy and is
repeated continuously. This whole process is called the hydrological cycle.
Evaporation is the process by which liquid water is converted into gases.
 Transpiration is the transfer and change of water from plants to water vapour in the air.
 Evapotranspiration is the combined loss of water through the process of evaporation and
transpiration.
Condensation is the process by which vapour becomes liquid.
 Sublimation is the process in which ice changes into water vapour without first becoming a
liquid, and vice versa. Water is a unique substance, because it can exist in three states as liquid,
solid and gas) in the atmosphere. Water either absorbs or releases heat when changes from one
state to another.
Types of rainfall
What are the types of rainfall? Explain their formation. Rain is given three different names
according to the different ways in which moisture is forced to rise. They are:
 Convectional rainfall
 Orographic or relief rainfall
 Cyclonic rainfall
1. Convectional rainfall: When the ground surface is heated by the sun, the air above it is
warmed up. At high altitudes, the water vapour cools, condenses to form clouds and falls as rain.
This type of rainfall is common in humid areas where temperature is high throughout the year.
2. Orographic (relief) rainfall: occurs when moist air is forced to rise over mountains. As it
rises, it cools, then condenses and falls as rain. Almost all orographic rainfall falls on the
windward side of mountains.
3. Cyclonic or Frontal rainfall when two air masses (warm and cold) meet, they do not mix
freely with each other. They remain separated with a boundary surface between them. The
warmer and less dense air is forced to rise over the colder and heavier air. As the warmer air
rises, it cools and condenses. Then clouds form and rain falls. The place where warm air and cold
air meet is called a front. Frontal rainfall is very common in the middle and high latitudes (60o
north and south from the equator).
Measuring and Recording Rainfall
Rainfall is measured using an instrument called rain gauge. A rain gauge consists of a wide-
mouthed funnel placed over a cylindrical container. Rain water passes through the funnel into the
container below. The water in the container is poured into a measuring cylinder, and then the
amount of rainfall is measured in millimeters and is recorded.
Table: Rainfall data for Debre Markos
Activity Using the preceding rainfall data for the Debre Markos station, perform the following
tasks.
 Calculate the total annual rainfall
 Identify the season of heaviest rainfall.
 Draw a line graph to illustrate each monthly total rainfall.
C. Air Pressure
What is air pressure? Explain how to record and measure pressure? The air around us has weight.
This weight exerts pressure on the surface of the earth. We call this atmospheric pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is not the same all over the earth, and it is not the same even in one place
all the time. Pressure is measured by a mercury barometer. Normal pressure, at sea level, is about
760 mm/1013 mb. The distribution of pressure over the earth‟s surface depends on
(1). the altitude of places above sea level and,
(2). Most importantly, on temperature. Pressure decreases with an increase in altitude. This
explains why air pressure is highest at sea level and decreases with increasing altitude. High
temperature makes air expand, so that it has a lower density and pressure. Low temperature
makes the air to contract, resulting in a higher density and creating an area of high pressure.
he distribution of air pressure over the globe is known as the horizontal distribution of pressure.
Pressure distribution can be shown on a map. Lines connecting all places that have the same
pressure are called isobars.
Global Pressure Belts:
1. Equatorial low pressure belt (Doldrums):
 Located from 5o North to 5o South
 There is tremendous heat, and thus warm air, creating low pressure. Also, the centrifugal force
is very high at the equator, because the earth‟s velocity of rotation is high. Hence, the air masses
tend to be thrown outwards, resulting in low pressure.
 Wind speed is low, that is why this pressure belt is called the doldrums (Belt of Calm). 2.
Tropical high pressure belt (Horse Latitude):
 Except for two months, temperature is usually high.
 Here the pressure is high, because pressure depends on the rotation and movement of air (as
winds from the Doldrums rise up and accumulate here. Also winds from the sub-polar low
pressure belt accumulate here).
3. Sub-polar low pressure belt:
 Located from 60o to 65o, North and South.
 Here the low pressure is created because of intense high pressure at the poles. 4. Polar Highs
 Located near the north and south poles.
 The polar zones have permanent centers of high pressure known as polar highs. The pressure
distribution over the earth‟s surface is not a continuous belt. Except in the higher latitude of the
southern hemisphere, they form belts due to the small land areas which do not affect the free
flow of the atmosphere. However the position of the pressure belts and cells does not remain
fixed in one position. They move north or south with the apparent movement of the sun. During
the northern hemisphere‟s summer, the sun is overhead north of the equator. The pressure belts
then shift northward by a few degrees from their average position. During the southern
hemisphere‟s summer, the sun is overhead south of the equator. As a result, the pressure belts
move southward by a few degrees from their average position.
D. Wind
Wind is air in horizontal motion. Winds have speed and direction. Wind force (speed) and wind
direction are affected by:-
 Pressure gradient
 Frictional force
 Coriolis force
On weather maps, pressure is indicated by drawing isolines of pressure, called isobars. The
difference in distance between Isobars is called the pressure gradient. If the isobars are closely
spaced, we can expect the pressure gradient force to be great, and wind speed to be high. In areas
where the isobars are spaced widely apart the pressure gradient is low and light winds normally
exist. High speed winds develop in areas where isobars are closer. Wind speed is often measured
with animometer. Winds are named according to the compass direction of their source. Wind
direction is measured as the direction from where wind comes.For example, a southerly wind
comes from the south and blows to the north. Direction is measured by an instrument called wind
vane.
Types of Winds
There are three types of surface winds. They are:
 Planetary
 Monsoon
 Local winds.
Planetary winds and their relationship with pressure belts:
Planetary winds blow over large areas of the earth‟s surface. They are closely associated with the
world pressure belts. Winds blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. The most
common planetary winds are trade winds, westerlies and polar easterlies. They have wide
influence over the earth‟s surface.
Monsoon winds:
They are seasonal winds whose movements are controlled by pressure that differs during different
seasons. Monsoon winds are very common in South and South East Asia. Seasonal changes in the
direction of these winds are caused by the unequal heating of land and water surfaces. The direction of
monsoon winds changes between summer and winter.
Local winds: They affect only limited areas and blow for a short period of time. They affect climate
conditions on a small scale. Local winds are caused by the nature of the physical features of the area. The
main local winds are:
 Land and sea breezes
 Mountain and valley breezes
1. Land and sea breezes: These winds are common along coastal areas. These winds change
their directions daily and affect very small areas. During the daytime, temperature on the land is
higher than on the water/sea. So low pressure is formed on the land, while it is relatively high on
the sea. Wind blows from the sea towards the land. This is known as a sea breeze. At night the
land is colder than the sea. So low pressure develops over the sea. The wind blows from land
towards the sea. This is known as a land breeze.
2. Mountain and valley breezes: Mountain and valley breezes arise from contrasts in
temperature between a valley floor and mountain slopes. During the day the air at the bottom of
the valley becomes warmer. As a result it expands and rises along the mountain slopes. This is
known as a valley breeze. At night the wind over the slope of the mountain becomes cool. Then
this cooler and heavier mountain air slides down slopes towards the valley. This is called a
mountain breeze.
Measuring and Recording Wind Speed
Wind speed can be measured using an anemometer. The anemometer should be heldat arm‟s
length, above the head so that the cups can rotate without any interference.
Measuring and Recording Wind Direction
Wind direction is reported by the direction it is blowing from, according to the compass. Wind
blowing from the west is travelling eastwards so is called a westerly wind, not an easterly wind.
Wind direction is often observed using a wind vane.
E. Clouds
A cloud is a dense concentration of very fine invisible water droplets, sleet or ice crystals.
Clouds are formed by the condensation of water vapour below the dew point in the atmosphere.
There are varieties of clouds, based on their height, appearance and shape

Table: Types of clouds

 Controls of Weather and Climate
The energy that the earth receives from the sun is not distributed evenly. Many factors affect the
distribution. These include latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, cloud cover, ocean current, planetary
winds and pressure.
A. Latitude
On a global scale, latitude is the most important factor determining the strength of heat reaching
the earth‟s surface. When the sun‟s rays are vertical (at a right angle) to the surface, the amount
of heat received is the greatest. But when sun‟s rays are slanting (oblique) the heat‟s strength
decreases.
At the equator, the overhead sun is high and of high intensity insolation is received. At the poles,
the overhead sun is low, so the amount of insolation is low.
The sun is overhead at noon for six months between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer, and it
is overhead for another six months between the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn. The sun is
directly overhead at the Tropic of Cancer on June 21 (the June solstice).
The sun is directly overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn on December 21 (the December solstice).
At March and September equinoxes, the sun is directly overhead at the equator. At times
between solstices and equinoxes, the sun is overhead in tropical areas in the zone between the
Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The sun passes directly over every tropical place
twice a year: once as the sun moves from being overhead at the equator to being overhead at the
tropic and then again on the return from the tropic to the equator. The sun is never overhead
outside of the tropics. The sun is closer to overhead in the middle and high latitudes on the day of
their hemisphere‟s summer solstice.
B. Altitude
Air temperature decreases with increasing altitude. The normal decrease of temperature with
height is 6.4oC per 1000 m. This is known as the normal lapse rate. The normal lapse rate is the
average rate or proportion at which temperature changes per unit of altitudinal change. The
highland areas of Ethiopia are good examples of places that demonstrate the effect of altitude on
temperature.
Q??? What would be the temperature be at the top of mountain Ras Dashen assuming that the temperature
at sea level is 30oC?

C. Distance from the Sea

Land heats more quickly than water. But it loses its heat quicker than water. This is because of
the transparency of water reflections from water surfaces, evaporation, mixing and currents in
water. All these conditions result in greater and more rapid temperature changes on land than in
the seas. Therefore coastal regions are cooler than inland regions. In winter in mid-latitudes, the
ocean surface is much warmer than land areas. So, onshore wind brings heat to coastal lands.
During the summer, coastal areas remain much cooler than inland sites.
D. Cloud Cover
What is cloud? How cloud affects temperature? Cloud reduces the amount of solar radiation reaching the
earth‟s surface and the amount of radiation reflected from the earth‟s surface. When there are no clouds
both types of radiation will be at a maximum level.
E. Ocean Current
What is ocean current? How ocean current affects the distribution of temperature? Ocean current
is the horizontal movement of ocean waters caused by winds and differences in temperature. The
effect of ocean currents on temperatures depends upon whether the current is cold or warm. The
water at the equator is warmer and less dense than that in polar areas. Convection currents in the
oceans result in a pole ward flow of warm, light, surface water. Compensating heavy cold water
flows through the ocean depths towards the equator. Ocean currents are the source of
temperature regulation on the earth. Ocean currents change the temperature of a particular
region. A warm ocean current makes the weather of the nearby regions to go up in temperature,
whereas cold ocean currents reduce the surrounding temperature. For instance, the European
coasts get warmth from the ocean current of the Mexican Gulf stream, and southwestern Africa‟s
Namib Desert is cooled by the Benguela current off the continent‟s western coast.
F. Wind Effects
Winds indirectly change the temperature of places near the sea according to the areas from which
they blow. There are two ways by which distribution of temperature is influenced by winds.
 Winds carry the temperature from one place to another.
 Winds blow the surface layers of a body of water in the direction of their flow. In this way, the
winds have the effect of raising the temperature of the shore towards which the wind is blowing
and lowering the temperature of the opposite shore.
3.3.4. Climatic classification
There are many ways to classify climate, each with its own advantages and disadvantages, depending on
the purposes for which it is used. In the following sections, we consider two systems of climate
classification with their climatic regions:

 the system of the ancient Greeks – based on temperature and sunshine within latitudinal boundaries
 the Koppen system – based on temperature and precipitation as reflected in vegetation zones

Classification by Ancient Greeks

After considering worldwide temperature and sunshine distribution, the ancient Greeks divided
the world into three climatic regions. Note that they are bounded by specific latitudes:

1 The low-latitude tropical (or torrid) zone: a winterless tropical region. It is bounded by the
northern and southern limit of the sun's vertical rays (23½oN and 23½oS). In this climatic
region, the noon sun is always high, day and night are of nearly equal length, and it is warm
year-round.

2 A middle-latitude temperate zone: sandwiched between the other two zones i.e., (23½o –
66½oN), and 23½o – 66½oS this climatic region has distinct summer and winter seasons and
exhibits characteristics of both extremes, in terms of seasonal temperatures.

3 The high-latitude polar (or frigid) zone: bounded by (1) the Arctic Circle, at 66½N-90oN, and
(2) the Antarctic Circle, at 66½oS-90oS. Places with this climate are considered summer less,
because they are cold all year round due to long periods of winter darkness and a low summer
sun. The ancient Greeks‟ system is somewhat simplistic method of climatic classification because
it does not consider precipitation, and therefore it does not differentiate between wet and dry regions.

The Kðppen System of Climate Classification

What makes Koppen classification more acceptable than the others? This widely used
classification of world climates is based on seasonal variations in the annual and monthly
averages of temperature and precipitation. It was devised by the famous German scientist
Waldmir Kðppen (1846 – 1940). Faced with the lack of adequate observing stations throughout
the world, Kðppen related the various climates to the distributions and types of native vegetation
in the world. In this way, where no climatological data were available, climatic boundaries could
be approximated with vegetation zones.

The Kðppen climate classification is now used by climatologists throughout the world. It defines
five principal climatic groups. Each type is designated by a capital letter. Note that a single
climatic region can exist in multiple locations on the earth. A Koppen climatic region is not a
spatial or areal region.

1. Tropical moist climate (A): All months have an average temperature above 18ºC (64ºF). There
is enough moisture to support abundant plant communities. Since all months are warm, there is
no real winter season.

2. Dry climates (B): precipitation is deficient most of the year. Potential evaporation and
transpiration exceeds precipitation.

3. Moist mid-latitude climates with mild winters (C): C climates have warm-to-hot summers with
mild winters. The average temperature of the coldest month is below 18oC (64oF) and above -
3oC (27oF).

4. Moist mid-latitude climates with severe winters (D): D climates are similar to C climates, but
have distinct summer and winter seasons. They have enough moisture to support abundant plant
communities. The average temperature of the warmest month exceeds 10oC (50oF), and the
coldest month average drops below -3oC (27oF).
5. Polar climates (E): They have extremely cold winters and summers. The average temperature
of the warmest month is below 10oC (50oF). Winters are extremely cold, and even the summers
are cool. Since all months are cold, there is no real summer season.

6. Highland climate (H): At low latitudes the effect of altitude can produce tundra and polar
conditions. Glaciers on Tropical Mountain sum its attest to the cooling effects of altitude
highland climates follow the pattern of Earth‟s mountain ranges.

The Merits and Demerits of Köppen’s System

Despite many critics, the Köppen system is still the most widely used climatic classification
system today. The Köppen system has been criticized by several people, including for reasons.

 Extreme events, such as a periodic drought or a common cold for, are as reasons important in
controlling vegetation distribution as the mean conditions on which Köppen‟s scheme is based;
 In addition to precipitation and temperature, sunlight and wind are important to vegetation;
 Natural vegetation can only respond slowly to environmental change (as a result,
the vegetation zones visible today are in part adjusted to past climates);
 It is inconsistent since it based A, C, D, and E zones on mean temperature, whereas
zone B is based on a precipitation-evaporation ratio;
 It is insufficiently thorough since it ignores the climate of mountainous regions
and fog-affected regions, and
 The boundaries of Köppen‟s climatic classifications are too empirical.

The strength of Köppen‟s system is its ability to provide a clear, quantifiable, and
straightforward method for assigning a given location to a certain climate sub-group based on
temperature and precipitation. Furthermore, geographers are drawn to the Köppen method
because it acknowledges the link between vegetation kinds and climate.

2.3.5 Overview of World Climate Regions and Types

Global climate is a description of the climate of the Earth as a whole, with all the
regional differences averaged. The world has several climatic zones. Geographers
and climatologists defined climatic region based on different climatic elements. In
fact, the Earth‟s climate is driven by energy from the sun which arrives in the form
of radiation.
Climate zones are areas with distinct climates, which occur in the east-west direction around the
Earth, and they can be classified using different climatic parameters. Generally, climate zones
are belt-shaped and circular around the poles .In some areas, climate zones can be interrupted by
mountains or oceans. The world‟s climate pattern reflects a regular and dependable operation of
the major climate controls. The solar radiation reaches the ground on different parts of the Earth
at different angles. On the equator, the sunlight reaches the ground almost perpendicularly,
whilst at the poles the angle of the Sun is lower or even under the horizon during the
polar night.

Throughout the seasons, the position of the Sun to the Earth changes and thus the angle of
incidence of the sunlight also changes. The angle of the Sun at noon varies from perpendicular
(90°) within the tropics up to horizontal (0° = Sun does not or only partially appear on the
horizon) within the polar circle. Thus, the sunlight warms up the Earth around the equator much
more strongly than at the poles. Due to temperature differences caused by the differences in
radiation, recurring climatic conditions develop.

There are four major global climate zones:

1. Tropical Zone from 0°– 231/2° (between the tropics) - In the regions between
the equator and the tropics (equatorial region), the solar radiation reaches the
ground nearly vertically at noontime during almost the entire year. Thereby, it is very
warm in these regions. Through high temperatures, more water evaporates and the air is
often moist. The resulting frequent and dense cloud cover reduces the effect of solar
radiation on the ground temperature
2. Subtropics Zone from 23.5°– 40° - The subtropics receive the highest radiation in
summer, since the Sun‟s angle at noon is almost vertical to the Earth, whilst the cloud
cover is relatively thin. These regions receive less moisture (see trade winds), which
increases the effect of radiation. Therefore, most of the deserts in the world are situated
in this zone. In winter, the radiation in these regions decreases significantly, and it can
temporarily be very cool and moist.
3. Temperate Zone from 40°– 60° - In the temperate zone, the solar radiation
arrives at a lower angle, and the average temperatures here are much cooler
than in the subtropics. The seasons and day length differ significantly in the
 course of a year. The climate is characterized by less frequent extremes, more
regular distribution of the precipitation over the year and a longer vegetation
period – therefore, it is named as “temperate”.
4. Cold Zone from 60°– 90° - The polar areas between 60° latitude and the
poles receive less heat through solar radiation, since there is very low angle of the Sun.
Because of the changes of the Earth axis angle to the Sun, the day length varies most in
this zone. For instance, in the summer, polar days occur. Vegetation is only possible
during a few months per year and even it is often sparse. The conditions in these regions
make life very challenging. The characteristics of the climate zones change with great
altitude differences within a small area, like in mountain areas, since temperatures
decrease rapidly with altitude.
5. Highlands Climate

Highland climates have a wide range of climatic variables spread out over a short area.
Lower temperatures are the most well-known climatic effect of increased altitude, but heavier
precipitation owing to orographic lifting is also typical. Mountainous regions have a nearly
limitless variety of local climatic variables due to variations in atmospheric conditions with
height and exposure to the sun‟s rays. This type of climate is mostly found in mountains and high
plateaus. Because the climate is prevalent throughout the world, the latitude range is not
limited.
2.3.6 Climate of Ethiopia (Controls, Agro-climatic Zones, spatiotemporal
variations of temperature and rainfall)
Controls of Weather and Climate
There are varieties of climate in Ethiopia. The spatial and temporal distribution of the climatic
elements in Ethiopia is determined by various physical factors which are generally known as
controls of weather and climate. The most important are:
a) Latitude
b) Altitude
c) Mountain Barriers
d) Revolution of the earth and the inclination of the earth’s axis
e) Distance from the sea f) Ocean Current
a) Latitude
Latitude, as a climate control, is the angular location of a place or point with reference to the
direct rays of the sun. When we speak of the latitudinal impact on the climate of Ethiopia, we are
considering angle of the sun ray in country. This is because the rays of the sun fall vertical on the
equator and slanting in the temperate.
Ethiopia’s location within the tropical zone results in;
 high temperatures during most of the year,
 high daily (diurnal) ranges of temperature
 relatively small annual ranges of temperature, and
 Little difference between summer and winter in the ratios of daylight to night.
b) Altitude
Altitude is the main factor that determines the spatial distribution of temperature in Ethiopia.
Different places that exist on the same plane or angle of the rays of the sun might be expected to
experience equal temperatures. However, due to the impact of altitude, they do not. For example,
three Ethiopian cities, Bako, Addis Ababa, and Awash all lie on the 9oN latitude, and therefore
they might be expected to receive equal magnitudes of direct rays from the sun and therefore
equal temperatures. However, their altitudes vary, and therefore their temperatures vary, as
shown in Table 2.3
Table 2.3. The Role of Altitude in Modifying Temperatures

c) Mountain Barriers
Mountain barriers can affect climate in that they exert influence on the spatial distribution of
rainfall. Places located on the leeward side of mountains (also called rain shadow) receive little
rain.

d) Revolution of the Earth and the Inclination of the Earth’s Axis

The axis of the earth
inclines 23½o to the normal of the elliptic. As the earth revolves around the sun, this inclination
produces a change in the angle of the sun‟s rays, thereby affecting the length of time that the sun
shines on the earth every other day Changes in the length of the day and angle (directness) of the
sun‟s rays cause seasons. These different seasons result in the temporal variation of temperature
in a year in Ethiopia.
e) Distance from the Sea
Water bodies and landmasses have different levels of heat absorption. Land masses absorb and
release heat energy more quickly than water bodies do. Distance from the sea affects the Horn‟s
climate only in coastal areas that are adjacent to the Red Sea and the northwestern Indian Ocean.
Towards the interior, the role of distance from the sea in climate control is insignificant.
f) Ocean Current
Warm and cold ocean currents can affect the climate of coastal regions, but only when local
winds blow in from the sea. Warm currents heat the air over the ocean and bring higher
temperatures over land. Cold currents can lower air temperatures and can bring colder
temperatures over land. In Ethiopia the role of ocean current in climate control is
inconsequential.
NOTE Among the above mentioned controls of climate, the climate of Ethiopia is dominantly
controlled by altitude and latitude.
Agro-Climatic Zones of Ethiopia
in Ethiopia, the impact made by altitude has resulted in the formation of five agroclimatic zones.
These zones have traditionally been defined in terms of temperature table 2.2
Table 2.2. Agro-climatic Zones

a)Wurch-Zone Areas
The Wurch-zone areas have the highest altitudes and lowest temperatures. Frequently they have
temperatures of less than 10oC. These areas exist in the very high mountains of South Gondar,
Wollo, Shewa, Arsi and Bale. Example:
 Mt. Ras Dashen in Semine Gondar
 Mt. Guna in South Gondar
 Mt. Megezez in North Shewa
  Mt. Batu in Bale, etc.
b) Dega-Zone Areas
The Dega-zone areas are highland areas with lower altitudes and higher temperatures
than Wurch-zone areas. Historically, Dega-zone agro-climatic areas were the home
of concentrated human settlement. They were chosen because of the features below:
 Secure location (from which people could defend themselves from threats)
 Reliable rainfall
 Absence of tropical diseases such as malaria, etc.
Due to this high concentration of human population, the Dega zone has been intensively
cultivated and has a high rate of soil erosion, overgrazing and deforestation. Some of the humid
areas of this zone support two growing periods per year under rain-fed agriculture. Example:
 Dinsho in Bale
 Chillallo in Arsi
 Hulla in Sidama
 Debresina in North Shewa
C) Woina-Dega-Zone Areas
The Woina-Dega-zone areas contain most of Ethiopia‟s agricultural land. They are
the country‟s main areas producing: Surplus grain
 Inset and its derivatives
In the Woina-Dega zone, as in the Dega zone, there can be two growing seasons
when rainfall reliability is high.
d) Kolla Zone Areas
Kolla is a (warm-to-hot semi-arid climate). Kolla is the climate of the hot lowlands with an
altitudinal range of 500 to 1500 m a.s.l. Average annual temperatures are between 20oC and
30oC. Although mean annual rainfall ranges between 410 mm and 820 mm, it can be as high as
1600 mm in the wet western lowlands of Gambella. Rainfall is highly variable from year to year.
Example: Western lowlands.
e) Bereha-Zone Areas
Bereha is the hot arid climate. Bereha is the climate of the desert lowlands that are found below
500 m above mean sea level where the average annual rainfall is less than 400 mm, and average
annual temperature is over 30oC. Bereha is usually characterized by strong wind, high
temperature, low relative humidity, and little cloud cover. Evapotranspiration is always in excess
of rainfall in some places. Example: Danakil depression in Afar lowlands.
Spatiotemporal variations of temperature and rainfall)
Seasonal Variation in Ethiopia
A season is a period of the year characterized by a particular set of weather conditions resulting
from the inclination of the earth‟s axis and the revolution of the earth around the sun. The same
cycle of season is repeated year after year.
Seasonal Variation of Temperature in Ethiopia
In Ethiopia, temperatures vary from season to season. For example, in most parts
of Ethiopia, high temperatures are recorded from March to June. Conversely, low temperatures
are recorded from November to February. These variations are primarily due to:
 the tilting of the earth at 23½º to the normal elliptic, and
 the distance of the overhead sun and its apparent north-south movement
across the equator as the earth revolves around the sun.
During the winter season of the northern hemisphere, Ethiopia experiences the “Bega” season.
During this season, day have clear skies. Thus, the incoming solar rays are intense. As a result
temperature increases in day time and abruptly decreases at night because of clear sky. This,
therefore, results in high diurnal range of temperature.
 The mean maximum temperatures are experienced over the western,
north eastern and south eastern lowlands while the lowest temperatures
are over the Semein and Arsi-Bale mountains.
 The highest temperature i.e. over 45oC is recorded in the Danakil Depression - the
hottest place of Ethiopia.
 The highlands form the heartland of the country. Thus temperature in most of the center
of the country is affected by altitude, and temperature essentially decreases from
Ethiopia‟s peripheries towards the interior. Ethiopia experiences both hot and cold
extremes of temperature
 Daily Temperatures: Ethiopia‟s daily temperatures are more extreme than its annual
averages. In terms of spatial distribution, Ethiopia‟s daily maximum temperature varies
from a high of more than 37oC over the lowlands of the northeast and of the southeast
to a low of about 10oC-15oC over the highlands of Ethiopia. In terms of temporal
 distribution, the months of March, April and May are generally the hottest throughout
the country.
 Monthly Temperatures: Ethiopia‟s monthly temperatures also exhibit extremes. The
lowest monthly minimum temperatures mostly occur over the highlands of the country.
Most of the highlands experience mean minimum temperatures as low as 0ºC between
November and January (Bega season). The highest mean monthly minimum
temperature (20ºC - 30ºC) is observed in the Dallol Depression. The lowest mean
monthly minimum temperature (0ºC or less) occurs in January in the highlands in the
northwest (Gonder and Gojam), central (Shewa) and southeast (Arsi-Bale), and the
highest (30ºC) occurs in the lowlands of the western, southeastern and northeastern
areas.
 Annual temperatures: Mean annual temperature varies from a low of about 10oC, in
the northwest, central and southeast highlands, to a high of about 35oC at the country‟s
northeastern edges, which contain the Dallol (Denakil) Depression. As you can again
infer, altitude is the most important temperature-controlling factor in Ethiopia.
 Daily (diurnal) temperature range: In the northern hemisphere, during the winter
months of December, January and February, the sun apparently shifts to the southern
hemisphere and Ethiopia experiences its bega season. During this period, the sky is
clear, without blanketing cloud cover to retain heat or cold on earth. Therefore, during
the day the heat from the sun is intense. But at night, because of the clear sky and
relatively longer nights, temperature drops very low. Reflecting such clear-sky
conditions, Ethiopia‟s daily temperature range is greatest during bega in most parts of
the country.
 Annual temperature range: Ethiopia‟s annual temperature range is the highest in the
lowlands, and it decreases with increasing altitude.
Seasonal Variation of Rainfall in Ethiopia
Rainfall, like temperature is a major element of climate. Ethiopia experiences marked spatial and
temporal variations of rainfall.
A. Spatial Variation of Rainfall in Ethiopia
The spatial variation is the result of strength and nature of prevailing weather systems following
the oscillation of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
It is a low atmospheric pressure zone formed by the convergence of northeasterly
and southeasterly trade winds. It shifts north and south of the equator following the position of
the overhead sun.
In June, its position is at the Tropic of Cancer. During this time, Ethiopia comesunder
the influence of the Equatorial Westerlies and Easterlies. As they originate from water bodies,
these winds bring moisture to the highlands, but decrease their magnitude and length of rainy
periods northwards.
In December, its position shifts to the Tropic of Capricorn leaving the region for the prevalence
of the Northeast Trade winds that are non-moisture-laden as they originate from the continental
landmass. During this time only lowland areas in Afar region close to the coast receive some
amount of rain given that these winds pick up little moisture as they blow passing over the Red
Sea. In most of Ethiopia, it becomes dry season.
In March and September, the position of the ITCZ is around the equator. Hence,the
Equatorial Easterlies provide rain to the Southeastern lowlands, Central and highlands of
Ethiopia.
Effects of the southwest equatorial westerly winds: The southwest equatorial westerly winds
originate from the South Atlantic Ocean, and they blow over the humid regions of the Gulf of
Guinea, the Congo basin and Central Africa on their way to Ethiopia. When these winds
approach Ethiopia they encounter
highlands. When they start ascending over the highlands, they cause heavy rain in southwestern
Ethiopia because they are moisture - laden. However, the amount of rainfall gradually decreases
as the winds move north and northeastwards.
Highland Ethiopia receives the widest coverage of these keremt rains, though the amount that
falls in different areas varies. The southwest experiences the longest Keremt rain. Keremt lasts
for only two to three months in the extreme northeast highlands. The eastern escarpments of the
northeastern highlands and associated lowlands (the Afar region) remain dry, because they are in
what is called a rain shadow.
Effects of the southeasterly winds: The southeasterly winds that originate from the Indian Ocean
blow over Ethiopia‟s southeastern highlands and associated lowlands. However, these winds lose
their moisture over the East African highlands before they reach Ethiopia. Therefore, the
country‟s southeastern highlands and associated lowlands that receive the winds remain
relatively dry.
B. Temporal Variation of Rainfall in Ethiopia
Ethiopia‟s rainfall is characterized by seasonal variation. There are two main rainy
seasons: Kiremt (summer) that extends from June to August and Belg (spring) that covers the
time from March to May. These two rainy seasons contribute more than 90% of the country‟s
rain supply. There are two other rainy seasons namely the Meher (autumn) rains and the Bega
(winter) rains. Compared to the two main rainy seasons, the duration, volume, and aerial
coverage of Meher (autumn) rains that takes place from September to November are less. The
Bega (winter) is generally the dry season that takes place from December to February. It supplies
small amount of rain only to the Afar lowlands.
Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia
Based on rainfall distribution, both in space and time, five types of rainfall regions can be
identified in Ethiopia. These are:
a) Year-round rainfall region (wet in most months)
b) Summer rainfall region
c) Autumn-and-spring rainfall region
d) Winter rainfall region
e) Merged spring, summer, and autumn rainfall region Each region is discussed in turn as
follows
a. Year-round Rainfall Region (wet in most months)
In Ethiopia, the area of year-round rainfall includes the southwestern plateau comprising the
highlands of Wollega, Kafa, Illubabor and Gamo and Goffa. The reason for the high rainfall and
an exceptionally long wet season is due to the dominance of the equatorial Westerlies wind
system. They pick up moisture from the Atlantic Ocean. This region can be represented by the
following stations, namemely; Gore, Mizan, Metu, Bonga, Gambella, etc.
The region has more rainy days than any other part of the country. The average rainfall varies
from 1400 mm to 2200 mm. The year-round rainfall region is represented by the letter B on
Figure 2.5.
b.Summer Rainfall Region
The summer rainfall region is the largest in the country. This region consists of
the Northwest Highlands and Western Lowlands, and can be represented by the following
stations, namely; Debre Markos, Fitche, Gondar, Bahir Dar, etc. Its moisture-bearing winds are
the Equatorial Westerlies and Easterlies. The summer rainfall region is represented by the letter
A in Figure 2.5.
c.Autumn-and-Spring Rainfall Region
The autumn-and-spring rainfall region covers the southeastern highlands and associated
southeastern lowlands. They can be represented by the following stations: Gode, Moyalle,
Jigjiga, Yabello. The region‟s moisture-bearing winds are the Equatorial Easterlies. They pick
up moisture from the Indian Ocean, and they blow over the autumn and spring rainfall region
when the Northeasterlies and Equatorial Westerlies are weak. The region‟s average rainfall
varies from less than 500 to 1000 mm. The autumn-and-spring rainfall region is represented by E
in Figure 2.5.
NOTE In Ethiopia, highland rainfall is more dependable than lowland rainfall. However,
highland dependability decreases from the southwestern highlands in all directions. In short,
rainfall variability (deviation from the expected amount and time) decreases from areas of heavy
rains to areas of low rainfall.

d.Winter Rainfall Region

The winter rainfall region consists of the eastern escarpment of the western
highlands, the middle Rift Valley section and the Afar subdivision. The winter rainfall region can
be represented by the Assaita station (Afar Region). The region‟s moisture-bearing winds are, for
the most part, the North Easterlies. The air mass is continental (dry) and has only a short sea
trajectory (that is the Red Sea). It is represented by letter D in Figure 2.5.
The region‟s total annual moisture is very low and of short duration.
e. Merged Spring, Summer, and Autumn Rainfall Region
The merged spring, summer and autumn rainfall region is the smallest in the country. It consists
mainly of the western foothills of the Southeastern Highlands. The region‟s total annual rainfall
varies from 1500 mm to 1000 mm. It covers a corridor that stretches from the Sidama Highlands
to the Hararge Plateau. The merged spring, summer, and autumn rainfall region is represented by
the letter C in Figure 2.5. It can be represened by the following stations namely, Assaita, Awash,
and etc.

Figure 2.5: Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia

Main Seasons of Ethiopia
Ethiopia is a tropical country. It is located completely within the tropical zone. Because of its
tropical location there is little variation in the length of days and nights. The maximum
difference, about 30 minutes, occurs in December and June. Many people of the country are not
aware of the differences. There are four main seasons per year: Keremt, Tseday, Bega and Belg
(Table 2.9).
2.4 Climate Change
Climate change is a long-term change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over
periods of time that range from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in the average
weather conditions or a change in the distribution of weather events with respect to an average,
for example, greater or fewer extreme weather events. Climate change may be limited to a
specific region, or may occur across the whole Earth. Climate change is one of the most
significant environmental challenges facing humankind today.

Though there are several arguments over the concept of climate change, scientifically speaking,
there is no doubt about the existence of global warming and climate change. It is now time to
find out what actions will be taken at the political and social spheres to make our world more
resilient and fight climate change. Geography has much to contribute to understanding of the
complex spatial dimensions of climate change, including the observed and anticipated
geographical differentiation in potential impacts and vulnerability. Therefore, this unit addresses
about basic concepts of climate change such as global climate change, cause and consequences
of climate change, adaptation and mitigation strategies, international conventions and agreements
on climate change and finally the climate resilient green economy of Ethiopia.

The average climate around the world is called global climate. When scientists talk about global
climate change, they are talking about the global climate and a pattern of change that‟s
happening over many years. One of the most important trends that scientists look at is the
average temperature of the Earth, which has been increasing for many years. This is called global
warming. Rising global temperatures lead to other changes around the world, such as stronger
hurricanes, melting glaciers, and the loss of wildlife habitats. This is because the Earth‟s air,
water, and land are all interdependent and prone to the climate change. This means a change in
one place can lead to other changes somewhere else. For example, when air temperatures rise,
the oceans absorb more heat from the atmosphere and become warmer. Warmer oceans, in turn,
can cause stronger storms.

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Climate change refers to a
change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or the
variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer.
It refers to any change in climate overtime, due to either natural variability or human activities.
Thanks to the work of the IPCC and other groups of scientists working on the definition of
climate change, we now better understand the consequences of this phenomenon in our lives. In
the minds of many, climate change is a relatively distant problem that simply implies that it will
get hotter. Nevertheless, the consequences are much deeper and should be taken more seriously.

Previous assessments have already shown through multiple lines of evidence that the climate is
changing across our planet, largely as a result of human activities. The most convincing evidence
of climate change derives from observations of the atmosphere, land and oceans. A clear
evidence from in situ observations and ice core records shows that the atmospheric
concentrations of important green-house gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
and nitrous oxide (N2O) have increased over the last few centuries.

3.4.1. Trends in Global Climate Change

The Earth‟s climate has always changed and evolved. Some of these changes have been due to
natural causes, but others can be attributed to human activities such as deforestation, atmospheric
emissions from industry and transport, which resulted in the storage of gases and aerosols in the
atmosphere. They are known as greenhouse gases (GHGs) because they trap heat and raise air
temperatures near the ground, acting like a greenhouse on the surface of the planet. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) pointed out in its 2001 Third Assessment
Report on the state of the global climate that an increasing body of observations gave a collective
picture of a warming world and other changes in the climate system. The report documented that
the 1990s had been the warmest decade worldwide, and 1998 the warmest year since
instrumental records had begun in 1861. The report also indicated that the twentieth century was
likely to have been the warmest century in the last 1,000 years. Subsquently, the observed
evidences revealed that most of the warming experienced over the past 50 years had resulted
from human activities. Hence, the implication suggests, human influence will continue to change
atmospheric composition throughout the twenty-first century. Global warming has begun to
affect the sea level, snow cover, ice sheets and rainfall. Shifts in regional patterns of climate
marked by rising air temperatures are already affecting watersheds and ecosystems in many parts
of the world. The average global surface temperature has warmed 0.800C in the past century and
0.600C in the past three decades. The IPCC has projected that if greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions, the leading cause of climate change, continue to raise, the mean global temperatures
will increase from 1.40C to 5.80C by the end of the 21st century (IPCC 2001).

3.4.2. Natural and Human Induced Climate Change

One of the great environmental concerns of our time is the climate change now unfolding as a
result of greenhouse gases being added to our atmosphere. Glaciers are melting, sea level is
rising, precipitation is becoming more intense in many areas, and global temperature is
increasing each decade. Climate change, whether driven by natural or human forcing, can lead to
changes in the likelihood of the occurrence or strength of extreme weather and climate events or
both.

The primary cause of climate changes over the last few decades is human (anthropogenic)
activity, mainly the burning of fossil fuels. , Evidently climate has changed in the past, and
nothing suggests that it will not continue to change, both globally and locally. As the urban
environment changes, its climate differs from that of the region around it. Sometimes the
difference is striking, as when city nights are warmer than the nights of the outlying rural areas.
Other times, the difference is subtle, as when a layer of smoke and haze covers a city. In this
chapter, we will first look at the evidence for climate change in the past; then we will investigate
the causes of climate change from both natural processes and human activity.

IPCC has produced the world‟s most comprehensive reports on climate change for more than 25
years. It published in-depth climate assessments in 1990, 1995, 2001, 2007, 2013, and again in
2021. The 2013, Fifth Assessment Report, states that it is extremely likely that human influence
has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-twentieth cen- tury. In the
report, “extremely likely” means a probability of at least 95 percent.

Climate Change Caused by Natural Events

There are three “external” causes of climate change. These are changes in: 1. Incoming solar
radiation; 2. The composition of the atmosphere; and 3. The Earth‟s surface. Natural phenomena
can cause climate to change by all the three mechanisms, whereas human activities can change
climate by the second and third mechanisms. On the other hand, “internal” causes of climate
change, manifested in terms of circulation pat- terns of the ocean and atmosphere, which
redistribute energy within the climate system rather than altering the total amount of energy it
holds. Part of the complexity of the climate system is the intricate interrelationship of the
elements involved. For example, if temperature changes, many other elements may be altered as
well. The interactions among the atmosphere, the oceans, and the ice are extremely complex and
the number of possible interactions among these systems is enormous. No climatic element
within the system is isolated from the others, which is why the complete picture of the Earth‟s
changing climate is not totally understood. With this in mind, we will first investigate how
feedback systems work; then we will consider some of the current theories as to why the Earth‟s
climate changes naturally.

Variations in the Earth’s Orbit:

A theory ascribing climatic changes to variations in the Earth‟s orbit is the Milankovitch theory,
named after the name of astronomer Milutin Milankovitch, who first proposed the idea in the
1930s. The basic idea of this theory is that, as the Earth travels through space, three separate
cyclic movements combine to produce variations in the amount of solar energy that reaches the
Earth. The Milankovitch cycles that combine to produce variations in solar radiation re- ceived at
the Earth‟s surface include:

 Changes in the shape (eccentricity) of the Earth‟s orbit about the sun.
 Precession of the Earth‟s axis of rotation, or wobbling.
 Changes in the tilt (obliquity) of the Earth‟s axis.
What are the Milankovitch Cycles? Natural global warming, and cooling, is considered to be
initiated by Milankovitch cycles. These orbital and axial variations influence the initiation of
climate change in longterm natural cycles of „ice ages‟ and „warm periods‟ known as „glacial‟
and „interglacial‟ periods. Our current climate forcing shows we are outside of that natural cycle
forcing range.
Variations in Solar Output

Solar energy measurements made by sophisticated instruments aboard satellites show that the
sun‟s energy output (called brightness) varies slightly by a fraction of 1 percent with sunspot
activity. Sunspots are huge magnetic storms on the sun that show up as cooler (darker) regions
on the sun‟s surface. They occur in cycles, with the number and size reaching a maximum
approximately every 11 years. The following figure illuminates this better.

During periods of maximum sunspots, the sun emits more energy (about 0.1 percent more)
contrasted to periods of sunspot minimums. Evidently, the greater number of bright areas around
the sunspots radiates more energy, which offsets the effect of the dark spots.

Atmospheric Particles

Microscopic liquid and solid particles (aerosols) that enter the atmosphere from both natural and
humaninduced sources can have an effect on climate. The effect of these particles on the climate
is exceedingly complex, and depends upon a number of factors, such as the particle‟s size,
shape, color, chemical composition, and vertical distribution above the surface. In this section,
we will examine those particles that enter the atmosphere through natural means.

Particles near the surface:

Particles can enter the atmosphere in a variety of natural ways. For example, wildfires can
produce abundant amounts of tiny smoke particles, and dust storms sweep tons of fine particles
into the atmosphere. Flaming volcanoes can release significant quantities of sulfur- rich aerosols
into the lower atmosphere. Although the effect of these particles on the climate system is
complex, the overall effect they have is to cool the surface of the earth by preventing sunlight
from reaching the surface.

Volcanic eruptions

Volcanic eruptions can have a major impact on climate. During volcanic eruptions, fine par-
ticles of ash and dust (as well as gases) can be ejected into the atmosphere. Scientists agree that
the volcanic eruptions having the greatest impact on climate are those rich in sulfur gases. These
gases, when ejected into the stratosphere, combine with water vapor in the presence of sunlight
to produce tiny, reflective sulfuric acid particles that grow in size, forming a dense layer of haze.
The haze may reside in the stratosphere for several years, absorbing and reflect- ing back to
space a portion of the sun‟s incoming energy. The reflection of incoming sunlight by the haze
tends to cool the air at Earth‟s surface, especially in the hemisphere where the eruption occurs.

Human (Anthropogenic) Induced Climate Change

Earlier in this chapter, we saw how variations in atmospheric CO2 may have contributed to
changes in the global climate spanning thousands and even millions of years. Today, we are
modifying the chemistry and characteristics of the atmosphere by injecting into it vast quantities
of particles and greenhouse gases without fully understanding the long-term consequences. In
this section, we will first look at how gases and particles injected into the lower atmosphere by
human activities may be affecting climate. Then, we will examine how CO2 and other trace
gases appear to be enhancing the Earth‟s greenhouse effect, producing global warming.

Aerosols Injected into the Lower Atmosphere:

In the previous section, we learned that tiny solid and liquid particles (aerosols) can enter the
atmosphere from both human-induced and natural sources. The human-induced sources include
emissions from factories, autos, trucks, aircraft, power plants, home furnaces and fireplaces, to
name a few. Many aerosols are not injected directly into the atmosphere, but form when gases
convert to particles. Some particles, such as sulfates and nitrates, mainly reflect incoming
sunlight, whereas others, such as soot, readily absorb sunlight. Many of the particles that reduce
the amount of sunlight reaching Earth‟s surface tend to cause a net cooling of the surface air
during the day.

Land use changes:

All climate models predict that, as fossil fuels continue to spew greenhouse gases into the air, the
climate will change and the Earth‟s surface will warm. But are humans changing the climate by
other activities as well? Modification of Earth‟s surface taking place right now could potentially
be influencing the immediate climate of certain regions. For example, studies show that about
half the rainfall in the Amazon River Basin is returned to the atmosphere through evaporation
and through transpiration from the leaves of trees. Consequently, clearing large areas of tropical
rain forests in South America to create open areas for farms and cattle ranges, as is happening
now, will most likely cause a decrease in evaporative cooling. This decrease, in turn, could lead
to a warming in that area at least several degrees Celsius. In turn, the reflectivity of the
deforested area will change. Similar changes in albedo result from the overgrazing and excessive
cultivation of grasslands in semi-arid regions, causing an increase in desert conditions (a process
known as desertification).

Increasing Greenhouse Gases Emission

Carbon dioxide is one of a greenhouse gas that strongly absorbs infrared radiation and plays a
major role in the warming of the lower atmosphere. Everything else being equal, the more CO2
in the atmosphere, the warmer the surface air is. We also know that CO2 has been increasing
steadily in the atmosphere, primarily due to human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels
like coal, oil, and natural gas. Deforestation is also adding to this increase. Through the process
of photosynthesis, the leaves of trees remove CO2 from the atmosphere. The CO2 is then stored
in leaves, branches, and roots. When the trees are cut and burned, or left to decay, the CO2 goes
back into the atmosphere. Moreover, Nitrous Oxide (N2O) and Methane (CH4) are greenhouse
gases that causes for climate change. These three gases are differ in how they absorb energy
(preventing it from escaping to space) and how long the gas stays (life time) in the atmosphere.
For example, CO2 stays for over 100 years while, the others two gases last relatively for short
time. NH3 causes 21times as much warming as an equivalent mass of CO2 over 100 years.
Naturally, atmospheric GHGs are important to maintain life on earth. The role of water vapor
Co2 and other GHGs play keeping the earth‟s mean surface temperature higher than it otherwise
would be. If the GHGs were absent earth‟s average atmospheric temperature would be 330C
less. These affect allecosystem on earth. While, the problem of GHGs effects are increasing in
the amount of those gases in the atmosphere due to human causes that resulted for deviation from
the natural or normal conditions.

Global Warming

We have discussed several times in this chapter that the Earth‟s atmosphere is in a warming
trend that began around the turn of the twentieth century. This warming trend is real, as the
average global surface air temperature since the late 1800s has risen by about 1.0 C. Moreover,
the global average for each decade since the 1980s has been warmer than that of the preceding
decade. There are many signs of increasing global warmth other than temperature readings. For
example, the amount of water locked in the world‟s glaciers and ice sheets is steadily decreasing,
and sea level is steadily rising. Global warming might even be apparent where you live. The
growing season, for example, may be getting longer, or you may find the changing of the leaf
color in autumn tending to happen later than in the past. Global warming in any given year,
however, is small, and it only becomes significant when averaged over many years, such as
decades. So, it is important not to base global warming on a specific weather event. The main
indicators of global warming are shown in the figure below.
2.4.3. Consequences of Climate Change
If the world continues to warm as predicted by climate models, where will most of the warming
take place? Climate models predict that land areas will warm more rapidly than the global
average, particularly in the northern high latitudes in winter. We can see that the greatest surface
warming for the period 2001 to 2006 tended to occur over landmasses in the high latitudes of the
Northern Hemisphere, as experienced in Canada and Russia. As high-latitude regions of the
Northern Hemisphere continue to warm, modification of the land may actually enhance the
warming. For example, the dark green boreal forests of the high latitudes absorb up to three
times as much solar energy as does the snow-covered tundra. Consequently, the winter
temperatures in subarctic regions are, on the average, much higher than they would be without
trees. If warming allows the boreal forests to expand into the tundra, the forests may accelerate
the warming in that region. As the temperature rises, organic matter in the soil should decompose
at a faster rate, adding more CO2 to the air, which might accelerate the warming even more.
Trees that grow in a climate zone defined by temperature may become especially hard hit as
rising temperatures place them in an inhospitable environment.

These changes in temperature will also affect people in many ways, of course, including direct
effects on human health. For example, with heat waves expected to become more frequent and
intense, heatrelated deaths are expected to increase, although there could be some compensating
decrease in cold-related illnesses. In the lower latitude, there are more frequent droughts and
unpredictable rainfall due to global warming. Predictions show that global warming will amplify
current dangers and introduce new ones, seriously affecting people‟s ability to support them.

Precipitation

Changes in precipitation and drought may be just as important as changes in temperature over
the coming decades. As with temperature, changes in precipitation will not be evenly distributed,
as some areas will tend to get more precipitation and others less. Since the middle of the
twentieth century, precipitation has generally increased over the middle- and highlatitude land
areas of the Northern Hemisphere, while decreasing over some subtropical land areas. In many
areas, there has also been an increase in the intensity of the heaviest precipitation events during
the last 50 years or so. The changes in precipitation adversely affect by placing added stress on
agriculture. Even in places where average annual precipitation does not change, it is possible that
rainfall and snowfall will be focused in more intense wet spells, with longer dry periods in
between. In many parts of the world, observations show that the heaviest one-day rainfall events
are already becoming heavier. In addition, warming temperatures will tend to cause soil to dry
out more quickly, exacerbating the impact of drought when it occurs.

Sea Level Rise

Another major consequence of climate change is an increase in sea level, as land-based ice
sheets and glaciers retreat, the oceans continue to expand and get warm. During the twentieth
century, average global sea level rose by about 17 cm. From 1900 to 2010, globally averaged sea
level rose about 19 cm, with the pace accelerating from the 1990s onward. About half of that was
a result of melting glaciers and ice sheets, with the other half produced by the expansion of
oceans as they warm. Globally averaged sea level has risen about twice as quickly since 1993,
roughly 3.4 cm per decade, as it did during the twentieth century as a whole. Sea level rise will
be a growing issue in the coming decades for the many millions of people who live near
coastlines around the world. Storm surges will occur atop a higher baseline water level. Rising
ocean levels could also have a damaging influence on coastal ecosystems, such as coral reefs. In
addition, coastal groundwater supplies might become contaminated with saltwater.
Effects on Polar Regions
In Polar Regions, areas of the world, rising temperatures produce complex interactions among
temperature, precipitation, and wind patterns. Hence, in Antarctica, more snow might actually
fall in the warmer air. This situation could allow snow to build up across the interior, although it
may be counterbalanced by an increase in melting already taking place along the Antarctic
coastline. Over Greenland, which is experiencing rapid melting of ice and snow, any increase in
precipitation will likely be offset by rapid melting, and so the ice sheet is expected to continue to
shrink. Sea ice has been shrinking and thinning rapidly across the Arctic Ocean. During the
summer of 2007, and again in the summer of 2012, the extent of Arctic sea ice dropped
dramatically to new record lows. If the warming in this region continues at its present rate,
summer sea ice may, at times, shrink to cover less than 10 percent of the Arctic Ocean by the
middle of this century, or even sooner.

Effects on ecosystems
Increasing levels of CO2 in a warmer world could have many other consequences. For example,
greater amounts of CO2 can be expected to act as a “fertilizer” for some plants, accelerating their
growth, although this process can slow over time if water, nitrogen, and other nutrients were not
plentiful enough to sustain the growth. In some ecosystems, certain plant species could become
so dominant that others are eliminated. In tropical areas, where many developing nations are
located, the effects of climate change may actually decrease crop yield, whereas higher latitudes
might benefit from a longer growing season and an earlier snowmelt. Extremely cold winters
might become less numerous, with fewer bitter cold spells. However, wildfires may continue to
become more prevalent during dry spells in forested high-latitude areas. Thus, while there will be
some “winners” and some “losers,” the most recent analyses suggest that the impact of climate
change on agriculture and ecosystems may become increasingly negative by later in this century.
Future impact on our climate system has been summarized from the 2013 Fifth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as follows: The primary
source of the increased atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide since the preindustrial
period results from fossil fuel use, with land-use change providing another significant but smaller
contribution. The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide in 2005 exceeds by far the natural
range over the last 800,000 years (180 to 300 parts per million (ppm) as determined from ice
cores. Climate-driven changes in species distributions affect human well-being both directly (for
example, through emerging diseases and changes in food supply) and indirectly (by degrading
ecosystem health).

3.4.4. Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies to Climate Change

Climate change is one of the all-encompassing global environmental changes likely to have
deleterious effects on natural and human systems, economies and infrastructure. The risks
associated with it call for a broad spectrum of policy responses and strategies at the local,
regional, national and global level.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) highlights two
fundamental response strategies: mitigation and adaptation. While mitigation seeks to limit
climate change by reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases and by enhancing „sink‟
opportunities, adaptation aims to alleviate the adverse impacts through a wide-range of system-
specific actions. Although both mitigation and adaptation measures must be pursued to tackle the
climate change problem and to create an effective and inclusive international climate change
regime, more attention has been devoted to mitigation in the past, both in scientific research and
policy debate. Sensitivity to the issue of adaptation has grown over the last couple of years,
particularly after the IPCC Third Assessment Report. Adaptation has now emerged as an urgent
policy priority, prompting action both within and outside the climate change negotiations.

Climate Change Adaptation

According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, adaptation to climate change refers

to, “adjustments in ecological, social or economic systems in response to actual or expected
stimuli and their effects or impacts. This term refers to changes in processes, practices and
structures to moderate potential damages or to benefit from opportunities associated with climate
change”. The most commonly identified adaptation strategies in Ethiopia include soil
conservation, terracing, water harvesting, crop diversification, changing crop planting date,
planting trees and irrigation.

Types of Adaptation
Depending on its timing, goal and motive of its implementation, adaptation can either be
reactive or anticipatory, private or public, planned or autonomous. Adaptations can also be
short/long term, localized or widespread (IPCC 2001). In unmanaged natural systems, adaptation
is autonomous and reactive, and is the means by which species respond to changed conditions. In
these situations, adaptation assessment is essentially equivalent to natural system impact
assessment.

Reactive or Anticipatory Adaptation

Reactive adaptation is the one that takes place after the initial impacts of climate change have
occurred. Anticipatory adaptation takes place before impacts become apparent. In natural
systems, there is no anticipatory adaptation.

Private or Public Adaptation The distinction is based on whether adaptation is motivated by

private (individual) households and companies or public interest (government).

Planned or Autonomous Adaptation

Planned adaptation is consequence of deliberate policy decision, based on the awareness that
conditions have changed or are expected to change and that some form of action is required to
maintain a desired state. Autonomous adaptation involves changes that systems will undergo in
response to changing climate irrespective of any policy, plan or decision

Anticipatory Reactive
natural System Changing in length of growing season Changes
in ecosystem composition Wetland migration
Human Private Purchase of insurance Changing in farm practices Change in insurance
System Construction of house on stilts premiums Purchase of air-building
Redesign of oil-rigs
Public Early- Warning system New Compensatory payments, subsides Enforcement
building codes, design standards of building codes Beach nourishment
Incentive for relocation

Climate Change Mitigation

It refers avoiding and reducing emission of heat trapping greenhouse gases in to the atmosphere
to prevent the planet from warming to more extreme temperatures. For example, reducing source
of heat trapping greenhouse gases the burning of fossil fuels for electricity, heat or transport and
enhancing the sinks that accumulate and store these gases (such as the oceans, forests and soil).
2.5 Natural Resources

2.5.2 Overview of Major Natural Resources of the World

Natural resources are parts of the environment that people can extract and exploit (use or
manipulate to one‟s advantage). People do not make natural resources. They gather natural
resources.

Natural resources are categorized into two –renewable and nonrenewable resources. Renewable
resources can be replenished by natural processes as quickly as humans use them. Examples of
renewable resources include sunlight and wind. Whereas nonrenewable resources are natural
resources that exist in fixed amounts and can be used up sometime in the future. Examples
include fossil fuels like petroleum and coal.

Our planet has huge supplies of natural resources that we need to survive. However, our biggest
challenge is to use resources without destroying or degrading the environment. Our quality of
life and survival depends on our ability to use, rather than abuse the environment.

Therefore, sustainable use of resources is very important. Sustainable use refers to the use of
resources in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term degradation of the
environment, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and
future generations. It is a way that meets the needs of the present and also preserves the resources
for future generations. We need to practice the ideas and methods of Natural Resource
Management (NRM) for sustainable use of resources.
Natural resource management refers to the sustainable utilization of major natural resources such
as land, water, air, minerals, forests, fisheries, and wild flora and fauna. Altogether, these
resources provide the ecosystem services that provide better quality to human life.
Sustainable management of resources involves effective utilization of the following
key strategies.

 Sustainable management of land resources;

 Maintaining and enhancing water resources;
 Conserving and recovering biodiversity;
 Enhancing skills, capacity, and engagement of people;
 Protecting and enhancing the marine and coastal environment;
 Delivering high-quality planning that leads to effective action.
 1, The Major Natural Resources of the world
The Earth is blessed with different natural resources. However, there are a few selected natural
resources that we rely on more than others. Natural resources provide fundamental life support in
the form of both consumptive use and public good services. Consumptive use is the use of
resources in ways that reduce supply. Examples include mining and logging in a forest. Public
good is a good that benefits many people whether or not they have paid for it. Here is a list of
natural resources that are extremely important to the existence of life on Earth .
I. Soil
Soil as a resource, contains many minerals and nutrients that allow plants to grow.
Therefore, it is important for the growth of plants and trees. Soil is also an agent of
the nitrogen cycle. This is the process of taking nitrogen from the air and converting
it into basic ingredients which let plants make their own food.
Soil is another natural resource that is threatened by pollution. Soil pollution, caused
by overgrazing, landfills, waste materials, fertilizers, pesticides, and other factors is
a pressing issue for the land. It can result in low crop production, as well as plant life
containing chemicals that are not ideal for human consumption. It can also result in
desertification which means the land becomes barren and unable to support plant life.
II. Air
Air is another important natural resource which every living thing needs. Air is more
than oxygen. Air holds moisture which helps regulate temperature both on the surface and in
humans. Meanwhile, oxygen is extremely important because every living thing needs oxygen to
survive. Air also includes the atmosphere that is necessary for containing gases needed to keep
the temperature of the Earth at a constant and warm enough to support life.

Air also regulates the winds which are renewable resources. Windmills or turbines have been
created to harness this energy and use it to generate electricity. However, breathable air is
becoming more and more polluted. In some areas of the world air pollution is so great that
people are forced to wear face masks so they do not breathe in any toxins. Air pollution can lead
to many illnesses including cancer. There are many things that you can do to reduce air pollution
most importantly by reducing the emission of carbon dioxide.
 III. Water
The first natural resource in the above list is water. Arguably, water is the most
important of all natural resources. Without water, life would not be able to thrive on
the Earth. About 71% of Earth‟s surface is water and the oceans hold about 96.5% of
that water.

While it is technically a renewable resource, the amount of fresh or drinkable water

is very small in amount. There is only about 2.5% freshwater from the total amount of water on
Earth. Most of the freshwater cannot easily be accessed since it is found
underground or in a form of ice and snow in remote areas.

In addition, water in seas and oceans is saline hence, it cannot be directly used for household use
and drinking purposes. Of course, there are systems in place to purify non-drinkable water into
water safe for consumption through filtration methods.

IV. Forest

Trees help us in many ways. They produce oxygen, help to deal with the level of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and allow people to heat their homes. Moreover,
forests are also home to incredible amounts of biodiversity, especially tropical
rainforests. About 80% of the world‟s species can be found in the tropical rainforests.

Moreover, a lot of medicinal drugs are made of plants found in the rainforests.
However, forests are being constantly threatened by deforestation. This is unwise
destruction of trees by cutting them down. The reason for this deforestation is for
lumber, clearing of land for plowing, and other causes such as illegal logging and
forest fires, etc. If we are to continue to thrive on this Earth, we have to start treating
forests carefully and plant more trees annually.
 Figure: the earth`s water resources

In addition, climate change is affecting freshwater by reducing its availability for humans. Due
to the changes in weather and increase in ice melt in the poles, precipitation patterns have been
changing and reserves of freshwater are quickly disappearing.
V. Minerals
Minerals are very important for industrialization. Rare minerals found within the
Earth are the raw material for making electronics like computers and cellphones.
Whereas, iron and other minerals are highly used for building and construction
purposes. Minerals are either metallic – that can be melted to gain new products
or nonmetallic – a combination of minerals that do not produce new products
by melting them. Since minerals are nonrenewable resources, wise utilization or
sustainable use of the resources is vital. Hence, reuse and recycling of the resources
are the most common methods used in the world today.
2.5.3 Drainage Systems and Water Resources of Ethiopia and their Significance
In geography, drainage patterns differ from drainage systems. The term patterns refers to the
fabric or surface arrangement of the main rivers and their tributaries. These features are the result
of factors of the underlying rock and slope. In contrast, the term systems refers to the direction
and destination of the rivers. For example, drainage patterns are expressed as radial, dendrite,
trellis, etc., while drainage systems are expressed as endoric, exotric and aeric. The drainage
patterns and systems of Ethiopia are the results of various structural events that took place in the
Cenozoic era.
Major Rivers of Ethiopia and their Characteristics
Ethiopia is among the few countries that have many rivers. Ethiopia has enormous potential
water resources. As well as being numerous, Ethiopian rivers are energetic. They flow from the
highlands of the interior to the peripheral lowlands and then to seas and lakes bouncingly. These
conditions have made Ethiopia known as the “water tower of Northeastern Africa” and as the
watershed between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean drainage systems.
Ethiopian rivers are characterized by:

 Steep profiles; they arise from very high places and flow to the country‟s
borders across lowlands.

 They gush through rapids and waterfalls along their courses.

 They show seasonal fluctuation in water volume.

 They run through steep-sided river valleys and gorges.

 they serve as boundaries, both international and domestic (administrative units)

Some of the Ethiopian rivers are given new names after they cross the country‟s borders.
Examples:

 River Abbay becomes Bue Nile in the Sudan.

 River Tekezze becomes River Athbara in the Sudan.
 River Ghenalle becomes River Juba in Somalia.
 River Baro becomes River Sobat in the Sudan
 Table: Major rivers of Ethiopia and their tributaries

Drainage Systems of Ethiopia

The drainage systems of Ethiopia are basically divided into three major groups:

 The Western (Mediterranean) drainage system

 The Southeastern (Indian Ocean) drainage system
 The Inland (Rift Valley) drainage system
The Western (Mediterranean) Drainage System
This system is the largest of all, both in aerial extent and volume of water
outflow. It contributes sixty percent of the country‟s total annual water discharge.
It consists of three major rivers and their tributaries:

 River Tekezze – This river drains the massifs of western Lasta, northern
Gondar/ Semein and southwestern, western and central Tigray.

 River Abbay – This one has its origin in the Gojjam plateau. A large number of streams
join the river from the plateaus of western Shoa, southwestern Wello, northern Wollega,
and northern Illubabor.
It has a semicircular course from Lake Tana, separating southeastern Gondar from Gojjam and
separating Gojjam from Shewa.
River Baro-Akobo – This water course drains the wettest highlands of the southwest and
crosses the border to join the Nile.
The Southeastern Drainage System
This system is the second largest drainage system. It consists of the Genalle and Wabishebelle.
These rivers collect waters from the highlands of Hararghe, Sidamo, Bale and Arsi. This
drainage system flows southeast, across the Somali arid and semi-arid areas. It contributes about
32% of the country‟s total annual water flow.
The Wabishebelle, the longest river in the country, does not reach the Indian
Ocean. It ends at the Benadir coast of Somalia. The Ghenalle, on the other hand, reaches the
Indian Ocean. It joins the Dawa River at the Ethio-Somalia border, where it acquires the name
Juba.
The Inland (Rift Valley) Drainage System
This system is the smallest of the three systems in terms of catchment area, discharge of water
and volume of water. There are a number of lakes and smaller streams, like the Bilate and
Gedabo, which flow into Lake Abbaya; the Segan, which flows into Chew Bahir; and the Meki
and the Katar, which flow into Lake Ziway.
The major rivers in this drainage system are the Awash and the OmoGhibe.

 The Awash River basin is the most utilized in the Rift Valley. The basin covers a total area of
110 thousand square kilometers and serves as home to 10.5 million inhabitants.
The river rises from the Shewan plateau near Ginchi town, a town at about 100 kilometers west
of Addis Ababa, and flows along the Rift Valley. It terminates in the salty lake of Abbe on the
border with Djibouti. The middle and lower courses are part of the Great Rift Valley system (the
upper course is not part of the system). The lower Awash River basin comprises the deltaic
alluvial plains of the Tendaho, Assaita, and Dit Behri areas, and of the terminal lakes area.
 The Omo-Ghibe Basin in southwestern Ethiopia is filled with water and
sediments carried by the rivers from the highlands.
Lakes of Ethiopia
Compared to other countries, Ethiopia is rich in lakes. They are found dispersed on the plateaus
and clustered in the Rift Valley. Most of the lakes are the result of structures that occurred during
the Quaternary Period; i.e., they are not outcomes of climate. This fact is proved by the location
of these lakes in the drier parts of the country. The natural lakes found in Ethiopia
can be classified into highland and Rift Valley lakes.
Highland Lakes
These lakes are found dispersed on the plateaus, either as crater or watershed lakes. These types
of lakes resulted from different types of structural formations. A crater lake is formed after an
explosive volcano breaks a mountain open, leaving a deep mouth. The mouth is filled with water
from either small streams or subterranean sources.
A watershed lake is formed when a sheet of lava dams up a shallow surface depression. For
example, Lake Tana was formed during the Quaternary Period, when a sheet of flowing lava
dammed the shallow depression that had already been formed between the Gojjam and Gondar
massifs.
Example:
Crater lakes in Ethiopia:
 Bishoftu, Kuruftu, Babbo Gaya, and Arsedi, all around Bishoftu
 Wonchi and Dendi around Ambo, Ginchi and Wellisso
 Zequala near Bishoftu
 Hashenge near Korum in Tigray
 Haik, (some 30 kilometers away from Desse on the road to Woldiya
Rift Valley Lakes
Unlike the highland lakes, the Rift Valley lakes are clustered. They are found in a linear pattern
along the floor of the Rift Valley
Table: Depth, area and location of Ethiopian lakes

Significance of Ethiopian Lakes and Rivers

Lakes and rivers are Ethiopia‟s main water resources. Their usefulness is measured in terms of
their significance to current and planned economic development projects. Ethiopia‟s level of
technology is a significant factor for developing these economic resources.
Here is a list of some important functions of Ethiopia‟s lakes and rivers.
Significance of Ethiopian Lakes and Rivers
I. Hydroelectric Power (H.E.P.) Generation: rivers are the main source of hydroelectric
power (H.E.P.) supplies for the country. Example:
 River Gibe – Gilgel Gibbe – 1, 2 and 3 H.E.P. plants,
 River Awash – Awash 1, 2 and 3 H.E.P. project,
 River Fincha – Fincha H.E.P. project,
 Tekezze – Tekezze H.E.P plant,
 Melka Wakena – Wabe Shebelle H.E.P
 Koysha - Under construction,
 Great Ethiopian Renaissance Dam H.E.P plant – under construction.
II. Fishery: Ethiopian rivers and lakes are also the country‟s main source of fish.
Example: Lake Chamo, Lake Abbaya, Lake Tana, River Baro, etc
III. Major Irrigation Schemes: They are again very important water sources for irrigation.
River Awash is the most utilized in this regard; this is because of the flat plains it
crosses for hundreds of kilometers.
 IV. Navigation: The River Baro is the only river in Ethiopia used for water
transport. Similarly, Lake Tana, Lake Ziway and Lake Abbaya are important inland
water ways.
V. Tourism and Recreation: Ethiopia‟s lakes and rivers provide recreation resorts and
aesthetic value. Their scenic beauty emanates from the rich variety of birds, fish and
other wildlife, spectacularly deep gorges, waterfalls of all description and the mists
they produce. These panoramic features win the affection of the Ethiopian people and
tourists and they are sites of the country‟s best recreational resorts. The economic
potential of these scenic resources is enormous but it is not well developed yet.
VI. Ethiopia‟s lakes and rivers provide recreation resorts and aesthetic value. They are
also important sources of the nation‟s fish. Their scenic beauty emanates the rich
variety of birds, fish and other wildlife, spectacularly deep gorges, waterfalls of all
description and the mists these produce. These panoramic features win the affection
of the Ethiopian people and tourists and are sites of the country‟s best recreational
resorts. The economic potential of these scenic resources is enormous but is still not
well developed.
2.5.4 Biotic Resources of Ethiopia (Vegetation and Wildlife)
Types of Natural Vegetation of Ethiopia
Natural vegetation refers to any original plant grown in and covering an area. The distribution of
natural vegetation is influenced by many factors. The most important ones are:

 Altitude
 Climate
 soil type, and
 drainage
The types of natural vegetation in an area are strongly determined by temperature and rainfall.
That is why the natural vegetation of an area is a good indicator of the area‟s climatic conditions.
Natural Vegetation’s Relationship to Altitude and Rainfall

In Ethiopia, the types of the natural vegetation of an area are highly correlated with altitude and
rainfall, as they are with temperature. The lowlands have harsh environments due to low rainfall
and are characterized by xerophytic plants, while the highlands are chracterised by different
types of tree stands and forests. Based on altitude, we can classify the natural vegetation of
Ethiopia into the following five types:

 Afro-alpine and sub-Afro alpine

 Forests
 Woodland savanna
 Steppe vegetation
 Desert and semidesert vegetation

Afro-Alpine and Sub Afro-Alpine Vegetation

This type of vegetation is found at very high altitudes (above 3300 meters). Afro-alpine and sub-
afro-alpine vegetation is very similar to European alpine vegetation. Sub-afroalpine vegetation is
found between 3000 – 3300 m, while Afroalpine vegetation is found at higher altitudes than
these. In Ethiopia, Afro-alpine and sub-Afro-alpine vegetations are found in the:

 Highlands of Semein and

 Highlands of Bale
Afro-Alpine vegetation consists of tussock grasslands, serules, scattered mosses and lichens.
SubAfro Alpines are predominantly woodland scrubs. Gibra (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) and Asta
(Erica arborea) are dominant plant species in this region of natural vegetation.

Forests
In Ethiopia, forests are characterized by broad altitudinal ranges (450 – 3300 m) and large
variations in mean annual rainfall (200 – 2200 mm). This wide variation in altitude and rainfall
results in the formation of highland and lowland forests. These two types of forests have very
different characteristics since they are the results of altitudinal zonation.

A, Highland Forests (forests that grow between 1500 - 3300 masl altitude) Ethiopia’s
highland forests consist of
 Kerkha (Arundinarial) 2800 – 3000 masl
 Tid (Juniperous Procera) or Coniferous trees 2200 – 2800 masl
 Zigba (Podocarpus) 1800 – 2200 masl
 Woira (Oliia Africana) and Kosso (Hagenia Abbyssinia (1500 – 1800)
B. Lowland Forests (forests that grow below 1500 m altitude)

These forests are known as gallery/riverine forests. In Ethiopia, they grow along the banks of the
Awash, Wabishabelle, and Ghanalle Rivers where moisture is available in the soil. The
predominant trees are Sholla and Warka. In areas where mean annual rainfall exceeds 500 mm,
Baphia forest predominates.
Woodland Savanna

Like forests, Savanna woodlands are found in both highland and lowland areas. Their altitudinal
range is 250 – 2300 m, and their mean annual rainfall range is between 200 – 1400 mm.
(Example: acacia, grass etc.) However, such vegetation is dominant at lower elevations and drier
climates than the forests. Savanna grasslands experience marked seasons and are characterized
by scattered acacia trees.
In areas where mean annual rainfall is more than 1000 mm, these grasslands can form attractive
parklike areas with acacia, wild fig, sycamore and kosso trees. Ethiopia‟s savanna grasslands are
found in the southern half of Ziway, Langano, Abiyatta and Hawassa.

Semi-desert and Desert Vegetation

Sem-idesert and desert vegetation consists of short acacia, thorn bushes, succulent plants and a
few rough grasses. In Ethiopia, vegetation of this kind is found in the Eastern, Northwestern and
Southeastern Lowlands, i.e., in areas where annual rainfall is below 500 mm and drought persists
for a long period of time.
Wild Animals of Ethiopia

The diversity in Ethiopia‟s topography, climate, and vegetation has given the country a wide
variety of wild animals. Ethiopia‟s wild-animal stock is generally similar to that of East Africa as
a whole, due to topographic similarity and other aspects. Ethiopia has about 277 species of
mammals and 862 species of birds. Of these, seven species of mammals and twenty five species
of birds are endemic to Ethiopia.
Types of Wild Animals in Ethiopia

The many types of wild animals found in Ethiopia can be grouped into the following broad
categories.

 Common wild animals: These ones are animals commonly found in many places of the
world. Many areas of Ethiopia have many common wild animals, including the hyena
and the jackal.
 Game animals: These are animals that are killed for sport. Ethiopia‟s game animals
include herbivores and carnivores. They are found in the lowlands.

 Arboreals: These animals are animals that climb up trees. Ethiopia‟s arboreal animals, such as
the Colobus monkey and baboons, are mostly found in the rainforest regions of Ethiopia.
 Aquatic animals: These creatures are animals that live in lakes and rivers. Example: Fish,
crocodiles and hippopotamus.
 Birds: Ethiopia has different kinds of both endemic and migratory birds; for example, Pelicans
and flamingoes.
 Rare/Endemic animals: These are wild animals found only in Ethiopia. These days Ethiopia‟s
endemic animals exist in only very small numbers. They inhabit highland and other areas. They
are at great risk of extinction. The following are some of the
–Walia Ibex (wild goat), found in the Semein highlands.
-Mountain Nyala (Dega Agazon), found in the Bale mountains.
-„Gelada‟ or „Chelad‟ baboon, found in the Semein highlands.
-Menilik‟s Bushbuk („Dikula‟) in the Shoan and Bale highlands.
-Swayne‟s Hartebeest („Korkay‟), found in the Nechsar park and the Sankalle sanctuary.
-Semein Fox („Key Kebero‟), found in the Bale and Semein Highlands.
-Wild Ass (Yedur Ahiya), found in the Afar and Southeast Lowlands.
These rare animals, especially the Walia Ibex and Semien Fox, are approaching extinction.
Causes of the Extinction of Wild-Animals The main reasons for such conditions are the
shrinking and destruction of habitats, which are mainly forest land by way of:

 rapid expansion of farmland, settlements, and industrialization

 expansion of grazing land
 Wide spread practices of illegal hunting by the local people in search of meat, skin, fur,
horn and ivory.
 frequent wild fires What is more, 
 Migration of the wild animals to neighboring countries, due to shortages of food and
water in Ethiopia adds to their perpetual disappearance.
Conservation Measures
Here are some conservation measures that have been recommended:
 Establish national parks, game reserves and sanctuaries.
 Monitor and administer existing conservation areas properly.
 Establish and implement strong laws that effectively prohibit illegal hunting.
 Educate the public about environment protection.
 Protect habitats.
 Educate and encourage local communities to protect their animals‟ habitats and
resources. As you can see, some of these mitigation measures involve direct
protection of the animals
  For example by establishing and properly administering protected areas; and by
training people in how to protect these areas. Establishing Protected Parks, Reserves,
and sanctuaries.

National Parks:
 National parks are conservation areas for wild animals in which legal hunting is
allowed, with some restrictions. The Ethiopian National Parks are

Table: Ethiopian National Parks

Sanctuaries
Sanctuaries are wild-animal conservation areas where hunting is strictly prohibited.

Example: Afar Gewane.

Game Reserves
Game reserves are wild-animal conservation areas where tourists are allowed to practice
licensed hunting. The game reserves of Ethiopia are listed in
Table. Table: Ethiopian game Reserves

Human Intervention in Forest Lands

One intervention is in deforestation. At the beginning of the 20th C, the forest cover of Ethiopia
was estimated at 40 percent of the entire country. Now it is less than 3 percent. This
deforestation rate is alarming. We estimate that Ethiopia loses 100,000 – 200,000 hectares of
forestland every year.
Causes of Deforestation The main causes are:

 unwise tree cutting for supplies and materials

 overgrazing
 slash-and-burn practices
 fuel wood
 furniture
 construction etc.
Overgrazing:

 This is the practice of placing too MANY livestock on a given piece of land. The
activities of these animals strips the land bare. In addition to overgrazing pasture areas,
people are increasingly converting forest land to pasture land. This practice has
expanded grazing land at the expense of forest land – in other words, through
deforestation.
Slash and burn practices:
People are involved in slash-and-burn practices to clear forestland in order to prepare it for
farming. This practice essentially strips the forest bare by slashing (cutting down and digging up)
all or most of the trees and other vegetation and then burning the piles away. Slash-andburn is
also used to periodically strip an area of farmland in order to leave it lying fallow to regain its
nutrients. In Ethiopia, slashing and burning forests destroys a large area of forest annually.

This approach to gaining farmland is commonly practiced in southwestern Ethiopia. Expansion

of built up areas: Built-up areas are areas occupied by factories, residence, recreational sites etc.
Ethiopia‟s expanding human population increasingly requires more area for housing and other
services. Some of the land that is converted to built-up areas is forestland. Mitigation Measures
The following approaches have been suggested for slowing down and/or mitigating Ethiopia‟s
rapid deforestation rate:
 conservation
 capacity building
 institutional development
These approaches are described below. However, despite their having great potential, these
approaches alone are not enough. More ideas are needed, and sustained effort must be applied to
enhance the mitigation effort.
Conservation of Natural Vegetation
These conservation measures have been suggested for preserving Ethiopia‟s forests:
 Reforestation
 Planting trees after every tree harvest.
 Afforestation
 Planting trees on bare and unproductive lands.
  Controlling burning practices (i.e., the slash-and-burn activities).
 Practicing agro-forestry.
 Reducing the use of fuel wood by adopting alternative sources of energy for
household consumption.
 Controlling overgrazing.
Capacity Building and Institutional Development
Here are some approaches to preserve Ethiopia‟s forests through capacity building and
institutional development:
 Providing environmental education to enhance public awareness about the use and
management of natural vegetation.
 Developing forest-related curricula for schools, colleges, universities, forestry
institutions, and forestry-management institutions. Then implement those curricula.
 Supporting and protecting community forests by applying strict legal measures.
 Moderating the existing rapid rate of population growth  Facilitate community
participation in combatting deforestation.
 Changing the life style of the people in terms of ongoing deforestation activities. These
goals must be vigorously implemented if we are to attain the country‟s ongoing goal of
defeating deforestation. For example, the anti-deforestation rules and laws must be
vigorously executed by relevant agencies.

2.5.5 Resources under Pressure

There are several resources provided by the environment for human use and ecosystem services.
All are of course affected by excessive human use. But from all renewable resources, soils,
water, and forests are the most influenced by humans and placed under increased pressure.
Large parts of these resources are available as common-pool wealth in many areas and face
greater pressure (the tragedy of the commons). They are repeatedly misused, mismanaged, and
degraded. through unwise and careless uses. They face the prime impact of
rapid population growth and increased rural-urban migration. This topic thus focuses on the
discussion of the pressure exerted over these resources.
Soil resources
Soils are essential agricultural resources. But they are frequently losing their intrinsic quality
due to erosion or excessive utilization. Nearly 33% of the world‟s arable land and soils have
been destroyed by soil erosion. The main causes of the depletion are the loss of essential soil
nutrients; reduction of the biological components; removal of the top soil; crusting and
compaction; plus pollution and soil salinity. The main forms of soil degradation (depletion) are
Physical (crusting, compaction, depth reduction), Chemical(salinization, alkalinisation,
acidification), and Biological (loss of soil biota, decline of soil organic carbon). Yet, the
depletion of soils reduces their productive capacity and environmental quality. Soil depletion
likewise annihilates the essential ecosystem functions in the soil system. But still,
the mentioned problems have solutions. They can be managed through proper utilization; by the
adoption of erosion control structures; and through the addition of manure and natural fertilizers.

Water resources
Water is one of the basic life necessities for the survival of human beings as well as animals.
It is essential for the generation and growth of plants. It forms also the major components
of soil formation, rock weathering, organic matter decomposition, and rainfall formation.
Water (mainly freshwater) forms the essential portion of the environment and serves as a
habitat for diverse life forms. In addition, its service for the production of power is so great.
Nonetheless, it is enclosed by a far greater number of constraints than ever before. With the
commencement of the 21st century, the world‟s freshwater resources fall under great pressure
from more different directions than ever before in the Earth‟s history.

Freshwater stands by now among the land resources that suffer a lot from excessive human
pressure. Rivers and lakes are among those extremely threatened by domestic and industrial
wastes. Particularly those found closer to urban areas are polluted by plastic bags, and exotic
water plants like the water hyacinth. Oil spills (leakages) from steamships/boats plus chemicals
released from industries entering the lakes, seas, and rivers cause excessive accumulation of
nutrients and toxicity over the animals inhabiting those hydrologic ecosystems. Due to the
spectacular rising populations, water scarcities and effluence of the sources are
resulting in turbulence. The scarcity of water is currently distressing in many arid and semiarid
areas of the world where population pressure is somewhat extensive including parts of the
Middle East, Africa, and Asia.

This is a shortage pronounced by a demand for water which is intensifying faster nowadays
than at any time in the Earth‟s history. This fact is a shortage that looks probably to occur and
perhaps would heighten in the future. The outcome would likely be a worldwide water crisis
that might transpire in the middle of this century (see Figure 3.3) as far as demand surpasses
the existing supply over wider areas of the world.

The world population is likely to approach 10 billion by 2050 which might cause more
demand for water to satisfy the expanded needs of agriculture and industry. The amplified
population again may pose natural disasters like flooding, droughts, and pollution of surface
and ground waters. The pollution would probably reduce the available quality of freshwater.
Climate change may likely upset the features of the hydrological cycle in many delicate areas.
With that water would likely emerge as a source of contention and skirmish between nations
sharing river basins (international rivers) coupled with the diminishing base of resources. The
risks posed by water may impact also human health, livelihoods, socio-economy, political
stability, culture, and society, for water arrives essentially into all human activity. Water is
equally imperative at spatial, personal to global scales and from seconds to hundred-year time
scales and far beyond. Owing to the widespread hunger and mounting overall food demands
across the globe, sustainable use of water and land ecosystems is imperative. Nevertheless,
freshwater appears to deplete by competing and unwise uses. Managing water resources has thus
now become mandatory.

The following measures can be taken to address the competing uses and sustain the health of
freshwater resources: developing safe waste disposal sewerage systems, particularly in urban
areas to avoid contamination of stream and lake waters from domestic effluents,
adopting laws restricting withdrawal of wastes to river and lake systems, locating industries far
from rivers and lakes, desalination of sea water to minimize stress on streams and lakes,
recycling of waste water through careful treatment, using porous pavements to avoid the drain of
wastewater into watercourses from impervious surfaces in urban areas, and watershed
management.
Forest resources
Forests are making up significant portions of the land area of the world. Throughout the
history of humankind, forests have been essential for the well-being of people and presently
donate much to the livelihoods of billions of populations worldwide. They particularly provide
subsistence items, income, and agricultural inputs to the livelihoods of many households.
Forest ecosystems in addition donate a wide range of services like climate stabilization, flood
control, waste filtration, and soil erosion control at local, regional, and global scales. They
also uptake and store the world‟s carbon stocks and serve as heat and waste sequestration.
Forest resources again serve as a habitat for the Earth‟s known terrestrial species. Nevertheless,
deforestation (excessive tree cutting), encroachment of farming into the communal forest
areas, and mismanagement largely reduce their services despite the enormous benefits that
they provide.

About 13 million ha of forested lands have been annually converted into other land uses due
to natural causes at the global level over the past few decades. Forest clearance for large scale
plantation agriculture and livestock ranching in the tropics (e.g. in the Amazon basin)
resulted in the loss of rainforest ecosystems. Increasing demand for biofuels, mining, rapid
urbanization, climate change, changes in consumption patterns, and human values and ethics
due to the rapid increase of world population and world trade (globalization) have been
creating additional pressure on the status of world forests.

Conflict over Resources, conflict Resolution Practices

The concept of resource conflict
Natural resources are useable assets essential for human livelihoods. They are crucial for both
people and animals. Some examples of natural resources include water, air, land, forests, fish,
wildlife, topsoil, and minerals. Access to such natural resources partly decides the wealth and
prestige of people and even the position of countries in the international economic system. Some
of the aforesaid natural resources are exhaustible with excessive utilization. Resources like
diamonds, minerals, and natural oil are available in limited amounts and can be exhausted
with use. The market value of such resources rises when their quantities shrink. When the size
of natural resources shrinks, asset scarcity occurs. The shortage then triggers conflict among the
resource users – what is commonly called „Natural Resource Conflict‟. This topic thus focuses
on conflicts rising from resources. this lesson you thus will be able to: examine the causes of
resource conflict, describe the consequences of resource conflict, explain conflict resolving
methods.

Resource conflicts are disputes arising over accessing, controlling, and using materials found
in nature. Such conflicts often emerge because people use resources such as forests, water,
pastures, and land. Disputes also arise when the interests and needs of users are not met or when
the priorities of some user groups are not considered by governments. Such conflicts
of interest are inevitable features of all societies. In recent years, the scope and magnitude of
natural resource conflicts have increased and intensified.

These conflicts, if not addressed, can escalate into violence and cause environmental
degradation and deterioration of livelihoods. Recognizing conflicts is a common feature of
resource users. Such conditions are prerequisites for sustainable management and equitable
use.
Resources and areas of resource conflict
At a wider scope, four kinds of resource conflicts occur as a general challenge to national
stability:
a. Secessionist conflicts in which resource-rich regions seek to split away from the
rest of a country;
b. . Disputes over resources as part of new national laws and conventions (i.e. in the context
of a peace agreement or new constitution);
c. . Grievances over standalone projects such as mines and hydroelectric dams; and
d. Cumulative impacts of multiple small-scale clashes, typically over land, livestock.
NOTE: One of the four potentially contentious issues is typically at the heart of these national or
sub-national resource disputes: ownership of the resources; allocation of power for managing
access to or developing the resource; the distribution of resource revenues; and environmental
and social damage caused by extracting of the resource.

Natural resource conflicts have always been with us due to multiple competing demands. But
conflicts can often be managed and resolved. Disputes over the control, ownership and use
of natural resources exist all over the world. Such disputes trigger violence and devastation,
principally in countries with weak administration, high levels of corruption, and experiencing
fierce ethnic and political divisions. Some 40–60 % of the civil wars during the past six decades
have been instigated by the control and use of natural resources. Although grievances
over the usage of shared resources cause fierce competition among people and countries, they
may be markers of change and progress for many reasons; if handled properly and peacefully.
Typical examples of conflicts that originated from the seizure and use of natural resources are
presented in the proceeding paragraphs.
Water and pasture shortages for instance cause conflicts in many areas of the world. See
examples:
 Protests in Pakistan and Bolivia;
 Conflicts in China (in the Shandong & Guangdong Provinces in 2000),
 In Darfur (Sudan), for instance, much of the fighting was due to water scarcity.
 Between Nile riparian countries over the use of Nile water,
 Pasture land conflict: in Ethiopia (between Somali and Afar pastoralists),
 In Afghanistan, the main causes for village-level clashes in 2008 were arising from the
use of land and irrigation water.
Bigger bodies of water (oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers) serve for fishing, transportation,
development, offshore oilfields, and culture. Could also be sources of conflict if not handled
wisely.
Examples:

 Fishing disputes led to “cod wars” between UK and Iceland in the 1950s & 1970s, There
are more than 263 shared watercourses throughout the world that could be potential
sources of conflict, The land is the other sphere of resource conflict. Ownership of land
provides the chance to access minerals, timber, animals, pasture, and farm plots, plus
many other resources. People often have strong „emotional and symbolic attachments to
land and the resources on it‟.

Land often holds high economic value and socio-cultural prestige. But, due to population
growth and environmental degradation, lands that can be used for personal, industrial, or
agricultural purposes are becoming increasingly scarce and then initiate conflict among
people or countries. Customarily, most wars have been fought for the control of lands:
 Example:
 Ecuador and Peru have fought several wars over their disputed border,
 Recently, violent conflict over land has occurred in China, East Timor, Kosovo, Rwanda,
and Tajikistan,
 Border conflicts and wars were waged between Ethiopia and Eritrea, Ethiopia and
Somalia,
 There are still border conflicts between India and Pakistan (over Kashmir); Ethiopia and
Sudan, and many other countries.
Timber increasingly gets scarce with mounting populations. Today, 46% of the 30% of world
forest cover has been destroyed. Population growth and industrialization are destroying
rainforests and causing environmental degradation. Yet, like water and land, the increased
demand for timber pushes to conflict. Examples of conflicts over the exploitation of timber are
available in Burma, Cambodia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Liberia.

Fuel scarcity becomes the greatest concern for developing and developed countries. Many
sources warn that oil in Saudi Arabia will rapidly exhaust and the world will soon face the end
of the oil era. Moreover, the world‟s largest petroleum reserves located in Iran, Iraq, Nigeria,
Venezuela, and Sudan are facing ardent conflicts. The market value and demand for fuel,
especially petroleum, trigger conflicts in those areas. Besides, the developed world‟s increasing
demand for oil and the search for supply deposits may intensify existing conflicts. For instance,
Natural Oil in the Middle East caused the Gulf war between Kuwait and Iraq. In Africa, it caused
conflict between Cameroon and Nigeria.
Precious stones (minerals) are nowadays becoming conflict minerals when their control and
exploitation contribute to armed conflicts. Such conflict minerals have varied commodity values
and occur in many geographical locations. For example:
 Diamonds in Western and Central Africa: have been used by several rebel groups as a
source of income. The Angola National Union for the Total Independence of Angola
(UNITA) and Sierra Leone [Revolutionary United Front (RUF)] in the late 1990s; as well
as the rebel groups in Liberia, Ivory Coast, Democratic Republic of Congo, and the
Republic of Congo used such minerals for their rebel objectives,
 Amber in Russia, and
 Gold in Indonesia.
Conflicts can arise when:
 User groups are excluded from participating in natural resource management,
 Natural resources are poorly managed and inequitably shared,
 Contradictions arise between local and introduced management systems;
 Confusions develop among users due to the absence of information about government
policy and program objectives; Contradictions or lack of clarity occur on laws and
policies;
 Inequality in resource distribution exists between users; and/or
 Poor policy and unsuccessful program implementation prevail.

Forms of Resource Conflict Expressions

The form and intensity of conflicts vary widely with the place and over time within any
community. Some of the forms of how resource conflicts manifest themselves involve the
following ways:

 Through breaking rules,

 By the acts of sabotage and violence,
 Sometimes conflicts remain hidden or latent,
 People may allow grievances to rage because of fear,
 By showing distrust, and etc.

Actors of Resource Conflict

Natural resource conflicts occur at various levels and involve a variety of actors:
Local people in the homesteads over the use of nearby resources,
Neighboring communities over the control of woodland,
Villages,
Community-based organizations,
Domestic and multinational businesses,
Governments,
International development agencies and NGOs over the use and management of large
forest tracts.
Conflict handling strategies
The ways how people respond to natural resource conflicts vary considerably. Different
communities have different methods of handling conflicts. The mechanisms can be formal or
informal, violent or peaceful, equitable or not. Although the specific methods vary, people
generally rely on the same basic procedural modes of handling conflicts. Most people use the
following strategies:

 Avoidance: acting in ways to keep a conflict from becoming publicly acknowledged,

 Coercion: threatening or using force to impose one‟s will,
 Negotiation: following a voluntary process in which parties reach an agreement
through consent,
 Arbitration: submitting a conflict to a mutually agreeable third party who renders a
decision,TWO
 Mediation: using a third party to facilitate the negotiation process (a mediator
lacks the authority to impose a solution),
 Adjudication: relying on a judge or administrator to make a binding decision.
 UNIT 3
POPULATION GEOGRAPHY AND HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT
3.1 Population and Demographic Characteristics

3.1.1 Concept of Human Population

Human population is the number of people living in a definite area. It is all of the people living
in a specified area-such as a city, region, country, or continent-at a given time. Population is one
of the most critical factors that determine the socio-economic and environmental conditions of
every country in the world. The study of human population is also necessary for development
and socio-economic activities. For example, population is the major source of the labour force
for the productive and non-productive economic sectors, such as agriculture, manufacturing,
teaching, health services, etc. Human population is also the main productive force and creator of
material wealth. This makes the study of population extremely important for the overall socio-
economic development of a country.
In geography, population geography is :-
 A branch of human geography that usually focuses on the spatial patterns and
variations of the various characteristics of human populations.
 Particularly emphasizes the spatial dimensions of population size, structure,
composition, distribution, settlement, density, migration, growth, and other
demographic processes and facts.
 Considers demographic facts in terms of their present contexts and causes,
characteristics and possible consequences to the geographical environments (i.e.,
both the physical and cultural environment).
The world‟s population has been experiencing continuous growth since the 15 century. The rapid
increase in the size of the human population is attributed to many factors that include
 Advancements in scientific knowledge, agriculture, industry, medicine, and social
organization;
 Humans; ability to control famine and disease, which have been major killers of
humans;
 The relatively lower cost of importing vaccines, antibiotics, insecticides, and high-
yielding varieties of seeds;
 Improvement in peoples living conditions, which have resulted in the decline of
deaths from infectious and parasitic diseases;
 Increase in life expectancy in most developing countries from about 35-40 years in
1950 to 66 years by 2000.
 Uses of Population Data
Having accurate data of the population is essential for effective socioeconomic development
planning and administration:
Population studies in geography and other fields yield knowledge essential for planning,
especially by governments, in fields such as health, education, housing, social security,
employment, food security, and environmental preservation. Moreover, the studies provide
information needed in the formulation of governments‟ population policies, which seek to
modify the trends of population size, composition, and distribution in order to achieve
economic, social, and environmental objectives.
3.1.2 Overview of World Population Growth

World population growth accelerated after World War II when the population of less
developed countries began to increase dramatically. A billion people were added
to the world‟s population between 1960 and 1975; another billion were also added
between 1975 and 1987. The human population entered the twentieth century with
1.6 billion people and left the century with 6.1 billion.
Population growth and distribution differ significantly among the major regions.
Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean all increased their share of the world
population between 1970 and 2021. Asia‟s share of the world population rose from
58% to 61%, Africa from 10 to 13%, the Caribbean and Latin America from 8 to 9%.
During the same period (1970 and 2021), the share of Northern America declined
from 6% in 1950 to 5% in 1998, and Europe from 18% to 12% (Bureau of Census,
2000).

According to Population Reference Bureau (2021), by the mid of 2020, the

world has more than 7 billion people. The continent of Asia is the most populous
comprising 59.4% of the world population followed by Africa (17.5%). Although
Asia as a continent has a majority of the world‟s total population in 2020, estimated at
4.6 billion, the continent of Africa has contributed substantially to the rapid increase
in the world‟s population during this time. On the other hand, the total number of
inhabitants of Oceania was only 43 million making the continent the least populated
Because of the large and increasing population size, the number of people added
to the global population will remain high for several decades, even as growth rates
continue to decline as it was observed in recent times. Table 3.1 below shows the
growth of the world population from 1900 to 2021. There has been more population
growth since 1950 than in the previous years of human existence.
Table 3.1 world population growth

Our world has seen enormous changes in fertility rates and life expectancy over the past seven
decades. For instance, in the early 1970s women had on average 4.5 children each; by 2015, total
fertility for the world had fallen to below 2.5 children per woman. Meanwhile, average global
lifespans have risen, from 64.6 years in the early 1990s to 70.8 years in 2020. However, although
fertility levels have declined, they have not fallen at the same pace as mortality levels. Therefore,
the world‟s population showed continued growth .

3.1.3 Trends of Population Growth in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is the second most populous country in Africa. In 2020, its population was estimated to
be 114.9 million (UN, 2021), which ranks 12th in the world, and the current growth rate is about
2.6 percent. According to the 2007 Census, the population of Ethiopia was 73.8 million. The
country‟s population is among the fastest growing population in the world. It was estimated that,
in 1900, Ethiopia had only 11.8 million persons. This number increased to about 13 million in
1920 and 23.5 million in 1960, as it is shown in (Table 4.1). The table shows the population of
the country in 1960 was doubled in 1990. These values show that, during those decades, it took
60 years for the population to double its size. In contrast, since 1960, the time required for the
population to double has been on the decline. This is because of a rapid rate of population
growth. For instance, the population doubled in size between 1960 and 1990, indicating a
doubling time of only 30 years.

A historical profile of the growth rates of the Ethiopian population since 1900 shows that the
population increased by less than 1.0 percent until about 1920. After 1920, however, the rate of
growth slightly increased; and then, by 1950, it went up to 2.0 percent. The slow rate of
population growth before 1920 reflected the country‟s high mortality rate. With worldwide
efforts to control malaria and other diseases in the 1950s and later, the growth rate rose from year
to year and reached 2.8 percent in 1980. Between 1980 and 1990, the growth rate of Ethiopian
population was around3.0 percent. Between 2010 and 2020, the growth rate of Ethiopia was
around 2.6 percent.
Table3.2: Population Size and Growth of Ethiopia (1900-2020)

Although there has been a slight decline in the population growth rate between the three
censuses, Ethiopia has one of the fastest growing populations in the world. Over the two decades
between the three censuses, for instance, the population of Ethiopia increased from 42.6 million
in 1984 to 53.5 million in 1994 and to 73.8 in 2007. In 2020 the Ethiopian population was
estimated to be 114.9 million (UN, 2021).
3.1.4 Africa’s Major Demographic growth trends, distribution, structure and
Settlement Patterns
I. Fertility Patterns
Fertility refers to the occurrence of birth in the human population. It is a natural positive factor
that tends to increase the human population size. Demographers use different measures to
analyze human fertility. In this section, the fertility patterns of Africa are discussed using
measures of fertility like Total Fertility Rate and Crude Birth Rates.

Definitions

Total Fertility Rate (TFR): is the average number of children a woman would give birth to
during her lifetime if she were to pass through her childbearing years (15-49 years) experiencing
the present-day age-specific fertility rates.

Crude Birth Rate (CBR): is the number of live births occurring among the population
of a given geographical area in a given year, per 1,000 mid-year total population during the same
year. For example, when we say the crude birth rate of Africa was 33/1000 by the mid of 2020,
we mean that 33 births occurred for every 1000 people, on average, during the year under
consideration.

Mathematically, CBR 𝑥
Example
Assume that a hypothetical African country „X‟ had 2, 407,500 live births in 2020 and it also had
a total of 53,500,000 mid-year population in that year. Calculate the crude birth rate (CBR) for
the country. Solution

CBR=.
Therefore, Country „X‟ had 45 births per 1000 of the mid-year population in the year 2020

The total fertility rate (TFR) in Africa has steadily declined over the last two decades
since 2004. For example, in 2004 TFR was 5.1 and stood at 4.7 children per woman in 2016
table 3.4 when compared with other continents, Africa‟s fertility rates of 4.5 children per woman
in 2017 seem high. Indeed, it has been the highest in the world. However, that figure is low
compared with Africa‟s birth rate in previous decades. For instance, the total fertility rate stood
at an average of 6.6 children per woman in 1980. In spite of these declines, compared with other
regions of the world, as it has been indicated in the previous paragraph, African countries still
experience relatively high fertility - explained as a function of early sexual debut among women
due to early marriage and unmet need for family planning. The proportion of individuals below
15 years is also projected to decline gradually to 36% in 2030 from 46% in 1990; on
the other hand, those aged 15 to 59 years will increase from 456 million people in
2010 to reach 758 million in 2030.

Table3.3: Total Fertility Rate for Africa by Region

Although the overall TFR picture shows a steady decline within regions, the change in fertility
has not been uniform. For example, Northern Africa has shown little change in the total fertility
over the last two decades. In 2004, the total fertility for Northern Africa was 3.4 children per
woman, which is the same in 2016 again even though it slightly declined to a TFR of 2.9 by
2020. Fertility change in Central Africa has stagnated at around 6 children per woman. The
lowest fertility rate is in Southern Africa followed by Northern Africa while the highest is in
Central Africa followed by Western Africa while in eastern Africa the total fertility rate stands at
4.3 in 2020 in the above table.
In addition to TFR, the Crude Birth Rate can also be taken as a means of analyzing
the fertility pattern of human population. The crude birth rate refers to the occurrence of the
annual number of live births for every 1000 of the mid-year total population. Even by this
measure, Africa has the highest fertility in the world. For instance, according to the UN World
Population Data Sheet for the year 2020, the Crude Birth Rate (CBR) for Africa is estimated to
be 33 per 1000 population. This is the peak even for the standard of less developed countries,
which are 20 per 1000 population. Although fertility is high in Africa, it still varies from country
to country or region to region. The variation in crude birth rate is shown in Table 3.4 below.
Table3.4: Highest and Lowest Crude Birth Rates for Major Africa’s Regions, 2020

There existed huge variation in the level of fertility between and among major regions in
Africa‟s continent (Table 3.4). Both the highest and lowest levels of fertility were observed in
Eastern Africa; Somalia being a country with the highest level of crude birth rate (49/1000) as
opposed to Mauritius which stood at 11/1000 population for the year 2020. Fertility for other
African countries comprises rates ranging between the two extremes. Although the crude birth
rate in Africa has been gradually decreasing in recent decades, they are still relatively high
compared with other regions of the world and the world average. This is due to the following
factors;
 less access to contraceptives;
 high level of poverty;
 low status of women;
 need for large number of children for the labor force;
 considering children as the symbol of virility;
 low educational background; and
 Influence of traditions and cultures on family size.
 A. Future Fertility Trends

In projections to 2050, the African population is expected to peak at 2.5 billion from 1.0 billion
in 2010 (Figure 3.1), which would represent 25% of the world‟s population. These projections
rely upon assumptions about vital fertility and mortality rates. The fertility rate is assumed to
decline at a varying pace by country and follow a trajectory similar to the one observed in other
major global areas.

Figure: 3.1 Africa’s Total Population (in billions) Source: Based on UN Population Division
Data

Lower fertility rates will lower Africa‟s overall annual population growth rate to 2% by 2030,
compared to Asia at 1.0%, Latin America and the Caribbean at 1.2%, Eastern Europe-0.8%, and
the world as a whole at 1.5%. The dynamics will be similar in all African sub-regions, except the
North Africa region, where population growth will decline at about 0.8% a year by 2030 (Figure
3.2)
figure 3.2 Africa Population Growth Rates by Sub-Regions

II. Mortality Patterns in Africa

Mortality refers to the occurrence of death in the human population. It is a natural negative factor
that tends to decrease the human population size. The level of mortality in a population can be
measured by the crude death rate (number of deaths per thousand inhabitants), the infant
mortality rate (number of infant deaths per thousand live births) and life expectancy (a summary
measure of death risks/survival chances over different ages). Of these, the infant mortality rate is
the most widely used indicator of the general health situation in a country. In this section,
mortality patterns in Africa are discussed using measures of mortality like Crude Death Rate
(CDR), Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), Maternal Mortality Rate and Life Expectancy.

Definitions
Death Rate (DR): is the number of deaths per 1000 population in a year. For example, Africa‟s
death rate was 8/1000 by the mid of 2020. This is to say that 8 deaths were occurred for every
1000 people on average during the year under consideration.

Crude Death Rate (CDR) is the number of deaths occurring among the population of a given
geographical area during a given year, per 1,000 mid-year total population of the given
geographical area during the same year.
MathematicallyCDR 𝑥
Example
Assume that a hypothetical African Country „X‟ had 856,000 deaths in 2020 and it
also had a total of 53,500,000 mid-year population in that year. Calculate the crude
death rate (CDR) for Country „X‟.
Solution,

CDR=.
Therefore, Country „X‟ had 16 deaths per 1000 of the mid-year population in the year 2020.

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): is the death of an infant before his or her first birthday. It is
measured as an annual number of infant deaths for every 1,000 live births during the same year.

Mathematically,IMR 𝑥
Maternal Mortality: The annual number of female deaths from any cause related to or
aggravated by the pregnancy or its management (excluding accidental or incidental causes)
during pregnancy and childbirth or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of
the duration and site of the pregnancy. Demographers use Maternal Mortality Ratio to measure
maternal deaths. Maternal Mortality Ratio is defined as the number of maternal deaths during a
given time per 100,000 live births.

Mathematically,MMR 𝑥
Life Expectancy refers to the number of years a person can expect to live. Life expectancy is
based on an estimate of the average age that members of a population group will be when they
die. Life expectancy at birth is the average number of years a newborn infant can be
expected to live under current mortality levels.

What is the pattern of Mortality in Africa? Is it increasing or decreasing across time?

Deaths in Africa have reduced from an average of 14 persons per 1,000 population in 2007 to
stand at 10 persons per 1,000 population in 2016. Africa further experienced decrease in death
rate over the next five years. According to the World Population Data Sheet, the continent had a
crude death rate of 8 deaths per 1000 population by the mid of 2020. When a regional
comparison is made, the death rate ranges from 6/1000 in Northern Africa to 11/1000 in
Southern Africa.
Changes in the death rates for the general population are also reflected in the infant mortality
rates. In terms of infant mortality rate, which is the death of infants under one year per 1000 live
births, the continent still has the world‟s largest rate of 47 deaths per 1000 live births. Infant
mortality rates also vary from region to region. Accordingly, Central Africa has the highest rate
of 62/1000 followed by Western Africa 55/1000 and Sub Sharan Africa50/1000 live births by the
mid of the year 2020. The lowest Infant Mortality rate is in Northern Africa which was only
22/1000 during the same year. As it has been stated, despite these reductions, performance has
not been uniformed within and between regions.
The relatively high death rate, even though it is decreasing, in Africa is attributed to:
 low standard of living;
 low access to health facilities;
 poor sanitary practices;
 civil war and political instability;
 widespread famine caused by recurrent drought;
 Poor nutrition; and high incidence of disease and infections.

Table 3.5 CDR and IMR by Regions in Africa (2020)

 A. Future Mortality Trends
As it is stated in the previous section, Africa‟s death rate is declining since World War II. This
happened due to development in medical technology, and sanitary practices, and the discovery of
medicines and vaccines for tropical diseases. Moreover, mortality rates are generally poised to
improve over the coming decades as communicable diseases in Africa continue to be addressed,
although malaria remains endemic in most African countries and continues to represent a major
cause of morbidity and mortality. Much progress is nonetheless expected in child and infant
mortality rates: child mortality (i.e. death of children before reaching five years of age) is
projected to decline from 116 per 1000 live births in 2010 to 75 per 1000 live births in 2030
(Figure 3.4) due to better incomes, access to improved water supply and sanitation,
and better health facilities.

The North Africa and East Africa sub-regions are projected to benefit more from reduced child
mortality than other regions. The relative reduction of the impact of HIV/AIDS would influence
this decline. In general, trends in deaths from main causes appear to be decreasing as a result of
increasing attention to communicable and chronic diseases, which is having a positive impact on
longevity.

figure 3.2 Projected Child Mortality Rate in Africa

II. Life Expectancy
The current birth and death rates of Africa reflect a very young (and economically
dependent) population with low life expectancy. Almost all sub-Saharan countries have a
population of under 15 years of age- rated in percent of more than 40 percent. This has resulted
in a high dependency ratio in the continent. The average life expectancy at birth for the whole
continent is 64 years by the mid of 2020 (see Table 3.6). However, there exists variation in the
level of life expectancy between and among major regions in Africa. North African countries
have been successful in raising the life expectancy to an average of 74 years while Western
African countries failed to do so where the average life expectancy stood only at an average of
59 years; a figure that is far below continental average. There also exists a marked disparity
in life expectancy between rich and poor countries. However, the gap between the
poor and the rich countries in life expectancy has shown a significant reduction over
the last 50 years despite the widening wealth gap between the two economic regions.
With reduced mortality, Africa should expect and plan for an ageing population. By
2030, the average life expectancy in Africa is projected to surpass 64 years.

Table 3.6: Life Expectancy by Regions in Africa (2020)

Population structure
A. Age Structure
How do you describe the age composition of Africa’s population?

The age structure of a population can be expressed by the distribution of population

into young, working and old age groups. Thus, one can deduce that Africa is a continent
that is characterized by the dominance of the young age population. The age structure of
the population can also be expressed from the median age perspective. If the median age
is low, it implies that the population is young. For example, Africa‟s median age has been
19.7 years by the mid of 2020. In contrast, if the median age is high, the population is
likely to be adult and old age groups. For example, the median age for Europe has been
42.5 years by the mid of 2020. Low median age reflects high fertility and high population
growth rates whereas high median age prevails in a population where the population
growth rate is low and slow.

Table 3.7: Africa’s Population by Age and Major Regions, 2020

Africa is the continent that has high young population, but it has very low old age population. In
developing continents like Africa, the level of fertility is very high; and the rate of population
growth is high, too. This is readily attributed to their predominantly young age structure. As high
fertility persists, the pressure on scarce resources for development increases. The demand for
food, education, health facilities, employment opportunities, housing and other services also
increases. In order to maximize these needs to meet the demand of the growing population,
physical and institutional infrastructures have to be increased abundantly. The persisting high
rate of population growth constantly dwarfs whatever is achieved in the economic sector.
Resources, which could be used for development purposes, could be shifted to the provision of
basic supplies for the additional members.

B. Sex Structure

The sex structure of the population can be expressed using a sex ratio. It refers to the
proportion of males to females in the overall population of a given area. The sex ratio
is expressed in terms of the number of males for every 100 females

Sex ratio = 𝑥

The proportion of the two sexes in the population of a region has an impact on
other demographic elements such as marriage rate, fertility, occupational structure,
growth, etc.

Activity

Assume that a hypothetical country „X‟ had a population of 3.6 million male and 4
million females. What is the sex ratio of the population of the country?

C, Population Pyramid
A very effective and quite widely used method of graphically depicting the age-sex
composition of a population is called a population‟s pyramid. A population pyramid is designed
to give a detailed picture of the age-sex structure of a population, indicating either single age or
5-year groups, or other age combinations. The basic pyramid form consists of bars, presenting
age groups in ascending order from the lowest to the highest pyramid horizontally one on
another. The bars for males are given on the left of a central vertical axis and the bars for females
are on the right of the axis. The number of males or females in the particular age group is
indicated by the length of the bars from the central axis. The age scale is usually shown stranding
the central axis although it may be shown at the right or left of the pyramid only, or both on
the right and left, perhaps in terms of both age and year of birth. In general, the age
groups in a given pyramid must have the same class interval and must be represented by bars of
equal thickness. Most commonly pyramids show 5-years age groups.

Types of Population Pyramids

While all countries‟ population pyramids differ, three types have been identified by the fertility
and mortality rate of a country.
II, Expansive pyramid
A population pyramid showing a broad base, indicating a high proportion of
children, a rapid rate of population growth, and a low proportion of older people. This wide base
indicates a large number of children. A steady upward narrowing pyramid shows that more
people die at each higher age bond. This type of pyramid indicates a population in which there is
a high birth rate, a high death rate and short life expectancy. It is the typical pattern for less
economically developed countries, due to little access and incentive to use birth control, negative
environmental factors and poor access to health care.
II, Constructive Pyramid
With a population pyramid showing lower numbers or percentages of young people
(ages 1 -14), the country will have a large elderly or aging population. Such a
population pyramid usually displays a population percentage of ages 1-14 fewer than
30% and ages 75 and above over 6%. This is considered as an “aging population” that generally
occurs in developed counties with adequate health services.
III. Stationary Pyramid
A population pyramid showing an unchanging pattern of fertility and mortality (fertility and
mortality are balanced), i.e., B = D, where, B = Birth, D = Death and Population growth rate is
zero. As a result of the nature of population distribution into different age categories (i.e., young,
working and old), most developing countries are characterized by expansive type of population
pyramid which is almost triangular by shape. This kind of population pyramid has a broad base
and tapering apex. The broader base is due to a high level of fertility among the population that
results in high population growth rate. On the other hand, the tapering apex is typically indicative
of low life expectancy. The population pyramid of most developing countries resembles the one
indicated in Figure 3.3.
Contrary to developing countries, since the level of fertility is less and life expectancy is high in
most developed countries, they are best expressed by the type of population pyramid that is
narrower at the base and that becomes wider at the top.

Figure3.3 Model Population Pyramids

Generally, the following are among the major characteristics of the African Population

 High fertility and mortality rates;

 Generally young population;
 Triangular population pyramid indicating the prevalence of high fertility
and mortality rates;
 High age dependency ratio and youth dependency ratio and low old
dependency ratio;
 Low life expectancy; and
 High population growth rate.

Distribution and Density of Africa`s Population

Population distribution refers to the way people inhabit and occupy the earth‟s surface. As
elsewhere in the rest of the world, Africa‟s population distribution is uneven. As a result, there
are areas of high and low population density. Some parts of the continent, particularly the vast
Sahara, have few permanent residents. While others rank among the world‟s most densely
populated areas. The Nile Valley of Egypt, Mauritius, Rwanda, and Burundi are among the most
densely populated areas in the continent. According to World Population Prospects Data, the
continent‟s average crude population density during the mid of 2019 was about 44 people/km2.
Certain human and physical factors are responsible for such spatial variation in the distribution
of population in the continent. Among the physical factors, some are climate, relief, availability
of water, fertility of the soil, distribution of minerals and the like. On the other hand, the human
factors that determine the extent to which humans inhabit a certain place include economic
conditions, political situations and other social factors. However, there exists a significant
regional variation in population density. As it can be seen from the following Table 3.9, both
Eastern and Western Africa have the continent‟s highest crude density of 65 Persons/Km2
followed by Sub Saharan Africa with 49 Persons/Km2. Contrary to this, Southern Africa has the
continent‟s lowest crude density of 25 Persons/Km2followed by Central Africa (27Persons/Km2)
and Northern Africa (31Persons/Km2).

On a country level, the most populous countries are Nigeria, Ethiopia, Egypt, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo (DRC), and the Republic of South Africa (RSA). However, being
populous does not necessarily mean being densely populated. The most densely populated
countries in Africa include; Mauritius, Rwanda, Burundi, Comoros, and Seychelles.

Table 3.9: Population Density by Major Regions of Africa, 2019

Urban and Rural Settlement Patterns in Africa
Africa offers stark contrasts in terms of urbanization compared to other regions of
the world. For example, Burundi, Rwanda, Malawi, Ethiopia and Burkina Faso are still
predominantly rural, while Gabon and Western Sahara, more than 80% of their population lives
in urban areas. African urban growth, which reflects sizeable migration flows from rural areas,
presents major challenges for development, as migrants into cities require access to land,
infrastructure and basic services. This has also stretched health care services.
The top 20 countries in urbanization have at least 50% of the population in urban
areas while the bottom 10 countries have less than a quarter of their population living
in urban areas. Generally, countries in Northern and Western Africa regions are more urbanized
compared to countries in the Eastern Africa region. The top countries include Gabon almost 90%
of its population in urban areas. Other countries with a high rate of urbanization are Western
Sahara, Libya, Djibouti, Algeria, Tunisia, Sao Tome and Principe, Cape Verde, Congo, South
Africa, Angola, Morocco, Gambia, Mauritania, Botswana, Seychelles, Cameroon, Cote D‟Ivoire,
Ghana and Liberia. The bottom 10 countries in urbanization are Kenya, Eritrea, Chad, Niger,
Swaziland, Ethiopia, Uganda, South Sudan, and Malawi while Burundi is the least urbanized at
only 12%.
Eastern Africa seems to be the least urbanized region while the most urbanized region is
Southern Africa. The population in urban areas is currently estimated to be 41% of total and is
projected to increase further, which will create an urban population larger than the rural
population in about two decades (See Figure 3.4).
Table 3.10: Proportion of Population in Urban Areas by Region (2016)
Figure3.4 Projected Africa’s Urban – Rural Population Distribution (2030-35)

3.1.5 Factors Responsible for Accelerated Population Growth and their

Measures (Fertility, Mortality, and Migration)
Several variables may contribute to faster population increase on a global scale and in
developing countries. Among the most important are the advancements in agriculture, which
ensured human security and continued life. The growth of organized agricultural communities
allowed for more worker specialization, which led to the development of the market economy
and urban societies. This was the second major element that significantly boosted the
population of those societies. The third major factor of high population rise was accompanied
by new social and economic developments. Increased economic output was made possible
by revolutions in agriculture and industry, which were accompanied by a quick and steadily
increasing population. As a result of agricultural technology, which enabled society to produce
more food from limited inputs, population growth rates changed dramatically during the
industrial revolution. Over successive generations, as food sources increased, the average
level of nourishment increased, and the vulnerability to chronic and communicable diseases
decreased.
The overall reduction in the death rate has been the most important factor in the real expansion
of the population, thanks to advances in medical knowledge and improvements in public
health.
UNIT TWO
As a result of lower death rates, population growth accelerates at first (i.e., mortality transition).
If people from diverse countries travel to a specific section of the world (for example, North
America) and establish them there, the receiving country may suffer from overpopulation.
Higher levels of illiteracy make it more difficult to comprehend the negative consequences of
rapid population increase and to employ efforts to slow it down (e.g. use of contraceptives).
Most rural societies oppose using family planning measures, owing to a lack of information.

4.2.1. Measures of Fertility

Fertility is the actual occurrence of live births and reflects a population‟s actual reproductive
performance. The nature of fertility is determined by some factors. Marriage has undoubtedly
been a fertility-promoting institution. The lower the fertility rate, the longer a woman waits to
engage in a sexual partnership. Conversely, fertility rates are higher when women marry at a
young age due to the increased risk of pregnancy and longer periods during which pregnancy
could occur. Contraception is the other major factor that influences fertility in most developed
countries.
The “reproductive revolution,” which was ushered in by the availability and development of
modern and effective family-planning technologies like the birth control pill, made it easier
to avoid pregnancy. Finally, infertility is linked to either voluntary or involuntary fecundity.
Breast-feeding, for example, reduces (but does not eliminate) the risk of pregnancy for up to
twenty-one months after delivery. These determinants explain nearly all variations of infertility
when taken together, with the relevance of each determinant varying based on the cultural,
economic, health, and social factors present in a community.
In Sub-Saharan Africa, fertility will decline from 4.6 live births per woman in 2019 to 3.1 in
2050, and then to 2.1 in 2100.
Fertility is measured most commonly in terms of crude birth rate (CBR), the general fertility rate (GFR),
and total fertility rate (TFR). Each of these factors is briefly described below.
I Crude birth rate (CBR) is the most basic measurement of fertility. is calculated as follows:
CBR= B/pX 1,000, where B is the number of annual births, and p is the mid-year total
population.
The crude birth rate is simple to compute and can be used to determine fertility quickly.
However, because it does not take into consideration a population‟s age and sex structure, it
cannot be used to compare populations or regions. This measurement‟s denominator includes
everyone, regardless of their fertility contribution (birth).
II. The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) estimates the total number of children a woman will have
throughout her reproductive career, assuming (1) that she will live at least through childbearing
age and (2) that children will be born at the current age-specific fertility rates. This measure is
often used to describe fertility patterns and to compare fertility rates across different regions,
and it is a better measure of fertility than the crude birth rate since it takes into account the
population‟s age and sex structure. The following is how TFR is defined:

TFR= the sum of (Bx/Px)x 1,000] x 5 , where Bx is the number of live births to mothers of age x and Px
is the number of resident women age x.
The values or age group represented by Bx 15-19, 20-24, 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-44 and 45 +. The age
group represented by Px ranges from 15-19, 20-24, 25-29, 30-34, 35-39, 40-44 to 45-49 years. The sum
of these age specific birth rates is multiplied by 5 because each age specific group represents a five-year
cohort of women.
Case Example3.4 Total fertility rate of a given area

TFR = 0.4x 5 = 2 live births per woman of given area residents in 2020 who live through
their reproductive years.
IV. General Fertility Rate (GFR): is a method that helps rectify the weakness of CBR by
considering live births, not total births. It measures the number of live births in a year per
thousand women of reproductive age. It is calculated as follows:

GFR=B/P1 x 1,000 , where B is the total number of live births during a year, P1 is the mid-year
population of women between 15 and 49 years age
The demerit of GFR is that it does not account for the difference in age groups. It is well
known that the different age groups are not equally fertile. That is, the child-bearing rate is
appreciably higher in the age group of 20-29 than in the 15-19 and 40-49 age groups.
Measures of Mortality

Mortality (the occurrence of death) can be measured in several ways, including the use of
crude death rate and infant mortality rate. Key factors that determine the rate of mortality rate include
standards of living, nutrition, medical services, personal hygiene, and environmental
sanitation. is a simple measure calculated by the ratio of the total registered deaths of a specified year in a
region to the total mid-year population, multiplied by 1000. The crude death rate

(CDR) is computed as follows: =D/P x 1,000, where CDR is Crude Death Rate, D stands for total
observed deaths, and P is total mid-year population.

II. Infant mortality rate (IMR): is the number of death of infants under the age of one year
for every 1000 live births, in a given year
Mathematically,IMR 𝑥
Example A total of 600,000 babies were born in a certain region in 2020. Of these newborns,
460,000 babies survived their first year of life. Calculate the IMR of this region. Deaths under
age one: 600,000 - 460,000=140,000 babies IMR=140,000/600,000 x1,000=233.3/1000

3.1.6 Population Composition and Distribution of Ethiopia

Population Composition
The population of a country can be divided in accordance to age, sex, occupation,
language, religion and other attribute. Population composition refers to those aspects of
population that can be measured in terms of age, sex, marital status, family size, economic
activities, nationality, language and religion.

A, Age Structure
Age structure is the classification of a given population into different age groups of
various features. This structure becomes clear after we group all of the people in that population
by age. In other words, age structure is the pattern that results from the distribution of members
of a population into different age categories. The distribution of population by age is among the
most fundamental demographic characteristics of human population and that of demographic
statistics. It plays an important role in the development of any society. The economic and
cultural life of society critically depends upon the age structure of the population. Moreover, the
planning process of any country makes use of this data extensively for the development of the
economy, culture and for its regions.
Two important statistical tools for understanding age structure are:
 age groups, and
 population pyramids
Age Groups: Although we can use different sets of numbers to define age groups,
the most widely used age groups are the five-year age groups 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, ..., 60- 64, 65+ and broad
age groups 0-14, 15-64, 65+. In the broad age groups, age groups 0-14, 15-64 and 65+ are known,
respectively, as young age (the young dependent population), working age (the economically active
population) and old age (the elderly dependent population).
Population Pyramid
What is population pyramid?
A Population pyramid is a very useful aid in examining the age and sex structure
of a population. It is a graphic representation of the distribution of the population by age and sex.
In the age pyramid, the vertical axis is divided in years (usually five year age group interval)
from zero upwards and the horizontal axis shows the percentages of males and females within
these groups. Percentages are calculated to both sexes separately or of the total population. In
countries where birth rates are high and death rates are also high, the population pyramid has the
form of a triangle. This pattern is typical of the population of developing countries like Ethiopia,
in which many children are born, but few reach old age. In contrast, in the developed countries,
with their lower birth rates and fewer people dying young, the population pyramid is more
rectangular, narrowing only nears its top. In these countries, both birth and death rates decline
with a result showing the number of people in each group at an equivalent state.
In general, population pyramids of developing countries like Ethiopia have very
broad bases, showing the dominance of the young-age population. These pyramids become increasingly
narrower towards the top, advancing through the age groups, showing that the percentage of the
population becomes less and less in the upper age groups (65-69, 70-74, etc.). The high percentage for the
young age group is the result of high birth rate and natural increase, while the small percentage of
the old age group is the reflection of high mortality rate, which results in low life expectancy.
Focus Age structure is one of the most important demographic characteristics of a population.
• Age information is often used to understand the sizes of school-age, labour-force, elderly, and
other populations.
• A population pyramid is usually employed to show the age distribution of a given population
by age and sex.
• The population pyramid of Ethiopia has a broad base that narrows towards the top as age
increases. This shape is typical of a population with a high fertility rate
Age Dependency Ratio (ADR)
Age Dependency Ratio is the relationship between the working or economically active
population and the non-working population. It is generally accepted that people in the young and
old ages are dependent on the working-age population.
The Age Dependency Ratio (ADR) is used to show the magnitude of this dependency in a given
population. This means that the dependency burden, represented by the non-working population
in the young and old age groups, on the working-age population can be shown by the age
dependency ratio. The formula for calculating the age dependency ratio (ADR) is:

ADR= ( )

Activity Suppose country „‟Z‟‟ has a total population of 65 million of which 40% of the total
population 26 million) children age (0-14) and productive age group (15-64) 50%
of the total population (32.5 million) and old age group (65 and above) 10% (6.5
million).
Ethiopia’s age dependency ratio in 2020 was 76.8/100, this shows that there are
76.8 dependents on 100 working population. A high dependency ratio in Ethiopia indicates that
the economically active population and the overall economy face a greater burden to support and
provide the social services needed by children and by elderly persons who are often
economically dependent.
B. Sex Structure
Sex structure is one of the basic demographic characteristics of a population. Sex structure is
very important for demographic analysis because it provides useful information about
reproductive potential, human resources, and so on.Sex structure refers to the ratio of the male
population to the female population at different age groups. It is usually expressed as number of
males per 100 females in a population. A ratio greater than 100 shows a greater number – called
an excess – of males than females. Sex ratios can affect marriage prospects, labour force
participation, and other social and economic variables.
According to the 1984 census result, the sex ratio for the population of Ethiopia was 99.4. This
means that there were about 99 males for every 100 females. The 1994 census result showed that
it was 101.3 and in 2007 sex ratio was 101.9. In 2020, male to female ratio in Ethiopia was
estimated to be 100.12 males per 100 females.

Population distribution
Population distribution refers to the way how population spreads out over a given area, i.e., of
any size from a small area to the earth as a whole. The distribution of population is indicated by
population density. Population density is the average number of people per square kilometre in a
given area. In Ethiopia, the population is unevenly distributed for various physical and human
related reasons. In the nation, people live mostly in areas with agreeable life conditions such as
moderate climate, adequate supply of water, good vegetation cover, fertile soil, and absence of
disease causing insects. For such preferences, most people are found concentrated in the
highlands and plateaus of the country. These places have the country‟s most favourable natural
conditions for settlement and crop cultivation. Therefore, those areas have attracted denser
population than the lowlands. The highlands, where there are no vector borne diseases, have
generally been the areas of high population concentration. On the other hand, the lowlands are of
low population concentration. Thus, 77.5 percent of the population of Ethiopia lives in the
highlands at altitudes above 1800 meters, and only 22.5 percent lives at altitudes below 1800
meters.
Measures of Population Distribution:
Population distribution is a measurable concept. It is measured by using population density.
Population density refers to the number of people per unit area. There are various density
measures. Among them, the crude density is the most widely used method to measure population
distribution. It is found by dividing the total population to the total area. It is man land ratio. In
1990 crude density for Ethiopia was 40.74 people/km2 and this has increased to 52 people /km2
in 1998; and in 2020; 103.9 people/ /km2.

CD= where CD is crude density, TP is total population and TA is total area

The distribution of Ethiopia’s population generally is related to altitude, climate,

and soil type. The population distribution in Ethiopia is uneven. The highest population
concentration is found in the highlands, which are endowed with moderate temperature, rich soil
and adequate rainfall. The lowlands are very sparsely populated mainly this happens because of
high temperatures and low rainfall.
Table 3.11: Population Density of Ethiopia by Administrative Regions

There is a considerable variation in population density among the administrative regions of the
country. Excluding the urban based administrative regions (Harari, Dire Dawa and Addis Ababa)
Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP) region is the administrative area with the
largest population density (173 people/ km2) followed by Amhara region (131.9 people/km2),
Gambella (13 people/km2), Somali, Afar; and Benishangul-Gumuz are regions with low
densities of population. Crude population density conceals /much of the variations within
regions.
Note Recently two administrative regions were established from Southern Nation Nationalities
and Peoples region namely; Sidama Regional State and Southwest Ethiopia People Regional
State
When population densities are considered in terms of zones, the variation of population density
in Ethiopia is generally greater than the differences among the regions. Some of the zones with
very high densities are Gedeo, Kambata, Guraghe, Wolayta and Hadiya; where densities exceed
300 persons per km2. On the other hand, peripheral zones such as Kamashi, and Metekel have
population densities of less than 20 persons/km2. Likewise, if population densities of lower
administrative units are considered, the variations could still be greater.For instance, Wanago,
Damot Gale, Aleta Wendo, Yirga Chefe, Dara, Kacha Bira, Angacha, Sodo Zuria, Shebedino and
Kedida Gamela have crude densities of exceeding 500 people/km2 ; while woredas with
extremely low densities (less than 10 people/km2) include Guba Woreda (Benishangul Gumuz
Region), Dolo Woreda (Somali Region), Gog Woreda (Gambela Region). Therefore, it could be
generalized that “the lower the administrative unit the greater the variations in population
density”
Factors Affecting Population Distribution in Ethiopia
This extreme unevenness is the result of a number of factors operating in combination. These
factors can be grouped into two: physical and human.
A. Physical Factors
The most significant physical factors affecting the distribution of population in Ethiopia are the
following.
 Climate (mainly rainfall and temperature)
 Soil fertility
 Natural water supply
 Relief (slope and altitude)
 Vegetation cover
In Ethiopia, most of the physical factors are influenced by altitude. Therefore, altitude
is the most crucial physical factor influencing patterns of population distribution and
settlement in the country. Studies in climatology make it clear that rainfall increases while
temperature decreases with an increase in altitude. Incidentally, this means that rainfall is very
low and temperature is high in lowland areas, while rainfall is high and temperature is
moderately low in the highlands. Since soil formation and vegetation growth are closely
associated with adequate rainfall and moderate temperature, highlands tend to have better soils
and vegetation cover. Lowlands in Ethiopia are characterized by scarcity of rainfall, high
temperature, and poor vegetation and soil conditions. In addition to these negative factors, the
prevalence of tropical diseases such as malaria and yellow fever contributes to the sparse
population distribution in such areas. For reasons of tropical diseases, most of the valleys of the
major rivers of Ethiopia are also characterized by sparse population concentration. The main
exception to this is the Awash River Valley, where irrigation agriculture is practiced. This
overall pattern differs from what can be seen in other parts of the world, where valleys of major
rivers are zones of large concentrations of people. However, with improvements in agricultural
and medical technology, Ethiopia‟s lower major river valleys might, in the future, attract more
people from the densely populated highland areas.
Table.3.12: The Relationship Between Altitude and Population in Ethiopia

From the above Table above we can understand that 77.5 percent of the population of Ethiopia
lives in areas with altitudes above 1800 meters, and these areas constitute only 37.6 percent of
the total area of the country. The area above 1,400, which makes up 65.7 percent of the total area
of Ethiopia, supports 89.0 percent of the population of the country. However, caution could be
made, as there are many severely dissected areas within the highlands with a few or no people.
Lowlands are characterized by scarcity of rainfall, high temperature, and poor vegetation and soil
conditions. In addition, the lowlands tend to be infested with tropical diseases like malaria and
yellow fever that contribute to the sparse population distribution.
B. Human Factors
The major human factors which have influenced population distribution in Ethiopia are the
following.
 Types of economic activity
 Historical patterns of population movement
Types of Economic Activities
The types of economic activity performed in an area strongly influence the carrying capacity of
that land. Consequently, the carrying capacity influences the number of people that can inhabit a
given area. Being a country of diverse environmental and cultural conditions, Ethiopia offers
ample evidence of these relationships. The arid and semi-arid lowland areas of Ethiopia are areas
that are more suitable for pastoralist activities than for crop farming. By its nature, pastoralism is
an economic activity that requires large areas of grazing lands. In most pastoralist areas of
Ethiopia, the land requirement for grazing is as large as 20 hectares or more per head of cattle.
The arid and semi-arid lowlands of Ethiopia that are inhabited by pastoralists and semi-
pastoralists are sparsely settled. Hence, with pastoral herding, population densities are extremely
low.
As it has been said earlier, compared to pastoralist areas, crop-farming areas have greater
carrying capacity and higher densities of population. This is typically the case in the highland
areas of Ethiopia where natural conditions are suitable for crop cultivation. In the crop-farming
highland areas, the man-land ratio is significantly higher than the one in the pastoralist lowlands.
However, the crop-farming areas of Ethiopia do not have uniform carrying capacities
or population densities. Population density is significantly influenced by the types of crops
cultivated. For instance, in the northern and north central highland areas of Ethiopia, the most
cultivated crops are cereals. Cereals have relatively low yields per unit area. Therefore, these
areas tend to have relatively lower carrying capacities and population density. In contrast, the
southern, enset and coffee-growing regions of the country have greater yields per unit area. This
is an important reason for the very high population densities in some zones and weredas of the
southern region that you read about earlier.
The development of commercial farms in some parts of Ethiopia, such as Awash valley, is
another significant factor in population movements and their effects on population distribution.
Some decades ago, there were very few people in the Awash valley. However, because of the
development of many small and a few large commercial farms, several thousands of settled and
migratory people are found there. In Ethiopia, urban and industrial growth/expansion are other
human factors that bring about population redistribution over time, and they are responsible for
considerable spatial variation of population density at present
Historical Patterns of Population Movement
The historical pattern of population movement in Ethiopia is also another human factor affecting
population distribution in Ethiopia.
3.1.7 Settlement Patterns of Ethiopia (Urban and Rural)
The term settlement refers to the characteristic groupings of population into occupancy units,
together with the facilities in the form of houses and streets, which serve the inhabitants. It is
also defined as a place in which people live, carrying out a variety of activities, to make their
livings such as trade, agriculture and manufacturing. The origin of settlements can be traced back
to the caves where people gathered for protection against the natural forces or defence against
rival tribes. There are varieties of settlements, and they are changing rapidly over time. These
include hamlets, villages, towns, cities, metropolises, megalopolises, etc. In all cases, however,
„settlement‟ designates an organized colony of human beings, together with their residences,
buildings (stores, factories, warehouses, etc.) paths and streets.
Different settlement types develop mainly in response to some physical and human factors.
Studies of settlements are concerned with the facilities humans construct in the process of living
in an area and using its resources. Naturally, settlements are situated as strategically as possible
with respect to natural features, such as water, fuel, food, and protection, as well to access to
transportation and communications
Ethiopian settlements are broadly categorized as rural and urban. The primary bases for this
dichotomy are the dominant economic activities and the degree of population density. Urban
settlements are usually branded by non-agricultural economic activities, while rural settlements
are typically agricultural. Leaving social, cultural and physiological differences aside, rural and
urban settlements in Ethiopia can very well be distinguished by population densities, which are
generally very high in urban settlements compared to the relatively lower densities of population
in rural settlement areas.
Rural Settlements
Rural settlement is the name given to all villages and dispersed (scattered) settlements in areas
far from urban centres. Such settlements are widely dispersed and are dominated by isolated
homesteads. The inhabitants of rural settlements are mainly engaged in agriculture.Settlements in
the rural areas of Ethiopia can be broadly grouped into two: permanent and temporary
settlements.
A. Permanent Settlements
Settlements are considered permanent if their locations do not frequently change,
i.e. if they remain in place for more than ten years. In this sense, most rural settlements over the
highland areas of Ethiopia are permanent. The permanent rural settlements of Ethiopia are
mostly associated with the crop-farming highland areas of the country.
The permanent rural settlements of Ethiopia can also be broadly divided into
two: the scattered (diffused or dispersed) settlements and the grouped (nucleated) settlements. In
areas of scattered settlements, homesteads are separated by relatively long distances. On the
other hand, the grouped settlements are characterized by a large number of homesteads
concentrated in one place
In Ethiopia, the Derg Regime‟s compulsory villagization program resulted in the formation of
grouped settlements (villages) in many parts of the country. In most parts of the northern regions
of the country, such settlements have remained in place for years with the idea that they would
enhance communal ownership of land and the provision of social services. However, because the
program was conducted by forcing people into villages against their will, and the services were
non-existent, people began to return to their original sites, in a manner of reversal move. This
movement began even before the regime was overthrown. The government of Ethiopia has
recently conducted villagization programs that are based on peoples‟ will to leave their original
settlement sites. Besides, the resettlement program of the FDRE government has also been
implemented within similar administrative regions.
B, Temporary Settlements
Temporary settlements are mobile settlements inhabited by nomadic people of lowland Ethiopia.
The rift valley region and lowlands of the west, east and, south are characterized by hot and dry
conditions. This harsh climatic condition forces people living in these areas to seasonally move
from one area to another with their herds.
Urban Settlements
Urban settlements, on the other hand, are always larger and compact or nodal. In the rural settlements the
concern is chiefly with primary production, and most commonly agriculture. In urban settlements, on the
contrary, the primary goods produced by the farmers, miners, or lumbermen are processed in
manufacturing plants, transported, bought, sold, and financed. Urban settlements include residence in
cities and towns. In addition, urban centers have always been centers of civilization and they are the
intellectual and social capitals, perform functions of a political, educational, and social character. More
vitally, urban centers, in economic spheres, are major transport centers, the main assembly and break of
bulk points, the great markets, and the major financial nodes. The process of the development of urban
settlements is known as urbanization. In most parts of Africa, urbanization is a recent phenomenon, and it
is attributed to colonialism. Urbanization in Ethiopia is not influenced by European colonialism. It is an
unplanned, natural phenomenon of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Not all grouped settlements are classified as urban centers. Different countries use different
criteria for assigning the status of urban center of a settlement. The major criteria used in
Ethiopia are:
  the settlement has a minimum of 2000 people;
 two-thirds of the population in the settlement are engaged in nonagricultural activities;
 the settlement has a chartered municipality; and
 the presence of social services and amenities.
The number of settlements meeting these criteria in 1984 was about 322. These settlements had
10.23 percent of the total population of the country and this is one of the least urban population
sizes in the world. The number of settlements with greater than 2,000 people in 1994 had
increased to 539. These have 12.8 percent of the country‟s population. In 2007, the number
further rose to 927.
In 2020, the urban population is about 20 percent of the country‟s population. The distribution of
urban centers in Ethiopia shows considerable spatial variation. This could be explained in terms
of the varying concentration of industries, and services such as schools, health institutions, water
supplies, electricity, and means of transport, etc.
3.1.8 Impacts of Population Growth on Sustainable Development in Ethiopia
As we have already discussed, the size of Ethiopia‟s population has been growing very rapidly.
The population growth rate is much higher, and it is increasing much faster than the economic
growth rate and is growing beyond the carrying capacity of the country‟s natural resources, such
as land, water, soil, forest, etc. These negative results of rapid population growth have caused
many environmental and socioeconomic problems that are stated hereunder.
I. Population Growth and Environmental Degradation
Environmental degradation is a process through which the natural environment is compromised
in some way, reducing biological diversity and the general health of the environment.
In Ethiopia, massive environmental degradation has occurred during the last few decades due to
natural factors, unwise use of its natural resources, unsound ecological practices and population
pressure. The major factor accelerating the environmental degradation rate is man‟s abusive
actions such as the removal of the natural vegetation cover through deforestation, over-grazing
and inappropriate agricultural practices. The population which is growing at a very rapid rate of
about 2.6 percent annually has been clearing forests and vegetation at an alarming rate in order to
meet its increasing requirements of food, fiber and energy. The land degradation problem is
affecting considerable parts of Ethiopia, especially the highlands, mainly due to water erosion.
Soil erosion is the main feature of land resource depletion leading to desertification which leads
to reduced agricultural production and shortage of food. Overall, the effects of population
pressure and resulting environmental degradation have driven the country into widespread food
insecurity, drought and famine for the last three decades. The main activities that are responsible
for environmental degradation in Ethiopia include the removal of vegetation cover and over
cultivation as a result of the rapidly increasing population requirements for crop production and
fuel wood. In addition, overgrazing and high livestock density resulted in the deterioration of
rangeland resources.
II. Population Growth and Food Production
The situation of food in Ethiopia during the last successive three decades is largely dominated by
a decline in domestic food production. Ethiopian agriculture is dominated by small holder
peasant farming which contributes about 95% of the annual food production of the country. This
sector is dependent mainly on traditional and subsistent farming methods (with a very limited use
of modern technologies) and rainfall. Moreover, the rising population pressure and clearing of
forests to satisfy its basic demands such as food and energy made the soil susceptible to wind
and water erosion that can affect both soil fertility and food production in Ethiopia. The
sustained deterioration in the per capita food production and hunger has resulted in widespread
malnutrition, particularly among children in many parts of Ethiopia, which will lead to physical
and mental impairment over the next successive decades.
III. Population Growth and Fuel wood Consumption
Though fuel wood is the most important source of energy in Ethiopia, its supply is steadily
collapsing in most parts of the country, because it is being collected faster than it can regrow.
Increased forest clearance to create farmland, wood for\ construction purposes and forage has led
to a shortage of fuel wood, deforestation, and environmental degradation. The forest cover
resource of Ethiopia has been declining significantly over time. This is caused mainly by rapid
population growth and the increasing population‟s needs for forest resources such as wood and
land.
Many people in the country use wood for cooking, heating, and lightning, as well as for houses
and furniture. Similarly, the increasing demand for agricultural and settlement lands is a major
cause of forest destruction in the country. In Ethiopia, there is a direct correlation between
population density and deforestation – the more people there are in an area, the more trees they
cut down. New trees do not spring up to replace the old ones. Such deforestation has various
negative consequences, both directly on the natural environment, and indirectly on the socio-
economic conditions of the people. Its direct consequences include the following.
 It accelerates soil erosion.
 It destroys biodiversity.
 It affects rainfall by decreasing evapotranspiration.
 It affects the natural beauty of the affected areas
In Ethiopia, rapid population growth leads to deforestation mainly because of people‟s increasing
needs for more:
 fuel wood
 agricultural land
 settlement land
 grazing land
IV. Population Growth and Pollution
Pollution refers to any undesirable change in natural conditions of water, air, and other
components of the natural environment that has negative effects on the health and activities of
human beings and other living creatures. Water and air pollution are mainly caused by human
activities in households, industries, farmlands, means of transportation, and so on. However, it
can also be caused by natural events such as volcanic eruptions, wildfires, and the like. When an
area is overcrowded (i.e. inhabited by a rapidly growing number of people) the natural
environment is polluted by a variety of unwanted and harmful wastes that peoples‟ activities
produce. In Ethiopia, pollution is a major problem in overpopulated urban centers. In large cities
like Addis Ababa, most people live in unsafe environments that have extremely polluted air and
water. They are surrounded by the garbage and pollutants that households, industries,
automobiles, and other sources discharge.
In Ethiopia, rapid population growth leads to environmental pollution by increasing emission of
the amounts of pollutants such as:
 Sewage, solid wastes, and pollutant gases generated by households.
 Pollutant gases, liquids, and solid chemicals generated by expanded industries.
 Pollutant gases generated by the increasing number of automobiles.
 Agricultural pollutants, such as fertilizers, pesticides, animal wastes, etc.
 V. Population Growth and Provision of social services
Effect on Education: The rapid population growth has resulted in a growing demand for
education. Nowadays the total number of students has increased enormously, but there are large
number of children who do not get chance to go to school. In many urban centres schools have
overcrowded classrooms.
Effect on Health: Ethiopia has registered a poor health status and a high rate of population
growth. The majority of the population has low access to modern health service. Relatively, the
situation in urban areas is better than rural areas. Growing poverty, low level of education,
inadequate access to clean water, shortage of sanitary facilities and poor accesses to health
facilities have contributed to the poor health situation in Ethiopia.
3.2 Theories on Population Growth and Development
Conservative vs. Radical Theories
Population size and change play such a fundamental role in human societies that they have
been the subject of theorizing for millennia. Most religious traditions have had something to say
on these matters, as did many of the leading figures of the ancient world.
Conservative Theories
1. Malthusian Theory
Thomas Malthus (1776-1834)- Clergyman, Demographer and Economist maintained the idea
that there is a natural law of population growth in which food production increases only linearly
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5…etc.) and population rises geometrically (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, …etc.). Therefore
population growth tends to outstrip food supply resulting in poverty and hunger – (a situation
often described as the Malthusis crisis). In his 'Essay on the Principle of Population, Malthus
(1798) wrote “the cause to which I allude is the constant tendency in all animated life to increase
beyond the nourishment prepared for it".
Malthus suggested that a number of 'checks' would serve to keep the population at a level of
subsistence (i.e., food supply ceiling). These, are the 'preventive checks' and the 'positive checks'.
Preventive Checks: The key preventive check suggested by Malthus was one of 'moral restraint'.
Men should attempt to marry late in life as this would give rise to fewer or smaller families.
Positive Checks: The positive check, according to Malthus, includes every cause which in any
degree contributes to shorten the natural duration of human life. These are diverse and range
from poor living and working conditions that might lower resistance to disease, as well as
disease itself, wars and famines. Malthus‟s pessimistic view of population suggests that human
suffering and misery is inevitable, essentially due to population levels exceeding food
availability. Malthus believe that the main cause of high population growth rates lies in the fast
breeding of the lower classes that need to adhere to a preventive check.
2. Neo-Malthusianism
One of the most commonly held views in contemporary thinking on population is
NeoMalthusianism as derived from the arguments of Malthus. The Neo-Malthusians‟ view
follows the thinking of Malthus in that population growth is considered the main cause of
poverty. However, unlike Malthus, they see birth control as a means of checking this growth.
Not only do Neo-Malthusians believe that a reduction in population will reduce social problems
and alleviate human suffering, but they also see such steps leading to economic growth and
improvements in living conditions. An essential feature of the Neo-Malthusian argument,
therefore, is the belief that the size of the population is the main cause of limitations to
development, particularly in the less developed countries and that high population growth leads
to high natural resource depletion and causes environmental degradation. This demographic
deterministic view of poverty, underlie most debate and discussions on population since the
1960s. It is the „people versus resources‟ viewpoint held by many academics, demographers and
commentators who all believe that there are too many people for the available resources.
Neo-Malthusians see the rapid rates of population growth in the developing countries resulting in
widespread poverty, economic stagnation, environmental destruction, rapid urbanization,
unemployment and political instability. Like Malthus, the Neo-Malthusians see the problem
resting with the poor who produce more children, because of their ignorance and lack of
foresight. The solution, therefore, lies in persuading (or forcing if needs be) the poor to have
fewer children.
It is against this background that the implementation and promotion of family planning
programmes by international development agencies gained popularity as an efficient and cost-
effective way to tackle the problems of development.
Evidence of Malthus and Neo-Malthusian predictions
Neo-Malthusians would argue that the recurrent famine in countries such as Ethiopia and
Somalia is proof of a positive check on population growth.
Critics
Critics of Malthusian and Neo-Malthusian perspective on population have argued that the
demographic deterministic view of poverty is fundamentally defective.
First, Neo-Malthusian arguments divert attention from the social and economic causes of
poverty. Like Malthus, they simply blame human reproduction. The structure of
underdevelopment is ignored, with the reproductive customs of developing countries people
considered the main cause of their poverty.
Second, some critics argue that for those who saw the lower classes as a burden to society;
Malthus and Neo-Malthusian view provides a perfect excuse not to improve their living
conditions. They maintain that it is the failure of successive development strategies to bring
about any appreciable improvement in the living conditions of the majority of the people of the
world that needs to be discussed and not the productive habits of the poor.
Third, contrary to Malthusian and Neo-Malthusian predictions, world food production has
increased more rapidly than that of population. The fact that many countries have stores suggest
that it is the distribution of food resources, rather than a lack of, that is the key issue.
Fourth, many developing nations are now challenging the Malthusian and Neo-Malthusian
perspectives on population and reclaiming their right to identify for themselves what they
perceived their particular population problems are and how to resolve them without pressure
from external agencies.
Fifth, there is a growing realization amongst development experts that population growth is
NOT the cause of the development problems of the developing countries, but rather a symptom
of the problems. New understanding and explanation of fertility rates in economically poor
communities suggests that poor people may have many children for logical reasons, such as their
economic value, and not just because they are backward-looking.
Sixth, both Malthusian and Neo-Malthusian views on population in relation to development
are ethnocentric in nature. They both, implicitly, evaluate the reproductive behavior of people in
the developing countries by criteria specific to western Europeans. When the rich nations suffer
economic difficulties such as rising unemployment, these are treated as purely economic issues.
However, when a developing country experiences obstacles to economic growth, then population
pressure is often cited as the cause. Conclusion on Malthusian and Neo-Malthusian
The Malthusian and Neo-Malthusian view has dominated academic discussion and debate on
population since the early 1800s. Their perspective on population and resources has had a
profound effect on the way population policy is formulated, especially in the developing
world. It has helped in the formulation and implementation of family planning programmes,
and helped highlight concern over development problems.
However, the Neo-Malthusian approach which essentially argues for direct population control
measures alongside development policies is filled with many difficulties. Not only does it divert
academic attention away from arguably the most fundamental causes of poverty in the
Third World, it also ignores the unequal distribution of global resources. At best, it fails to
address the excessive pattern of resource consumption and waste by the 20% of the world's
population who consume 80% of the earth's resources and instead blame the poor for being poor
and for having large families.
Radical Theories
Ester Boserup’s Hypothesis
Ester Boserup - a Danish Economists offered an entirely different view on population resource
debate. In her book „The Conditions of Agricultural Growth‟ published in 1965, Boserup took an
empirical approach to the relationship between population growth and food production rather than
Malthus‟s deductive approach (i.e., reasoned by calculations). Unlike Malthus, she believes that
population growth is a major factor determining agricultural developments. According to her, „population
growth stimulates innovation and development in agriculture‟ thus causing an increase in food
production. This is summed up by the following phrase „...Necessity is the mother of invention‟. This
suggests that an increase in population provides a major incentive for ways to be found to increase food
production.
Boserup's main argument can be summarised as follows:
 There is a connection between population and technology. Population change is one of the
determinants of technological change, and technological change is a determinant of demographic
change.
 The increase in population pressure stimulates changes in the agricultural system.
Rising population leads to intensification of farming methods in order to produce
the extra food for the extra numbers.
 The pressure to change agricultural production by modifying farming techniques
and frequencies with which a plot of land is cultivated come from demand for
increased food production„
  The sustained growth of population and agricultural output has secondary effects,
which will set off a genuine process of economic growth
„All parts of the world have experienced these changes owing to the increase in
population density The conclusion from Boserup's hypothesis is that population growth naturally leads to
development rather than being a hindrance to it. Boserup's idea is based upon field studies in
SE Asia, and she developed her idea under a number of assumptions
Critics of Ester Boserup's Hypothesis
Boserup's idea has been criticised for having a rather weak economic basis and her idea applies only to
the agricultural production of mainly the developing world where the number of people depends on
agriculture. As an area becomes more industraialised and developed, conditions of inadequate food
production are much more likely to result in out-migration rather than agricultural innovation.

Her theory, according to some critics, fails to discuss the most recent technological innovations
in the highly industrailised societies. Also critics have argue, her idea lacks any universal
appeal because it is based on the assumption of an unsophisticated economies and „closed‟
communities. In reality, communities are not closed instead; there is constant in- and outmigration.
Relatively few communities, if any, operate closed systems producing food only to
meet their own requirements. So, it is generally difficult to test her ideas.
Boserup‟s hypothesis gives no consideration to the qualitative aspects of diet and nutrition.
Through the changes in agricultural techniques suggested by Boserup, it is possible that output
may increase but the overall quality of diet and nutrition may decline.
Another criticism of Boserup's hypothesis relates to the time that the agricultural adaptation
would take place. The innovation in agriculture cannot be presumed to occur immediately.
If the population growth is rapid, it may overwhelm the agricultural system in the process of adjustment
such that the necessary adjustments do not have time to occur. It is clear that certain types of fragile
environment cannot support excessive numbers of people. In such cases, population pressure may not lead
to technological innovation as Boserup suggested.
Boserup herself admits that over-population can lead to unsuitable farming practices which may degrade
the land. And she also recognises that in certain physical environments, continuing intensification of
production may not be possible with rising population pressures.
In spite of Boserup's hypothesis, two major food problems persist in the world today - massive
surpluses in the developed world and famine, starvation and shortage in the developing world. It appears,
therefore, that it is not the level of resources which is the main cause of concern but the inability to share
and distribute available resources equitably amongst the world's population.
Julian Simon - The 'Ultimate Resource' Theory
Julian Simon (1932-1997), a US economist and statistician, made a significant contribution to
the population versus resources debate. Unlike Malthus and Neo-Malthusians, Simon presents a
radical optimistic theory to the whole debate. Simon believes that population growth is not
necessarily a bad thing, suggesting the ultimate resource is the people.
He believes people are able to innovate to sustain themselves. According to Simon, “the most
important benefit of population size and growth is the increase it brings to the stock of useful
knowledge. Minds matter economically as much as, or more than hands or mouths”. Simon
believes that despite claims by neo-Malthusians that natural resources are finite with population
growth, natural resources are not finite in any economic sense, which is why their cost can
continue to fall.
In spite of the „doom and gloom‟ of the Malthusian theory, Simon suggested the world food
production has increased in both developed and developing countries since the World WarII.
According to him, the overall trend from 1948-1979 shows there has been an increase in
food production per person. Simon believes that food shortages and famines are caused by
politics as the political regime of a country affects food production. According to Simon, any
country that gives farmers a free market in food and labor secure property rights in the land and a
political system that ensures these freedoms in the future will soon flush with food with an ever
diminishing proportion of its workforce required to produce food. Simon blames the West for
destroying the developing countries farmers despite the assistance they give the developing
countries in terms of technical shipments of food, by giving subsidies to their own farmers which
raise food production artificially and hence reduce the world prices.
Simon believes that subsidies to Western farmers go hand in hand with the policies of African
governments which steal from their farmers by forcing them to accept below market prices.
The Marxian Perspective
Karl Marx (1818-1883) maintained that poverty and resource depletion is not a consequence of
population growth but of unequal distribution of resources between classes. Where ownership of
and control over resources is confined to a capitalist or land owning class, potential always exists
for poverty and hunger. Peasants and working poor have very little bargaining power compared
to landlords and capitalists hence poverty and hunger results. According to Marx, capitalism
creates surplus population through: physical separation of producers (peasants, artisans, workers)
by landowners from their means of production (land, machinery, tools etc.)
He also suggests that the destruction of traditional methods of farming and production
through mechanization and changes in land usage and tenure are ways the capitalist rich class
makes the working class poor. The result is the total reliance on wage labor by the poor to
acquire means of consumption (food, clothing, shelter, etc.). According to Marx, poverty occurs,
not because of overpopulation, but rather through lack of access to means of gaining subsistence.
3.3 Population Policies
A population policy is a policy that is formulated and implemented by a government in order to
plan and control population growth, spatial distribution and structure based on the economic,
social, cultural, political, and demographic conditions of the country. It is needed mainly to
address population- related problems in a country.
The population policies of countries can be broadly categorized into two groups as:
anti-natalist and pro-natalist policies. Both reflect the fact that while individual women and
families ultimately control fertility, the state can play a pivotal role in providing or prohibiting
access to reproductive health, family planning and other resources associated with fertility
behavior. These influences of the state and their policies can directly target fertility or more
indirectly shape the broader relational contexts of fertility geographies.
Pro-natalist policies
What are the major characteristics of a pro- natalist policy? Which countries implement a
pro-natalist policy? Pro-natalist population policy seeks to increase fertility rates, in particular,
and population growth rates, in general. Pro-natalists seek to incentivize increased fertility. They
have a long historical pedigree and have been adopted by numerous countries, notwithstanding
the civil liberties issues they can raise. While no single policy appears most effective, such
policies do appear to influence fertility rates.
Within Europe, some countries (notably Germany, France, Sweden, Italy and Spain) had
pronatalist policies in place as early as the 1930s but by the turn of the present century around 88
countries provided incentives for women to have children. In general, besides explicit
exhortation and propaganda, pro-natalism is usually expressed in policies embracing welfare
issues. It comes through, for example, in schemes that facilitate women leaving the paid labor
force, grant mothers significant maternity pay, or provide substantial support for child caring
mothers. For example, the French government worked to increase birth rates through such
measures as the 1939 Family Code, provision of social and family benefits such as birth
premiums, loans to young married couples, and housing subsidies. Many policies and the socio-
cultural environments they support work more indirectly in promoting fertility than explicit pro
natalist policies. For example, acknowledging factors linked to fertility, governments may seek
to ensure greater equality within the workplace and a reduction of the burden of family-work
responsibilities by creating more flexible working hours, child care assistance, tax incentives,
family allowances or low cost housing loans. Such policies can make having a child more
economically feasible; highly relevant when noting the high average “cost” of raising a child. In
support of this, an Austrian study found increases in parental leave increased fertility.
Pro-natalist policies may also be motivated by concerns about dependency consequences of an
ageing society of low fertility. As noted, earlier governments may respond through
facilitating immigration. Since much of the world‟s population is still young, working-age
immigrants from the Global South, in particular, can potentially provide both needed workers
for countries with declining populations as well as increased fertility rates on account of their
demographic concentration within the child-bearing years. Such policies, however, are likely
to be extremely politically sensitive.
Anti-natalist policies
What are the major characteristics of an anti-natalist policy? Which countries implement an anti-
natalist policy? Anti-natalist population policy seeks to lower fertility rates, in particular, and
population growth rates, in general. Countries may enact anti-natalist policies designed to reduce
fertility.
In fact, some countries have alternated between pro- and anti-natalist policies. The most well-
known anti-natalist attempt to reduce fertility has been China‟s “one child” policy. When the
country breakdown the campaign to promote birth control in the 1950s saw China‟s TFR shoot
up to over 6.0 by the early 1960s.
 UNIT 4
ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY AND DEVELOPMENT
4.1 Major Economic and Cultural Activities in Ethiopia
Economic activity is the production, distribution. And exchange of goods and services. Some
examples of these activities are hunting, fishing, farming, grazing, mining, manufacturing,
transportation, trade and others.
Classification of Economic Activities
What are the major classes of economic activities?
The economic activities practiced in the world are grouped into five, namely primary, secondary,
tertiary, and quaternary and quinary. Each type of economic activity is important to a society.
The distribution of jobs in a particular economic activity in a country may indicate the level of
development of the country. Geographers classify a nation‟s economy into primary, secondary,
tertiary, the service sectors. Increasingly the service sectors are seen as forming a fourth or
quaternary sector and a fifth or quinary sector.

Figure 4.1: Categories of Economic Activity

A. Primary Economic Activities
What are the major primary economic activities practiced in you locality?
Primary economic activities focus directly on the extraction of resources from the environment.
They involve the production of foodstuffs and raw materials. These economic activities occur at
the beginning of the production cycle, where people live in close contact with the resources of
the earth. A few examples of primary economic activities include agriculture, fishing, forestry,
and mining. All of these jobs are dependent upon the natural resources of the earth Primary
economic activities are characterized by the following. They are:

 dependent on the natural environment;

 related to the production of foodstuffs and raw materials through the exploitation of the
resources of the earth;
 influenced by the condition of the physical environment in one way or another
1. Agriculture
What is agriculture? Why is agriculture an important primary economic activity?
Agriculture is the science and art of cultivation of the soil and the rearing of livestock for either
local consumption or commercial purposes. In Ethiopia, agriculture is an old economic activity,
which has been practiced since 4000 BC. Thus, Ethiopia is mentioned as one of the original
centers of the world‟s most important cultivated crops. In Ethiopia, most agricultural production
takes place in the Dega and Weyna Dega zones, where land productivity has traditionally
coincided with the densest rural population. Types of agriculture in Ethiopia can be divided into
two broad types namely: crop production and livestock rising.
I. Crop Production/Arable Farming
What is arable farming?
Crop production is the process of cultivation of plants to yield food, feed, and fiber or to provide
medicinal or industrial ingredients, or grow ornamental products. Arable farming practices, in
Ethiopia can be classified into the following types:
 a) Seed (Grain) Production
In Ethiopia, in areas of WeinaDega and Dega zones on northwestern highlands and parts of
Southeastern highlands, seed farming is a common activity. Seed/grain production mainly
include cereals, pulses and oilseeds)
 The principal cereal crops are teff, barley, wheat, maize, sorghum, millet, andoats
 Pulses include horse beans, chickpeas, haricot beans, field peas, lentils and
vetch.
 Oilseeds include oilniger, linseed, fenugreek, rapeseed, sunflower groundnuts,
and sesame.
b) Permanent (Perennial) Crop Cultivation
Perennial crops like enset, coffee, cotton, etc. are major crops in the WoinaDega
areas of southern and southwestern parts of the country. Enset is the staple food of the people of
these areas.
c) Shifting Cultivation
Shifting cultivation is the cut-and- burn cultivation system. In Ethiopia, Shifting
cultivation is practiced in western and southwestern fringes of the Ethiopian highlands and
lowlands or Benishangul-Gumuz, Gambella and Southern Regions where population density is
low and livestock rearing is limited areas.
d) Plantation Agriculture
In Ethiopia, Plantation agriculture produces mostly cash or industrial crops like
sugarcane, cotton, coffee, tea, and rubber. Such agricultural systems are found in
areas either where there is abundant rainfall or irrigation is possible.
II. Livestock Raising
What is livestock raising?
The term livestock includes all animals that are kept on the farm to provide food,
power, raw materials, or are meant for market. Ethiopia has a large livestock
population that includes cattle, goats, sheep, Camels, poultry, and packed animals. In cattle
population, Ethiopia stands first in Africa and tenth in the World. The Livestock sector is an
important subsector of the nation‟s economy and supports both the agricultural income and the
Growth of Domestic Production.
2. Forestry
What is forestry?
A forest is a mass of plants or a wooded area in which trees are the most common
features. The extraction of forest products for different purposes by people is called
forestry.
Economic Significance of Ethiopian Forest
Even though the importance of forest and forest products is little in earning foreign exchange,
their significance at a local level is large. For instance, their contribution to the national economy
in the form of GDP is about 6.10%. Most of the trees cut in Ethiopia today are used for domestic
purposes like for:
 Fuel wood,
 Timber household furniture,
 For building and construction.
3. Fishery
What is fishing?
Fishing is a primary economic activity concerned with the catching and harvesting of fish, other
marine creatures. Fishing is one of the oldest occupations of humankind. Most fishing activities
in Ethiopia take place in freshwater, such as rivers, lakes and ponds. In general, the Ethiopian
fishing grounds could be classified as Lakes and Rivers
4. Mining
What is mining?
Mining is a primary economic activity concerned with the extraction of mineralbearing
substances from the earth‟s crust. The earth‟s crust is composed of rock containing minerals. A
mineral is an inorganic chemical element or compound found naturally in the crust of the earth.
Mining is important to the economy of Ethiopia. Currently, mining contributes to only 1.5 % of
GDP.
B. Secondary Economic Activities
What is manufacturing?
Secondary economic activities include manufacturing, construction and power production.
Manufacturing activities take place in factories. It is the activity, which turns raw materials into
products by using labour, energy, and equipment, while industry refers to the place where
manufacturing takes place. Activities associated with the secondary sector include metalworking
and smelting, automobile production, textile production, chemical and engineering industries,
aerospace manufacturing, energy utilities, engineering, breweries and bottlers, construction and
shipbuilding.
Types of Manufacturing Industries in Ethiopia
Manufacturing industries in Ethiopia can be classified into two. These are:
a) Cottage(traditional) industries
b) Modern Manufacturing industries
a) Cottage (Traditional) Industries
The main cottage industries include weaving, wood carving, pottery, metal works, basketry, etc.
The cottage industries of Ethiopia have existed with little changes and refinement throughout
history. The major factor that hindered their development was the negative traditional outlooks
towards these activities. Hence people engaged in such activities had, in some instance, low
social status. Still, this low status has not been done away with entirely
b) Modern Manufacturing Industries
As a developing nation, Ethiopia‟s modern manufacturing sector is at low level. Ethiopia‟s
modern manufacturing consists of largely light industries which produce consumer goods.

C. Tertiary Economic Activities

What is a tertiary economic activity?
The basic characteristic of the tertiary economic activity is the provision of services. The tertiary
sector involves the provision of services to other businesses as well as to the final consumers.
Examples of tertiary economic activities include legal services, medical services, trade,
transportation services, tourism, etc.
D. Quaternary Economic Activities
What are the major quaternary economic activities practiced in your locality?
The quaternary sector may realistically be seen as an advanced form of service activity involving
specialized knowledge, technical skills, communication ability, or administrative competence.
These activities include research, financial services, and government activities. These are the
activities performed in office buildings, elementary and university classrooms, hospitals and
doctors‟ offices, theatres and television stations. They are activities primarily concentrated in
large urban places and require higher levels of education than the other sectors. This section also
includes other pure services, such as the entertainment industry.

E. Quinary Economic Activities

What are quinary economic activities?
Quinary economic activities are generally considered to be a sub-set of quaternary activities and
are those that involve high-level decision-making and scientific research skills. It is also a sub-
division of the tertiary sector representing the special and highly paid skills of top business
executives, government officials, research scientists, financial and legal consultants, and the like.
These people find their places of business in major metropolitan centres, in and near major
universities and research centres.
4.1.2 Contribution of Agriculture to the Ethiopian Economy, Problems of
Ethiopian Agriculture.
Ethiopian national economy largely bases itself on agriculture. Agriculture constitutes the
principal source of income and employment for the majority of the population in Ethiopia.
Greater proportion of the foreign exchange the country earns also comes from this sector. The
importance and predominance of the agricultural economy in the country can be suggested by the
following facts:
1. Agriculture employs the majority (80%) of the Ethiopian total population
2. Agriculture supplies more than 90% of export commodities. Thus, agriculture is the
main source of Ethiopia‟s export earnings
3. Agriculture contributes 32.7% of the Gross Domestic Products (GDP) of the country
(See Table 4.1).
Table 4.1: Sectoral Percentages Shares in GDP (2014-2020)

Agriculture‟s main products are food crops, cash crops, industrial crops, fruits and vegetables,
flowers, and animal products. Agriculture had been the leading sector followed by the service
sector until 2014/15. But, after 2015/16, the service sector emerged as the dominant sector
mainly due to natural factors and economic factors.

Contribution of subsistence farming to the Ethiopian Economy

Subsistence farming, method of farming in which nearly all of the crops or livestock raised are
used to maintain the farmer and the farmer‟s family, leaving little, if any, surplus for sale or
trade. It is a common feature of developing countries including Ethiopia. Both crop farming and
animal rearing use traditional tools and techniques and hence, subsistence agriculture is hand-to-
mouth in nature. As a result the products grown are primarily for family needs. This, therefore,
leaves little surplus production entering the market. The subsistence farming sector of Ethiopia
produces varieties of food crops, which grow in different agro-climatic conditions. The crops
include cereals such as teff, wheat, barley, sorghum, etc.

Enset is another major food crop cultivated in parts of southern, western and central Ethiopia.
Pulses and oilseeds are also among the food crops grown in this sector. Agriculture in Ethiopia is
typically characterized by smallholder and subsistence farming which is highly dependent on
rainfall. The urban livelihood is also highly dependent on the rural economy and as such small
farm constitutes the life support mechanism of the country. Most agricultural households in
Ethiopia, for example, mainly produce for own consumption but also for sale, which can have
many purposes – saving, procuring food or non-food items tax or loan repayment. These
households purchase some of their inputs (fertilizer) and provide some (family labor) from their
own resources. Subsistence farming is the practice of self-sufficiency in which the farmers focus
only on producing enough food for personal consumption. Thus it can play an important role in
Ethiopia‟s economy by reducing the vulnerability of rural foodinsecure households, improving
livelihoods.
Contribution of Cash Crop Production to the Ethiopian Economy
Commercial farming as opposed to the subsistence farming sector, it is concerned with
producing crop for sale. Hence, the main objective of this sector is to make money. In this
regard, Ethiopian farmers produce varieties of cash crops such as cofee, oilseeds, pulses, chat,
sugar cane, cotton and fruit. Contribution of cash crop production to the Ethiopian economy
listed hereunder:
a) Source of Food and Raw Material
One of the main roles of agriculture in the Ethiopian economy is being the source of food and
raw materials. For example, agriculture supplies the country with food grains, dairy and meat
products. The agricultural sector is also the supplier of foodstuff to consumers and raw materials
to agro- industries
b) Source of Capital
Cash crops provide a stimulus to agricultural innovation, by raising capital for agricultural
investment and accelerating the build-up of institutions that enable further commercialisation.
Cash crop production in Ethiopia provides funds for capital formation such as:agricultural
taxation and export of agricultural products,
i. Agricultural taxation: Taxes paid by cash crop production farmers important
contribution to the Ethiopian Economy.
ii. Export of Agricultural products: The major Cash crop production for export items
of the country include coffee, oilseeds, flower, chat and pulses. Coffee is Ethiopia‟s
most important export commodity, accounting for about 28.6 % of the value of all
exports in 2019/20. Other cash crops oil seeds, pulses and chat accounts for 11.5%,
7.9%, and 10.9%.of the total value of all exports in 2019/20 respectively.
C. Contribution to Employment:
About 80% of the Ethiopian population earns their livelihood from agriculture. Cash crops bring
substantial wage and employment opportunities to the rural economy.
Problems of Agriculture in Ethiopia
As discussed in the previous section agriculture is the mainstay of the Ethiopian economy. The
majority of the Ethiopians are farmers but they have not yet secured food at large. The Ethiopian
agriculture reveals a picture of virtual stagnation in production; a rapidly rising population, and
declining domestically produced food per capita. In other words, because of the instability in
agriculture production, agriculture has failed to play the decisive role expected of it. The major
obstacles to the development of this sector include:
A. Land degradation
Studies revealed that because of the topography of the land 50% of the cultivable land of
Ethiopia is exposed to various levels of soil erosion. The soil in many areas has lost some
biological productivity and physical properties needed for optimal plant growth. Land
degradation can reduce soil fertility, depth, and essential nutrients and water holding efficiencies
thereby reducing the crop production capacity.
B. Variable Rainfall
It is a matter of fact that Ethiopian agriculture is heavily dependent upon unreliable rainfall
which may produce surplus only in years of favourable weather. What is more it has not always
been timely. Sometimes it comes early or late. Other times it falls short of the required amount or
it falls in excess amount that can highly impact both productivity and food security.
C. Fragmentation of Farm Plots and Small Size of Holdings
The land owned by peasants is getting smaller and smaller over time due to continuous division
of farmland among the number of families in the form of inheritance. The agricultural lands are
therefore highly fragmented.
Table 4.2 shows that agricultural land is highly fragmented, the majority (38%) of households
access less than 0.5 hectares of land, 23.65% of households access between 0.51 to 1.0 hectares,
24.04% between 1 and 2 hectares, and that only the remaining 14.31% of households access
more than 2 hectares of land. Households with less than one hectare of land are often unable to
fulfill household needs including necessary food consumption.
Table 4.2: Distribution of Households by Farmland Size in Ethiopia 2014/15

D. Backward Technology
In Ethiopia the smallholder farming is characterized by dependence on traditional tools and
farming practices. Land preparing is done by oxen drawn plough. Planting is generally
performed by manual broadcasting which hampers effective weeding and spraying activities.
Weeding is done manually and harvesting is also performed manually with the help of sickle.
E. Poor Rural Infrastructure
Agricultural infrastructure primarily includes a wide range of public services that facilitate
production, procurement, processing, preservation and trade. It has mainly focused on irrigation,
transportation, electric power and agricultural markets. As the Ethiopian economy is largely
subsistence the country‟s transport and communication systems are poorly developed. The bad
conditions of the road in rural areas affect the cost of transportation of agricultural product which
in turn reduce farmers‟ income.
4.1.3 Trade, Transport and Tourism and their contribution to Ethiopian economy
1. Trade in Ethiopia
Trade is a basic economic concept involving the buying and selling of goods and services, with
compensation paid by a buyer to a seller, or the exchange of goods or services between parties.
Trade can take place within an economy between producers and consumers.
Types of Trade
In Ethiopia there are two main types of trade namely:
a) Internal (Domestic) trade: This refers to the exchange of goods and services within the
country. Internal trade is the base for foreign trade.
b) External (Foreign) trade: is the process of trading, which involves the exchange of
commodities among different countries. Since there is no country that is self sufficient in all
demands, the movement of items from one country to another in the form of trade is
unavoidable.
The Structure of Export and Import Trade
I. Export Trade Sector of Ethiopia
As the Ethiopian economy is an agrarian economy raw materials mainly originate from the
agricultural sector are the export items of the country. These include coffee, oilseeds, flower,
chat, pulses, gold, textile and textile products, etc. According to the National Bank of Ethiopia
2019/20 report, the most dominant export item of the country is coffee.
Table 4.3: Values of Major Export items (In Millions of USD)

Table 4.3 reveals the fact that despite the persistent decline of the share of coffee in the total
export since 2018/19, it is still the major source of export earning of the country.The second and
the third position in the share of total export value were occupied by flower and oilseeds with
14.1 %, and 11.5%, respectively for the year 2019/20.
 II. Import Trade sector of Ethiopia
Ethiopia imports mainly finished products like machinery, transport equipment, electrical and
electronic goods, fuel and the like. The overall annual import values of Ethiopia have been
constantly declining both by value and percentage.
Table 4.4: Values of Imports by Commodity Groups (In Millions of USD)

Table 4.4 above indicates that the total merchandise import bill 15.1 billion USD (United States
Dollar). Meanwhile, for the year 2018/19 reached USD 13.9 billion for the year 2019/20
depicting an 8.1 percent decline mainly due to lower import bills of fuel, capital goods and
consumer goods. Payments for semifinished goods, raw materials, and miscellaneous goods,
however, registered annual increment.
Trade Balance of Ethiopia
Trade balance is the yearly difference between the export and import values. If the yearly export
value of a given country exceeds its yearly import value it will be a positive or surplus trade
balance. If import exceeds export it will be a negative trade balance. In Ethiopia import values
exceed export values; hence the country experiences a trade deficit (negative trade balance).
2. Transportation in Ethiopia
Transportation may be defined as a movement of materials and goods, or people from one place
to another with a specified objective. Transportation is fundamental to the functioning of any
society. One of the major functions of the transport system is to facilitate movements of different
goods or commodities from areas of surplus to areas of deficit. Transport plays a vital role in the
expansion and development of the socio-economic life of people at all levels Nowadays, the
types and quality of transportation have made much progress. This has enabled people to travel
longer distances in shorter times than ever before. Also, the flow of ideas, beliefs and
innovations has become faster and wider.
Modes of Transport in Ethiopia
What sorts of transportation systems are available in your area?
Based on their stage of development the existing modes of transport in Ethiopia are broadly
divided into two:
I. Traditional modes of transport: include the use of pack animals and human porterage
II. Modern modes of transport: the modern transport sector in Ethiopia uses the
following four different modes of transport. These includes:
a) Road transport c) Inland waterways
b) Railway transport d) Air transport
a. Road Transport
Road transportation is the mode of freight and passenger transportation using buses, cars, and
truck. Road transport is more widespread and more flexible than railway. Road transportation is
most important to the Ethiopian economy.Roads are the most important transport infrastructure
in providing access to rural and urban areas in Ethiopia.
Road Network
During 2005/06 classified road network in Ethiopia was 39,477 kms while the total road
network increased rapidly reached 138,127 kms during 2018/19. The country‟s total road
network was consisted of 55,808 kms (40.4%) Woreda road, 30,924kms (22%) Rural road,
28,699 Kms (20.8%) Federal road and 22,697 Kms (16.4%) urban road.Asphalt road network
accounted for about 11.5% of the road network in the country.
b. Railways
The major advantage of rail transport is that it helps transport bulky products.For more than a
century; Ethiopia was served by an international meter gauge railway, from Addis Ababa to
Djibouti. The railway was built from 1897–1917 and was about 781 km long primarily served to
move export- imports for a long time. Compared to those of the developed countries the railway
was backward. It was also a single lane track. Eventually, the Ethio-Djibouti Railway and its
decades old rolling stock were lacking spare parts and were forced to close down over a number
of years. Recently a new railway line of 752.7 km length connecting Addis Ababa to Djibouti
was officially inaugurated in Djibouti in 2018. The Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway is a new
standard gauge international railway that serves as the backbone of the new Ethiopian National
Railway Network. It provides Ethiopia with access to the sea, linking Addis Ababa with Djibouti
and its Port of Doraleh. More than 95% of Ethiopia‟s trade passes through Djibouti. The railway
line has double-track for 115 km, from Addis Ababa to Adama, and a single track for the
remaining 600 km to Djibouti. Power is supplied through 20 distribution stations 17 in Ethiopia
and 3 in Djibouti.
The other important railway is Addis Ababa Light Rail Transit (AA-LRT). It is the first light rail
and rapid transit in eastern and Sub-Saharan Africa. The total length of both lines (north-south
and east-west) of the rail is about 31.6 kilometres, with 39 stations. It is estimated that AA-LRT
currently transports about 60,000 people daily, significantly reducing traffic congestion in the
capital, Addis Ababa.
c. Inland Waterways
Water transport is cheap and convenient for transporting bulky goods over long distances. The
use of Ethiopian rivers and lakes as inland waterways is extremely limited. This is due to the
ruggedness of the topography and the seasonal nature of rainfall in most parts of the country. The
only navigable river in Ethiopia is Baro. There is also small-scale transportation over lakes Tana,
Abbaya and Ziway.
d. Air transport
For countries like Ethiopia where the topography is difficult for communication, air transport is
of special significance. Air transport is the most recent and fastest mode of transportation. The
Ethiopian Airlines, which is the major airlines in the country, is amongst the best airlines by
African standards. Ethiopian Airlines (EAL) was established in 1945.
Ethiopian Airlines is the leading and most profitable airline in Africa. It has more than 62
destinations in Africa and more than 127 international destinations in five continents. It also has
more than 22 domestic destinations and 58 cargo destinations. It is the largest cargo network
operator in Africa. Ethiopian Airlines joined Star Alliance Network, an international airline
network giving I access to more routes with partner airlines, in 2011.
Ethiopian Airlines Group has transported 50 million doses of COVID 19 vaccine to more than 28
countries across the globe and became the only African carrier to reach such a milestone playing
crucial role during such a difficult time. In addition to this, Ethiopian Cargo and Logistics
Services, Africa‟s largest cargo service provider, has successfully distributed the vaccines to
different countries with its technologically equipped facility called „Pharma Wing‟. Furthermore,
the air transport sector makes a major contribution to Ethiopia‟s economy. In 2018, the air
transport industry, including airlines and its supply chain, are estimated to support US $1.54
billion of GDP in Ethiopia. Foreign tourists arriving by air to Ethiopia, who spend their money in
the local economy supports a further US $2.61 billion of the country‟s GDP, totalling to US $4.15 billion

Tourism in Ethiopia
What is tourism?
Tourism is a collection of activities, services and industries that delivers a travel experience, and
they include transportation, accommodations, eating and drinking establishments, retail shops,
entertainment businesses, activity facilities and other hospitality services provided for
individuals or groups travelling away from home. Tourism is a source of both job opportunities
and income. It is known as a „smokeless industry‟. The main tourist attractions include natural
and human-made features.
Natural tourist attraction sites in Ethiopia
 The Simien Mountains National
 park Bale Mountains National Park
 Awash National Park
 NechSar National Park
 Omo National park
 The Blue Nile Falls (Tis isat Falls)
 Mago National Park
  The Lake Tana
 Gambella National park
 The Sof Omar Cave
 Abijata – Shalla National park
 The Rift Valley
Human made Features
 Lalibela
 Harar
 Axum
 Gonder castle
 Tiya
4.2 Major Economic and Cultural Activities of Africa
Africa is home to about 1.3 billion people. Hence, it has large working age population.
It is also a diverse continent offering human and natural resources which have the
potential to yield inclusive growth and eradicate poverty in the region. Therefore, Africa
has very good opportunities for economic growth and development. At present time,
Africa is composed of low, lower-middle, upper-middle, and highincome countries.
However, Africa faces huge economic hurdles created largely by its historical past,
widespread conflicts and bad economic policies pursued by its
inexperienced leaders. Nevertheless, economic growth should focus on enabling
Africans to live healthier and prosperous lives by harnessing the potential of its
resources and people.
Economic Activities in Africa
Africa largely depends on the primary sector or the extraction of basic materials from the natural
environment. When an economy highly relies on the extraction of basic natural resources
through mining, fishing, agriculture, and forestry it faces several challenges.
A. Primary Sector in Africa
i. Agriculture
Agriculture is by far the single most important economic activity in Africa. It provides
employment for about two-thirds of the continent‟s working population and it contributes on
average 30 to 60 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) and about 30 percent of the value of
exports to each country. However, most agriculture in Africa is rain-fed and therefore very
vulnerable to climate variability that is characterized by frequent droughts and occasional floods,
which at times destroy crops and livestock.
ii, Mining
Mining is one of the major economic activities in Africa. Africa has huge mineral resources (see
Unit Three). Therefore, due to Africa‟s mineral wealth and the global demand for mineral
resources such as copper, gold, platinum, diamonds, etc. the mining sector actively operates in
Africa.
iii, Forestry
Africa is rich in forests and woodlands. Africa has 624 million hectares under forests, which
comprise 20.6 percent of the continent‟s land area and 15.6 percent of the world‟s forest cover.
Forests and trees support many African national economies by supplying a variety of products
and services to rural and urban communities. In addition, many wildlife and game parks are in
forested areas.
v. Fishery
Fish, fishing and fisheries are an integral part of the culture and economy of Africa.
Fisheries play significant economic and nutritional roles in the continent. The sector
contributes to food and nutrition security, and provides jobs, in particular for coastal
populations, which are often among the poorest and most vulnerable.
Challenges of Primary Sector
Reliance on the extraction of basic natural resources or primary sector have the following
challenges:
 Productivity and reliability in these industries vary because they depend on weather and
natural elements (soil fertility and adequate rainfall.)
  Products of the natural environment are also dependent upon exchange rates and other
industries to set their prices because the manufacturers have more economic power than
the producer of raw materials.
 Primary sector workers often work for extremely low wages.
 Moving out of the primary sector into the secondary sector is the hardest of all moves,
as governments may not have enough money for investment in the manufacturing sector.
B. Secondary Sector in Africa
The sector is made up of activities that process basic materials obtained by the primary sector,
and turn them into new goods and products. An example could be copper ore transformed into an
electric cable. In Africa the secondary sector is growing at a rapid pace in recent decades, but
Africa is not keeping up with worldwide improvements in the manufacturing industry. Africa has
a large selection of manufacturing consisting of textiles, clothing, footwear, and the
manufacturing of basic woods and metals. Electricity, gas, and water industries in the secondary
sectors have been markedly fluctuating over the past decades. They appear to be very sensitive to
changing economic trends.
C. Tertiary Sector in Africa
The tertiary sector consists of a range of service activities. It involves the selling of services and
skills. Meanwhile, selling goods and products from primary and secondary industries are also
involved in the service sector. Services related to transport, storage, communication, and real
estate have shown significant improvement in Africa in recent decades. The growth in the
hospitality industry, represented by hotels and restaurants, indicates the growing importance of
tourism in many African countries. Hence, tourism in Africa depends directly on the continent‟s
natural resources and biodiversity base.

Major Factors Hindering Growth of Economy of Africa

Several factors hinder the growth of African economy. Some of the problems include limitations
in technological capabilities, overdependence on aids, poor economic structure, and poor
education, among others.
1. Limitations in Technology
Improvements in technological capacity are the key to development. It helps countries to create,
access and use Information Communications Technology (ICT) in solving socio-economic
problems. In addition, innovation in science and technology is bringing significant changes in
agriculture, medicine, and transportation among other sectors. Technological capability,
therefore, brings the major difference between the developed and developing countries in the
world. Hence, developed countries in Europe, North America and Asia have transformed their
economies through the advancement of their technological capacities and improvement in human
capital.
Therefore, to be successful, African countries should invest in technology because limitation in
technology capabilities is among the factors that hinder economic growth in Africa.
2.Over-dependence on Foreign Aids
In Africa, many countries highly depend on development partners to finance their development
projects. Some sectors such as education, health and agriculture rely on foreign development
partners to function. Over-relying on foreign aid leads to the stagnation of the economy of a
country. Many African countries now have large percentages of their budgets financed by
foreign donations. The main problem such as dependence on aid is that instead of engaging in
activities that facilitate economic growth, the countries wait for aids to enhance their education
and infrastructure. Therefore, African countries should engage in activities that generate revenue
through trade and investment rather than depending on foreign aids.
3. Poor Structures of the Economy
Since most African countries could not adopt improved science and technology, they have not
changed their economic structures since the time of independence. Therefore, they are still
exporting raw materials that include cocoa, diamond, gold, bauxite, and gold in their raw forms.
Thus, they do not add value to raw materials as a way of increasing their earnings in a global
market. African countries still import products of light industries like toys, matches, and
toothpicks among other products from other regions. This will in turn hinder its economic
growth. Therefore, African countries should take the initiative to embrace technology in the
manufacturing sector and establish better economic structures.
4. Poor Education
Education is very important for the development of a country. Education promotes
entrepreneurship by producing a skilled workforce. Countries get the knowledge an skills for
manufacturing from quality education. However, the current education that the African countries
are offering to students is yet to produce graduates that can take up the task of enhancing the
African economy. African education system should, therefore, be changed to equip students with
the information and skill that can help them to be competent in the global market activities.
Generally, the poor status of the economy of Africa has led the continent to face high
unemployment. The Africa has the world‟s highest rate of working poverty – people who are
employed but earning less than US$2 a day. Youth unemployment and underemployment are
among the main barriers to development in Africa. The exclusion of young people from the labor
force causes generational cycles of poverty to continue and put countries into vicious cycles of
poverty. It also breaks down social cohesion and can be associated with higher levels of crime
and violence among idle youth. It also leads a large number of the youth to migrate taking very
dangerous routes towards the developed regions.
4.2.2 Possible Solutions to the Problem of Unemployment in Africa
I. Main Features of Unemployment
Employment is tied to wages or money that is paid regularly for doing work. If someone is
employed, he/she has to be willing to work for the prevailing wage being offered to do the job. If
someone is unemployed, he/she is unable to work or unwilling to do that same job. There are two
ways of being unemployed.
• Voluntary unemployment occurs when a person is jobless by choice, rather than due to a lack
of employment opportunities. Quitting a job because someone has just started his/her own small
business is one example of voluntary unemployment.
• Involuntary unemployment occurs when a person is willing and able to work for a given
wage but cannot find a job. When university graduates could not get a job, as the economy fails
to hire, is an example of involuntary unemployment. Therefore, unemployment is a term
referring to individuals who are employable and actively seeking a job but are unable to find a
job. Unemployment is usually measured by the unemployment rate.
Unemployment is calculated by:

Unemployment rate serves as one of the indicators of a country‟s economic status.

II. Effects of Unemployment
Unemployment affects both the workers and the economy of a country or region. It causes
workers to suffer financial hardship. Then, it affects families, relationships, and communities.
Unemployment results in reduced demand for goods and services. Low level of consumption and
buying power of citizens, in turn, causes lower profits for businesses. Finally, businesses may
disappear and governments may reduce budget and workforce as they lose income from taxes.
III. Solutions for Unemployment

1. The Creation of more Job Opportunities

The workforce of any country usually makes up a large part of its population. In order to satisfy
the needs of its people, all countries should ensure that they create many job opportunities so that
the people, who are eager to work, get the chance to do so. In addition, governments should
ensure that people are paid adequately for the services which they provide so that no person feels
like he or she has been overworked and paid less.
2. Individuals should be Encouraged to Enter Diverse Fields
Many of us grew up having been told to choose from very specific job options starting at a very
young age. Most often, our parents encouraged us to become either a doctor or pilot. Everyone
cannot be a doctor or pilot. Therefore, from a very young age, kids should be encouraged to
broaden their choices and horizons. As they grow up, they can be innovative in different fields
and the economy of the country becomes more diverse.
3. Sustainable Development
Africa should pursue the principles of sustainable development to come out of poverty and solve
the problem of unemployment. It is the overarching paradigm of the United Nations. The
concept of sustainable development was described by the Brundtland Commission Report (1987)
as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.” There are four dimensions to sustainable development –
society, environment, culture, and economy – which are intertwined, not separate.
Sustainability is a paradigm for thinking about the future in which environmental, societal, and
economic considerations are balanced in the pursuit of improved quality of life. For example, a
prosperous society relies on a healthy environment to provide food and resources, safe drinking
water and clean air for its citizens. Sustainable development integrates many processes and
pathways to achieve it (e.g., sustainable agriculture and forestry, sustainable production and
consumption, good governance, research and technology transfer, education, and training, etc.).
Therefore, sustainable development leads to sustainable employment.

4.3 Geographic Location and Economic Development

4.3.1 Effects of Geographic Location on Development
Economic growth and development are defined by different scholars in different ways.
Economic growth is an increase in goods and services or growth of the gross domestic product
(GDP) in a nation over a specific period. It mainly focuses on the quantitative growth of the
national per capita income; not giving due regard to the standard of living and welfare of
citizens. Economic development on the other hand refers to the sustained development of the
material well-being of society. Unlike economic growth, development focuses on both
qualitative and quantitative development of the country‟s economy. Economic development
enables people to be more educated, healthier, and endowed with good access to quality housing,
better sanitation, and employment opportunities. It is often measured using the Human
Development Index (HDI).
HDI is a quantitative measure of human wellbeing and development. It is computed using three
dimensions: longevity (long and healthy life); access to knowledge and standard of living.
Longevity is measured from life expectancy at birth. Knowledge is measured from literacy rates
and average years of schooling within the adult age group. The decent standard of living is also
measured by real per capita income. To obtain the final HDI result, each of the measurement
results of the computed variables is first converted into 0-1 scales. The scaled values are then
added to form the HDI. The calculated HDI values thus lie between 0 and 1. Countries scoring
higher HDI values are hence considered to be better in human wellbeing and development. In the
2019 United Nations Development Program (UNDP, 2019) ranking of 189 world countries,
Norway, Ireland and Switzerland (all in Europe) stood at the top with 0.957, 0.955, and 0.955
HDI scores, respectively. Niger, Central African Republic (CAR), and Chad (all in Africa)
assumed the bottom end by scoring only 0.394, 0.397, and 0.398 HDI values. Ethiopia with a
score of 0.485 HDI value ranked 173 of the 189 countries.
Geographical determinism and possibilism
Geography and socioeconomic development have strong linkages. There are two contrasting
schools of thought on how geographic location and socioeconomic development are linked
together. These differing philosophies are Geographical Determinism and Possibilism.
Henceforth, we are going to discuss these contrasting issues discretely. Geographical
determinism assumes that the stage of socio-economic development of countries is exclusively
determined by the geographic environment (location, climate, and geomorphology).
Geographical location and economic development
According to deterministic theorists, countries of the temperate regions are more developed
compared to those in the tropical areas because of their geographical location in distinct cold and
hot environments, respectively. This type of thinking began during the 15thC AD and persisted
until the 1950s. The first adherents of this philosophy were Greek and Roman scholars like
Aristotle, Hippocrates, and Strabo. The leading advocates of geographic determinism in the 19th
and 20thC were Karl Ritter (1779-1859), Ellen Churchill Semple (1863–1932), and Elsworth
Huntington (1876–1947). Later on, many geographers were interpreting socio-economic
development through the deterministic approach. Nevertheless, the geographic deterministic
school of thought falls under repeated crticism from part of the environmental possibilism
followers.
The school of possibilism argues that geographic environment is not the only determinant factor
of the lifestyle of people and socio-economic development. According to these scholars,
development is determined by the interaction of geographic location and human factors.
Although geographic location and environmental factors play a significant role in socioeconomic
development, they can be modified into useable opportunities by the creative mind of human
beings. They conclude that „nature is never more than an adviser‟ and „there are no necessities
but everywhere possibilities‟. The leading proponents of this school of thought were Lucien Paul
Victor Febvre (1878–1956) and Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845– 1918). Their notion is now
widely accepted by geographers because the belief appreciates the ability of humans to change
their environment using the latest technologies. Nonetheless, it does not mean that geographic
location never plays a significant role in the socio-economic development of societies and
countries.
Geographic location (where a country finds) has a substantial impact on the socio-economic
development of countries. It is „an integral part of economic geography, regional science, and
spatial economics. The location of economic development projects can be fixed through
consideration of broader contexts of countries, regions, and global environments. Geographic
location thus strongly influences the scope of „firms in that location‟ through controlling the
distribution of the population (purchasing power); economic patterns; transport costs and
trading networks.
The cost of moving goods and services across spatial scales can influence the access of firms to
markets. The costs and networks of transportation facilities affect the relative relevance of firms
and the scale of decisions concerning innovation and capital investments.
In appreciation of the influence of geographic location on development, this topic presents you
with the effect of location on three distinct activities. Three theories each focusing on the three
discrete activities questioning „what economic activities are located where and why are
discussed. The theories explore the site selection of firms, and examination of the geographic
variation of economic activities. They offer an analysis of the spatial uncertainties and
hierarchical structure of economic segments. The theories identify variables that determine the
location of specific undertakings over a given spatial patterns. They also describe the allocation
of the different parts of the territory among the different product types.
Effect of location on agricultural development
Agricultural production and profitability principally rely on the suitability of land use patterns
and environmental resources that are largely related to geographic location. Under this topic,
you are going to learn about the hypothetical land-use model (Figure 4.5) developed some
200 years ago by the German theorist named Johann Heinrich von Thünen.
Figure4.3 von Thünen‟s hypothetical circular land use model
Johann Heinrich von Thünen developed his agricultural land use theory in 1826 in his book The
Isolated State. This earliest known agricultural location theory (von Thünen, 1826), imagined
that being near to the market provides ample benefits in agricultural land-use systems. For that,
he envisioned a central market city established at the heart of a plain of thorough physical
similarities. The intent of von Thunen in developing this model (Figure 5.1) was to show the
system of rising agrarian yield in concentric sectors. His model imagines that farmers nearer to
the market city grow crops that have a premier price and provide the highest net incomes.
Heavy and perishable crops (vegetables, fruits & dairy products) are suggested to be produced
nearer to the city in the model. Bulky products (firewood & timber) are supposed to cover the
next zone for they demand higher transport costs if produced further from the city market. Field
crops such as grains are proposed to come from the third zone because they require relatively
lower transport costs compared to vegetables and forest products. Ranching of animals is
suggested to occupy the fourth zone for they can be self-transporting to market. The final zone
beyond the fourth ring is suggested to remain free (unoccupied wilderness) for it is far from the
city market.
The influence of location on industrial development
Industrial production is commonly based on firm location, raw material, and labor inputs,
transportation costs and facilities, as well as consumers and market centers. These all demand
suitable geographical locations and related characteristics. This part thus presents you with a
sample industrial location model (Figure 4.6) developed 100 years ago by the German
economist, Alfred Weber

Figure 4.6 Weber‟s least cost triangular location model

Alfred Weber was a professor of economics at the University of Heidelberg, Germany (from
1907 to 1933). He developed the least cost industrial location model in his book titled Theory of
the Location of Industries. The theory was first presented in the German language (in 1909) and
later translated into English in 1929. The model is considered the basis of modern industrial
location theory.
Like, von Thünen, Weber adopted several assumptions during writing his least-cost location
theory. Some of his assumptions include the following: Firms choose a suitable location to
minimize total costs and maximize profits, An isolated region having no external influences,
Isotropic space (with no variations in transport costs), Markets are located in a specific number
of centers, Perfect competition (large numbers of firms & customers, and small firm sizes to
prevent disturbances by monopolies and oligopolies), Complete knowledge of market conditions
(both for the buyers and suppliers). Several ubiquitous natural resources (e.g. water, air, sunlight,
sand, etc.) Many localized materials: materials found at specific locations (e.g. labor, fuel,
minerals, crops, wood, etc.) Weber assumed three key factors (transport & labor costs, plus
agglomeration economies) influence industrial location. He then concluded that the firm location
has to consider the three ideal (optimal) factors. He then decided to rely on determining the least
transport cost location by adjusting it to consider labor costs and agglomeration economies. The
cost of transportation was the most important component of Weber‟s least-cost location theory.
Other factors (labor & agglomeration economies) for him require only consideration of
adjustment effects. Thus Weber uses the „Location Triangle‟ (Figure 5.2) to solve the mentioned
problems.
Alfred Weber suggested that industrial firms have to locate in places where costs of transporting
raw materials and finished products are kept low. For that he identified two particular cases:
Weight losing: this is the case when the weight of the final product is less than the weight of the
raw material going into making the product. Weight gaining: this is the case when the final
product is heavier than the raw materials that require transport.
Based on these raw material categories, Weber had proposed two least-cost firm location types
a. Industrial firms using pure (non-weight losing inputs) during the process of production
can locate nearer to markets. The inputs of such industries are bulk gaining materials and
they do not attract industrial firms to their occurrence locations. Examples of these are
cotton textiles, soft-drink bottling, brewery, and beverages, wool, etc. Adding weight
during processing for these industries makes the product bulky and more costly for
shipping and transportation.
b. Industries using impure gross materials lose part of their weight of raw materials during
the production processes. The inputs of these industries are bulk-reducing. Such materials
exert a strong influence on the location of industrial firms. Examples are bauxite and
iron-ore refineries plus steel and sugar-cane mills. Industries using such raw materials
have better locate nearer to their input sources. These enable the firms to carry the
heavier raw materials for short distances lightening the finished goods for long distances
to the marketplace.
Relying on the aforementioned input-output firm relationships, Alfred Weber developed the
material index model by dividing the weight of inputs by the weight of finished products;

MI= Where: MI = Material Index; WIs= Weight of Inputs; WOs= Weight of Outputs.

Then, he concludes:
If MI >1, the industrial firm should locate nearer to the source of the raw material,
If MI <1, the firm should locate nearer to the market.
Weber proposes firms using bulky inputs like aluminum refineries should locate nearer to the
supply sources; nearer to energy sources or at port sites. According to Weber, industries that use
ubiquitous raw materials (e.g. water, solar power) are likely located closer to markets.
Alfred Max Weber (1868-1958)
Alfred Weber was an economist, geographer, and sociologist. His theory was persuasive in the
progress of present-day economic geography. He did a reputable job during his time in an
industrial location. Nevertheless, his work was focused on heavy industries and forgot the light
industrial firms. Similar to the land-use model of von Thünen, Weber assumed an isotropic
landscape model by ignoring the role played by relief features and his „isotropic space‟
assumption forgets the diverse transportation modes and costs. The proposed self-sufficient
„isolated state‟ with no external influences is difficult to find in reality; thus, threatens the
validity of his model.
Effect of location on settlement and service center development
In the previous two topics, you learned how the location of land uses and industries were
modeled by two German scholars. The topic at hand presents the spatial structure, size, function,
and location of settlements and service centers. This was first attempted by another German
geographer named Walter Christaller in 1933. Christaller developed his theory by studying
settlement patterns in southern Germany. He intended to know how urban settlements evolve and
spaced out with each other and how goods and services are exchanged within the different order
settlements. While formulating his theory, Christaller presumed an isotropic boundless plain
landscape experiencing a uniform physical environment. He assumed also that this isotropic
surface is uniformly settled and equally served by transportation in all directions. Travelling and
transportation costs for goods and services are explained to be a function of the distance traveled.
Farmers earn the same amount of income (equal purchasing power) and similar demand for
goods and services. Both farmers and business people in urban areas are also considered rational
- seeking to minimize costs and maximize incomes. Perfect competition, equivalent income, and
„shopping behavior‟ on the parts of consumers are parts of the assumptions. No suppliers will
receive excessive profit in the model. Based on these assumptions, Christaller had developed a
geometric hexagonal pattern of settlements and service centers in hierarchical order. For
Christaller, the hexagonal structure was preferred for it minimizes the problems of overlapping
prevalent in using concentric circular arrangements. His hierarchical model anticipated a well-
established urban system containing a large city, a smaller number of towns, and many villages
and hamlets in the hypothetical region. Christaller‟s central place hierarchy assumed uniform
distribution and equivalent distance among the different levels of settlements and service centers
all-over the „isotropic‟ region. Christaller adopted three principles in his idealized hierarchical
hexagonal settlement model of the central places. These include the:
1. Marketing principle (K = 3 system);
2. Transportation principle (K = 4 system);
3. Administrative principle (K = 7 system).
Central Place in Christaller‟s model refers to settlements or nodal points that support adjacent
areas with goods and services. The premise here is that all goods and services are accessed by
consumers from the nearest market centers (central places). This is the marketing principle (k =
3) indicated in number (i) above.

A) Market b) transport c) administrative

Figure 4.7 Christaller‟s hexagonal settlement mode
The k = 3 system (Figure 4.7a) is where the hexagonal space with the center envisioned that
one higher-order central place serves three (two lower-order neighboring centers and itself).
Hence, three centers together with the central place itself are served. The objective of the K =
3 system is designed to serve several consumers from a few numbers of service centers. The
3s rule implies 1, 3, 9, 27, 81 …) – meaning that consumers located at equidistant centers
from the three higher-order centers (A1, A2 & A3) could acquire one third from each of A1, A2,
and A3 centers. As there could be several settlement orders, 1st, 2nd and 3rd order service centers,
correspondingly provide 1st , 2nd, and 3rd order services.
In the K = 4 system, the aim was to lower the travel distance and increase the linkage of
the centers served. To decrease travel costs, lower-order settlements are suggested to locate
at mid-points of the sides along the roads connecting higher order settlements instead of
situating at the edges of the hexagons. This implies that transport routes are lined up along
straight courses stretching out from the mid-points. In this case, each central place is supposed
to support half of the marketplace of each of six adjoining low-order settlements as they are
placed at the edges of the hexagons around high-order centers. The total number of sites
served will be thus four – meaning there will be four low-order settlements for each high order
center (see Figure 4.7b) against three in the case of the K = 3 system.
The K = 7 system aims to retain a hierarchy of control between high-order and low-order
settlements. Under this system, six low-order settlements in the hexagon will be wholly
served, controlled, and enclosed by the central place (by the high-order place). This provides
comparable seven market centers. Christaller envisioned this hierarchical model enabling the
entire high-order settlements in the hexagon enclosed by further high-order settlements to
elucidate both local and regional economics as well as the specialty of urban areas. The system is
also named the political-social principle (Figure 4.7c).
Walter Christaller (1893-1969)
Walter Christaller was a German geographer who wrote a groundbreaking theory titled „Central
Places in Southern Germany‟ in 1933. His theory consists of the simple concepts of „centrality‟,
„threshold‟, and „range‟. Centrality refers to a pull to a particular center. A threshold is the
minimum purchasing power (population & income) required to attract a firm or new service
provider. A range is a maximum distance that people travel to acquire goods and services.
Walter Christaller (1893-1969) Similar to the location theories of von Thünen and Weber, the
„isotropic‟ surface and alike purchasing power assumptions are perhaps unrealistic. Anyhow,
Christaller‟s central place theory is cutting-edge innovative work.

e4.3.2 Disadvantages of Landlocked Countries

Characteristics of landlocked countries
Landlocked countries are those that do not possess any seacoast. Rivers might run through a
portion of the region, and there can be bodies of water within the country‟s borders. But every
border is land-based, rather than water like an ocean shore.
Landlocked states are geographically dispersed across all continents. They occupy the mid
regions of continents and constitute about one-fifth of the world‟s nations. They fall under the
category of geographically disadvantaged nations. They were formed following three historical
events: at the end of the First World War; following the end of colonization; and the collapse and
splitting of the former Soviet Union (USSR). In the case of African landlocked countries,
colonization resulted in the drawing of borders then making some areas completely enclosed by
other states. Most of the African states have retained these colonial border lines.
Of all the countries in the world, 49 of them are landlocked (see some from Figure 5.9). This
number is equivalent to one-fifth (20%) of all countries in the world. They are also among the
most disadvantaged and underachieving countries in the world. They are generally divorced from
the benefits received from locating along the sea coast.
Disadvantages of landlocked countries
When the low economic and social performance of landlocked countries is compared with
countries having direct access to sea coasts, the condition indicates the prevalence of strong
bondage between geography and development. Lack of direct access to the sea; isolation from
major economic centers; inadequate conveyance setups; and clumsy transit practices together
impede the ability of landlocked states to grow effectually.
I. Lack of direct access to the sea
Landlocked countries lie far from seaports and lack direct access to the sea. They incur higher
transport costs during their participation in foreign trades. The cost of international transport
services is a crucial determinant of a country‟s trade competitiveness. Higher trade costs reduce a
country‟s welfare and inhibit economic growth by making imports expensive and exports none
competitive. Landlocked countries, therefore, suffer noticeable drawbacks when competing in
global markets against coastal areas. It has been estimated that doubling transport costs reduces a
country‟s trade volume by around 80%.
Excessive transport costs also impede the trade in services, mainly the export of tourism
services. Doubling travel cost reduces the demand for tourism as high as eightfold.

II. Transportation and related-transit disadvantage

Landlocked countries are entirely dependent on their transit neighbors‟ infrastructure for access
to an international market. Where a landlocked country only has access to routes of poor quality,
the cost of overland trade is significantly higher than it would otherwise be. Hence, the cost of
trade in a landlocked country is heavily determined by the infrastructure levels, and, indirectly,
by the level of development of its transit neighbors.
Challenges of poor transit neighbor substructures are mainly severe in western and central
Africa. For instance, although boasting of having better domestic road connections, Burundi is
severely affected by the poor contiguous transit network of its neighbors. The short direct
passage to the sea from Burundi is the so-called Central Corridor over Tanzania (Dar es Salaam).

Nevertheless, the transit setup over this route is too poor. Of all the countries in the world, 49 of
them are landlocked (see some from Figure 5.9). This number is equivalent to one-fifth (20%) of
all countries in the world. They are also among the most disadvantaged and underachieving
countries in the world. They are generally divorced from the benefits received from locating
along the sea coast. Geographical location and economic development
Similarly, many of the western African LLDCs have poor transit neighbor network problems.
The derelict transport network corridor in the area shrinks the benefits expected from foreign
direct investment (FDI). The best example here is the (CAR). This country has no reliable all-
weather road network to the sea. Its transit through Cameroon is impenetrable during the rainy
season. Its transit corridor over the Oubangui River of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)
is also closed in the dry season due to diminished water flow and for security reasons.
To transit a country, there are hosts of transit and custom charges. Some of these must be paid
upfront and some must be paid during traveling. In many cases, these charges must be paid in
hard currency, where options are missing to convert local currency to hard currency.
Sometimes agency fees at ports for transit freight may exceed that of domestic freight. The
transit and custom charges include transit good licenses, border fees, temporary road licenses,
foreign vehicle permits, toll charges, foreign commercial licenses, cost of customs verification of
containers, posting of security bonds, involvement with police and escort convoys, and
cancellation of bonds.
Currently, there are some successful efforts and strategies in certain areas to ease procedures
and lessen administrative charges. For instance, common warrants have been announced in the
Southern African Development Community (SADC) and Common Market for Eastern and
Southern Africa (COMESA) allowing road freight travel within member countries with no local
permits or licenses. Another good example is the Bhutanese transit trade in South Asia. The
transit of the Bhutanese trade is handled by its customs and never touched by Indian officials.
III. Political disadvantage
Political issues are also major challenges for the development of landlocked countries next to
transportation. The deficiency of negotiating capacity with transit neighbors is one challenge
faced by landlocked countries. The lack of access rights during conflict times from transit
neighbors seriously affects the mentioned states. Civil conflicts within the countries themselves
sometimes cause difficulties even if countries have good relations with those of the transit
neighbors. During such conditions, trade routes may be cut due to border closures.
The LLDCs often possess little negotiating power over their transit neighbors. Political relations
strongly impact trade and commodity flows in LLDCs. For example, Bolivia has severe transit
limitations in Chile as the two countries have weak political relations that have for more than 100
years. Armenia is presently blocked by ethnic Armenians and Turkey whilst conflicts between
Ethiopia and Eritrea have denied Ethiopia‟s use of the port of Assab and Massawa after 1997.

Nevertheless, recent promisingly developments between the two countries may provide Ethiopia
the chance of using these two ports for its transit-trade in the future. Ethiopia now uses the port
of Djibouti for its transit trade. However, the route never satisfies Ethiopia‟s wide demand for
the transport network is poorly developed. Alternative routes through Kenya, Sudan, and
Somalia are characterized by poorly developed transport networks. Political instability and
conflict among the transit nations in Africa have been frequently obstructing their international
trade.
For instance, civil conflicts have greatly impacted the foreign trade of LLDCs of Africa. Just to
mention a few cases:e
 Mali-affected by regional conflicts since 2012
 Togo- protests and internal conflicts in the 1990s;
 Ghana- ethnic violence1993-1994;
 Sierra Leone- the 10 years civil war (1991-2002);
 Guinea- coups and rebel wars (2008);
 Liberia- a decade of violent civil wars (1989-2005);
 Cote d`ivoire- recent political crisis (since the 2002);
The mentioned political instabilities and administrative barriers strongly hindered the foreign
trade of LLDCs of Africa. These all cause transit delays and route blockades. For instance, mean
transit delays during border crossings all over Africa range from 24-48 hours. In some areas, it
can take even weeks. The mean trip from Kampala to Mombasa for instance takes about 21 days.
Sometimes, the trip may take 60 days. Note that similar delays take place in other transit and port
areas of Africa. Generally, landlocked countries face dependence based on the infrastructure
levels of the transit nations. Fees and direct costs due to administrative burdens and time delays
in export trades are also part of the challenges faced by LLDCs.

4.3.3 Interregional Trade in Africa

In Africa, population growth coupled with higher income and urbanization has derived growing
demand for local food markets. The speedy rising demand progression has also created new
opportunities and challenges. The opportunities initiated intraregional trade expansion while the
challenges pose food security constraints at country levels. Present-day Africa‟s world trade is
dominated by imports of processed food products while the export of untreated nonfood
products. This pattern is so common in many countries of the continent. It is so pertinent to
investigate whether the current supply capabilities can meet emerging needs.
Trade flow trends within Africa
Africa‟s agricultural exports (Figure 4.7) have increased since the year 2000 in the form
of intra-African agricultural trade although participation in world trade has remained low. In
the continent, Regional Economic Communities (RECs) have established preferential tariff
agreements; free trade zones, or customs unions among some neighboring member nations.
The RECs include the: Arab Maghreb Union (AMU), COMESA, Economic Community of West
African States (ECOWAS), and SADC. The mentioned RECs comprise 5, 19, 15, and 16
member states, respectively.

Figure 4.8 Intra-African agricultural exports by region of origin, 2003–2018

The value US Dollars of intra-African food and agricultural trade rose steadily beginning
roughly in 2007, peaking in 2013 with a significant decline until resuming a general upward
trend in 2016 (see Figure 4.7).
The intra-continental exports grew faster annually than extra continental exports and global
exports did from 2008 to 2015 whilst the reverse holds during the subsequent years. When
compared to other RECs, ECCAS ships the largest share of its intra-African exports outside of
the region. On average, only 46% of ECCAS‟ intra-continental trade remained within the REC in
2016–2018, which is a significantly lower share than in 2005–2007 (58%). However;
ECCAS‟ total exports are very small compared to the other RECs. Larger exporters, SADC and
COMESA, retained 84% and 66%, respectively, of their intraAfrican exports within their
respective regions during 2016–2018. ECOWAS and AMU also retained 79% and 60% of their
intra-African exports within their respective areas, respectively. ECOWAS experienced the most
notable intra-REC export trade spike in 2013; while other RECs underwent a more gradual
increase and decline. Only SADC has demonstrated an obvious increase in exports since 2016. In
a nutshell, intra-continental agricultural exports have grown steadily over the past two decades,
largely by SADC and COMESA member countries.
Top exporters and importers
Table 4.5 presents the top 10 intra-African exporters and importers of agricultural products,
in ascending order of their ranks (2016–2018 and 2005–2007). The top 10 intra-African
exporters account for roughly 70% of the formal market. Agricultural imports are more widely
dispersed, with the top importing countries accounting for only half of formal trade. Across
the two time periods, South Africa remained the dominant market player. This country was
exporting nearly a third of all intra-African formal exports and importing roughly a tenth of all
agricultural goods. South Africa‟s exports increased over time, while its import share fell.
The other top exporters include Egypt, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania whose shares increased
over time. Côte d‟Ivoire, Zambia, Namibia, Tunisia, and Ethiopia were countries whose shares of
the overall intra-African exports declined between the two time periods. In addition to South
Africa, top importers were Kenya, Egypt, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and the DRC which all
increased their shares in the import market. Namibia, Botswana, Libya, and Nigeria were
countries that decreased their shares. Of ECOWAS countries, Côte d‟Ivoire is the sole top intra-
African exporter, and Nigeria is the sole top importer. South Africa, Kenya, Namibia, and Egypt
are all top exporters and are also among the largest importers accounting for 25% of intra-
continental agricultural imports. Egypt ranked the fourth largest importer from 2016 to 2018.
Eastern and Southern African and Maghreb countries lead intra-African agricultural trade. Apart
from Côte d‟Ivoire as a large exporter and Nigeria as a large importer, other western
and central African countries play only a small role compared to major players from the other
regions that control 71% and 50% of the agricultural export and import flows, respectively.
Table 4.5. Top 10 intra-Africa exporters and importers of agricultural products,
2005-2007 and 2016-2018
In terms of trading partners, Ethiopia‟s top 10 import sources account for 99% of its intra-
African imports. The top 10 export destinations account for 98% of Ethiopia‟s intra-African
exports. The top import sources include Morocco, South Africa, and Egypt, while top export
destinations include Somalia, Djibouti, and Kenya.
The commodity composition of trade flows
Africa‟s intra-continental agricultural trade is more diversified than the intraregional trade of
South Asia which is relatively less diversified than the intra-European trade. Among the top 20
products exported within Africa, only 6 (maize, wheat, rice, cattle, apples, and vegetables) play
key food security and nutritional role for African consumers. The remaining products include
sweeteners and fats, beverages and processed foods, and traditional exports such as tea, coffee,
palm oil, cotton, and tobacco products.
Intra-African trade policies and challenges of integration
The tariff and nontariff barriers are the main challenges that hinder formal intra-Africa trade
(see for example the informal currency exchange case in Ethiopia). In many cases, non-tariffs
are more trade-restrictive than tariffs.
The intraregional traders still face high tariffs although significant progress in efforts to promote
regional integration has reduced tariff protections. Tapping into Africa‟s regional trade potential
will require coordination between regions. Yet, the said regional coordination requires strong
production and processing potential and careful consideration of nutrition-sensitive consumer
demands. Both tariffs and non-tariff measures (NTMs) can incentivize trans- shipment and
smuggling, or heighten the risk for businesses working to build streamlined, secure, and
transparent supply chains.
Administrative barriers cause undue time delays that are unworkable for certain agricultural
products, notably those that may deteriorate without cold storage and transport. Delays, costs,
and administrative burdens discourage private investment in regional supply chains of sensitive
agricultural products. They may partly explain also the high reliance on the informal
trade of fruits, vegetables, and other time-sensitive goods. If these barriers are removed, time
sensitive agricultural foods (agri-foods) may offer good opportunities to enhance regional trade
through the agri-food value chains.
Improving regional agri-food value chains will require due investment in road, transport, and
information systems infrastructure. Improving linkages between production and agroprocessing
areas, and/or between groups of smaller producers and cross-border markets, and can open new
opportunities for regional value chains. But this applies particularly if infrastructure investment
targets key corridor routes and provides relevant market information for priority regional value
chains.

4.4 Issues in Sustainable Development

The concept of Sustainable Development: Historical Overview
The concept of “Sustainable Development” has emerged as one of the development paradigms
that have given rise to a particularly rich literature, policies and programs by a wide range of
international and national governmental and NGOs.
The first United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in
Stockholm in 1972 (known as the Brundtland Report), introduced the notion of
“ecodevelopment” and led to the establishment of UNEP with the mission “to provide leadership
and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling
nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future
generations”
The second UNCED held in Nairobi, Kenya in 1987 introduced the idea of “sustainable
development”.
The third conference held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (known as the Earth Summit), further
developed “Agenda 21” that highlighted the connection between poverty and underdevelopment
on the one hand, and the connection between environmental protection and natural resource
management on the other.
Agenda 21 states in its Principle 1 that “human beings, the centre of concern for sustainable
development, are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature”.
The fourth conference known as the “World Summit on Sustainable Development” was held in
Johannesburg, South Africa in 2002. This summit placed much more emphasis on the social and
economic aspects of sustainable development. While many and confusing definitions of
sustainable development abound, others state that “a development path is sustainable if total
welfare does not decline along the path”. Critical to this definition is a realization that sufficient
welfare functions through consumption, environmental quality, social equity, and other factors to
the quality of life. This definition is broad enough to capture the essence of a pattern of resource
use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the natural resources. This is necessary so
that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for generations to come,
intergenerational equity so to speak. Sustainable development as a concept puts the relationship
between economic growth and the environment at its core.
The term was first used in 1987 by the World Commission on Environment and Development. It
is also known as the Brundtland Commission, names after its chair, Gro Harlem Brundtland. In
the commission‟s report, “Our Common Future,” sustainable development has been defined as
“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs”. It is clear that this definition is rooted in a systems
thinking as it stresses the three interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars of sustainable
development: economic development, social development, and environmental sustainability.
Sustainable development, therefore, aims to bring the three components together in a balanced
way, as three interconnected or nested rings. The nested rings approach insists that the economy
is dependent on society and the environment. Human and economic activities take place within
the environment and the society, depend on and have an impact on the environment. A key issue
for sustainable development is, therefore, the integration of different dimensions of
sustainability, taking a holistic view and overcoming barriers between disciplines, ideologies and
sectors.
The three essential dimensions of sustainable development are:
I, Economic: an economically sustainable system must be able to produce goods and services on
a continuing basis, to maintain manageable levels of government and external debt, and avoid
extreme sectoral imbalances that damage agricultural and/or industrial production.
II, Environmental: an environmentally sustainable system must maintain a stable
resource base and avoid overexploitation of non-renewable resource systems, including
maintenance of biodiversity, atmospheric stability and ecosystems services not always looked
upon as economic resources.
I, .Social: a socially sustainable system must achieve fairness in distribution and opportunity
among all persons with adequate provision of such social services as health, education and
gender equity. The social dimension focuses on reconciliation of environment and development,
and governance related to provision of social services.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, were
adopted by the United Nations in 2015 as a universal call to action to end poverty,
protect the planet, and ensure that by 2030 all people enjoy peace and prosperity
 The 17 SDGs are integrated, they recognize that action in one area will affect outcomes
in others, and that development must balance social, economic and environmental
sustainability.
 Countries have committed to prioritize progress for those who are furthest behind.
 The SDGs are designed to end poverty, hunger, HIV/AIDS, and discrimination against
women and girls.
 The creativity, knowhow, technology and financial resources from all society are
necessary to achieve the SDGs in every context.

Integration of the SDGs in the Ethiopian National Development Frameworks:

In light of implementing the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda, the FDRE appreciates the
meaningful contribution of the SDGs to Ethiopia‟s aspirations to eradicate poverty and bring
about prosperity for its people. The SDG‟s integration into theGrowth and Transportation Plan II
(GTP II) was, therefore, made possible by taking into account principal directions from GTP II.
GTP II focuses on creating conducive condition for macroeconomic stability, ensuring fast and
sustained economic development, infrastructural development, human resources and
technological capacity building, ensuring good governance and democratic systems building,
environmental development, building of democratic systems, and in general fulfilling the
renaissance journey of Ethiopia. Existing institutional forms and mechanisms have been used in
implementing the SDGs and GTP II. SDGs have also a role to accelerate the economic
development of Ethiopia in infrastructures development.
Integrated with GTP II, SDGs were implemented across the nation in 2015/16 fiscal year and
progresses have been registered. This was made possible through:
1. Ensuring universal (inclusive) access to equitable and quality education (SDG 4).
2. Ensuring availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all (SDG-6).
3. Ensuring access to affordable & reliable energy for all (SDG-7)
Good Health and Well-Being was one of the areas that progress has been registered. great
progress has been made against several leading causes of death and disease. Life expectancy
has increased dramatically; infant and maternal mortality rates have declined and the tide on HIV
and malaria deaths have halved.
Performance of the SDGs
 The national and sectoral policies and strategies of the FDRE focused on eradication of
poverty and implementation of development interventions that would have returns
satisfying all the nation-wide demands/needs while ensuring inter-generational equity
 The Climate-Change-Resilient Green-Economy strategy (CRGE-strategy) has been
implemented.
 The Paris Agreement on climate change has also been implemented.
 National Policy and strategy on disaster prevention and management has been
implemented across the nation.
 The Paris Agreement on climate change has also been implemented.
 National Policy and strategy on disaster prevention and management has been
implemented across the nation.
In order to achieve the 2030 SDGs, national development priorities have been identified in the
GTP II which is the first 5 years-phase (2015/16-2019/20). As the country made wide
governance reform after 2018 the GTP plan was also adopted into homegrown economic reform.
The new 10 year development plan of 2021-2030 is also contemplating the SDG main pillars.
These include:
 I. Ensuring that the agricultural development sector remains the mainstay of the
nation‟s accelerated economic development;
II. II. Expediting change in the economic structure of the nation by transforming the
manufacturing industry development;
III. Enhancing the economy to its full economic capacity through increased focus on
competitiveness, efficiency, productivity and quality;
IV. Correcting the imbalance between overall demand and supply;
V. Fostering the development of the construction industry and projects‟ management
capacity;
VI. Institutionalizing urban administration and management compatible with the
accelerated urbanization, industrialization and structural changes in the economy;
VII. Creating enabling environment for the transformation of domestic investors;
VIII. Providing support to human resources development through building technologic
capacity;
IX. Building climate resilient green economy and
X. Eliminating rent-seeking behaviors and ensuring the predominance of developmental
frame of mind.
Shortcoming of the notion of Sustainable Development
The Planetary Project criticism of the Concept of Sustainable Development develops in the
Following directions:
 The incorrectness of the term “sustainable development” and its internal logical
contradiction.
 The narrowness of the term and the provocative tendency to confine global
problems to the environmental context. Many scholars, politicians, social activists
and industrialists believe that environmental protection issues cover the entire
sustainable development strategy.
 The absence of a single concept of sustainable development, with multiple concept
definitions causing considerable implementation difficulties.
 There is an opinion that the implementation of the concept of sustainable
development can only bring benefits to a certain part of humanity rather than to
all people.
  The controversial character of several methods used by the Concept of Sustainable
Development.
 The diversity in understanding the goals of sustainable development, naturally
arising from the different worldviews of the participants implementing a new
civilization model, and countries and people representing cultural, social and
political diversity.
 Without doubt, The Concept of Sustainable Development goals are aimed at creating a
just and balanced world design.
Thus, in any case, both the critics and followers of the concept of Sustainable Development are
united in believing that transition to sustainable development requires dramatic transformation
of the current civilization, the core of which is the environmentalisation of all major human
activities.

4.4.2 Sustainability Challenges

The concept of sustainability, as well as its approach, connects social science, environmental
science, and future technology. As a result, the issue of sustainability includes a wide variety
of explanations and arguments. The sustainability approaches are also severely challenged
by a wide range of elements found in various parts of the world. Population expansion,
urbanization, energy usage and global warming, water shortages, and waste management are the
most serious challenges to the planet's sustainable development. Let us now go through
these threats in greater detail.

Population Growth
The world population in 2019 was about 7.7 billion with an annual growth rate of about 1.1
percent. To put the recent growth in perspective, the world population in the year 1900 was only
1.6 billion and in 1960 it was 3.0 billion. According to UN, in 2030 the world population will be
about 8.5 billion and in 2050 it will be about 9.7 billion. Currently, 80 million people are being
added every year in less developed countries, compared with about 1.6 million in more
developed countries. Thus, populations are growing more rapidly in places where such growth
cannot be afforded in many aspects. The amount of bio-productive land and sea available to
supply human needs is limited. As a consequence of three-quarters of the land area being
covered by seas, half of the terrestrial land being desert, and more than a quarter being high
mountain ranges, relatively few locations are available for comfortable human settlement. It is
believed that just one-eighth of the Earth‟s surface is suitable for human habitation. Currently,
the approximately 11.2 billion hectares of productive earth, divided by the 6.3 billion people who
depend on it for their wellbeing, results in an average of approximately 1.8 hectares per person.
Collectively, we are currently using approximately 2.2 hectares per person or over 20% more
than is produced annually, which means that the population has already exceeded the sustainable
limit.

Urbanization
In 1950, New York was the only city in the world with a population of more than 10 million. The
number of cities with more than 10 million people increased to 5 in 1975 and 17 in
2001, and 21 cities in 2015. The world‟s urban population reached 2.9 billion in 2000 and is
expected to increase by 2.1 billion by 2030. This will make up roughly 60 percent of the world‟s
population. Population growth coupled with urbanization results in significant impacts on the
environment and other problems, which include:
 increased ambient temperature,
 decreased air quality,
 increased water run-off,
 decreased quality of run-off water,
 altered weather patterns, loss of natural beauty,
 reduction in farmlands and subsequent food shortage, and
 Deforestation.
Energy use and global warming
There is a broad relation between wealth and energy consumption. Figure 6.8 shows the
contribution of various sources to this worldwide power consumption. The energy consumption
in India rose threefold, from 4.16 to 12.8 quadrillion but between 1980 and 2001, putting India
next only to the US, Germany, Japan and China in total energy consumption. Though greenhouse
effect occurs naturally atmospheric concentrations of some of the gases that produce the
greenhouse effect are increasing due to human activity causing global warming. Over one-third
of human-induced greenhouse gases come from the burning of fossil fuel to generate electricity.
All fossil fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and they release carbon dioxide when burned
Water scarcity
According to the United Nations, one out of every six people do not have access to safe
drinking water, and more than double that number do not have access to adequate sanitation.
Only approximately 2.5 percent of the Earth‟s water is fresh water, and three-quarters of it is
locked up in glaciers and permanent snow cover. Only 0.3 percent of water is surface water
found in rivers and lakes, and therefore easily accessible. Throughout the world, both the
ground and surface water is being used at a faster rate than it is being replenished. A country
is considered water-scarce when its annual supply of renewable freshwater is less than 1,000
m3 cube per capita.
Waste management
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal of waste
materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity and is generally
undertaken to reduce their effect on health, aesthetics or as an amenity. Waste management
is also carried out to reduce the effect of the material(s) on the environment and to recover
resources from them. Waste management can involve solid, liquid or gaseous substances, with
different methods and processes for each of them. Various methods are used for waste
management which includes disposal (landfill and incineration), recycling (physical and
biological processing), energy recovery, and avoidance and reduction. Every year, the globe
generates 2.01 billion tons of municipal solid garbage, with at least 33% of that waste not being
managed in an ecologically sustainable manner. The amount of garbage created per person every
day in the world averages 0.75 kilograms but ranges from 0.11 to 4.54 kilograms. Despite
accounting for only 16% of the worldwide population, high income nations create 34% or 683
million tons of global garbage. The trend also reveals that global waste is predicted to rise to 3.4
billion tons by 2050.
Sustainable solutions
The aforementioned environmental concerns and sustainability challenges sparked arguments
regarding the remedial actions that must be implemented to prevent future deterioration of
the environment. Despite the fact that scientists and environmentalists have documented the
extent and severity of these environmental problems for decades, little progress has been made
in meeting the objectives. Aside from that, sustainable solutions to environmental challenges
are frequently neglected in favor of technical processes. A number of solutions have been
suggested and some have been successfully implemented in the past in several countries to
produce clean energy and to maintain sustainability. Some of these solutions are described
below.
Combating climate change
Reduction in change of climate and impacts of global warming is urgently required for present as
well as the future. Various types of measures are taken for combating climate change and global
warming, and microbes have great potential to do the task.SIX Though there are various
mechanisms to control the greenhouse gases, new developments have been observed in
biological and more environmental friendly mechanism. For example, oceans are known as the
largest carbon reservoir on the earth and consume about one-third of all human carbon
emissions. It is reported that about half of the carbon dioxide on the earth is fixed by
cyanobacteria and other ocean microbes‟ mainly through photosynthesis and can be converted
into carbon-rich lipids which can be used for biofuel production. Apart from many
governmental and non-governmental groups' attempts at GHG (Greenhouse as Reduction)
through institutional reasoning, multiple awareness campaigns and local green moments are
also significant. Global warming can also be mitigated by preserving ecologically significant
regions, developing environmentally friendly energy and waste management systems, and
employing biofuels.
Role in sustainable agriculture
The fertility of soil is a parameter not only confined to availability of nutrients but also
the microbial flora flourishing in the soil. Soil microorganisms maintain the fertility of agro
ecosystems, and sustain the crop productivity by maintaining the ecological balance. But the
problem is that due to heavy input of chemicals in agro-ecosystems, several of these beneficial
microbes are getting depleted or extinct from the soil. Aside from the drawbacks of using
chemical fertilizers and pesticides, there is a need to introduce beneficial soil microorganisms
into both damaged and unaffected agro-ecosystems in order to increase yields in an
environmentally acceptable manner.
Renewable Energy
Though a number of alternative proposals have been given for meeting the growing energy
demands of the world, the renewable energy power plant more appealing one is solar. One of
these examples is solar chimney. The solar chimney consists of three essential elements - glass
roof collector, chimney and wind turbine. Air is heated in a very large circular structure similar
to a greenhouse, and the resulting convection causes the air to rise and escape through a tall
tower. The moving air drives turbines, which produce electricity. This type of power plant
provides enormous amount of energy with no ecological breakdown at minimal cost (most poor
countries cannot afford environmental protection), and without safety hazards (unlike
nuclear power plants).Above all, there is no depletion of natural resources at the expense of
future generations.
Many countries are excessively provided with solar radiation in their deserts. There are also
numerous technologies and schemes that have been created using such renewable energy sources
or in an environmentally friendly manner, such as solar, wind farm, hydropower, and
geothermal, as well as the waste recycling energy process.
Green buildings
A green/ sustainable building design is one that achieves high performance over the full life
cycle, in the following areas: Minimizing natural resource consumption through more efficient
utilization of nonrenewable natural resources Minimizing emissions that negatively impact the
indoor and outdoor environment Minimizing discharge of solid waste and liquid
Minimal negative impact on site ecosystem.
4.4.3 Multiple Faces of Poverty and Implications on Development
Concepts of Poverty
Poverty is generally considered to be a measure of deficiency of the basic needs that a person,
household or community required to meet as a basic standard of living. This deficiency can be
measured either in terms of a lack of resources such as income, assets, capabilities (e.g. skills,
knowledge, technology or both). Basically poverty could be divided into two much known
division; absolute and relative poverty.
Absolute poverty is when household income is below a certain level, which makes it
impossible for the person or family to meet basic needs of life including food, shelter, safe
drinking water, education, healthcare, etc In this state of poverty, even if the country is growing
economically it has no effect on people living below the poverty line. Absolute poverty
compares households based on a set of income level and this level varies from country to country
depending on its overall economic conditions.
Relative poverty is when households receive 50% less than average household incomes, so
they do have some money but still not enough money to afford anything above the basic
need. This type of poverty is, on the other hand, changeable depending on the economic
growth of the country.
 Relative poverty is sometimes described as “relative deficiency” because the people
falling under this category are not living in total poverty, but they are not enjoying
the same standard of life as everyone else in the country. It can be expressed in
terms of having internet, clean clothes, a safe home (a healthy environment, free
from abuse or neglect), or even education.
 Relative poverty can also be permanent, meaning that certain families have
absolutely no chance of enjoying the same standards of living as other people in
the same society currently have access to. They are basically “trapped” in a low
relative income box.
 When the relative approach is used to measure poverty, there is another concept that
needs to be explored, namely, persistent poverty. This is when households receive 50 or
60% less income than average incomes every 2 out of 3 years. Since long-term poverty
has more impactful consequences on economic and social conditions, persistent poverty
is an important concept to bear in mind. There are also other measures of the dimensions
of poverty and their indicators used in different researches works (Table 4.6)
.Table 5.1. The selected dimensions and indicators
Causes of Poverty
The causes of poverty are divided into two parts.
These are the structural reasons of poverty as well as the behavioral or cultural explanations for
poverty.
The structural approach points to systemic reasons for poverty: such things as racial and
gender discrimination embedded in our markets and institutions; the profit motive and
consequent low wages making it difficult for some families to escape poverty; and the failure to
invest sufficiently in education, health care, and social insurance. According to this view, all of
these factors reduce opportunity and increase economic insecurity. The failure to correct and
accommodate the natural differences between people results in an uneven playing field and
promotes the creation of poverty. Structural approaches to poverty point to patriarchy,
capitalism, white privilege, and racism as the fundamental causes of most of the poverty in
Western economies. Thus, the structural approach has come to be associated with those on
the political left.
Behavioral or cultural approach: Without dismissing the fact that our structures, institutions,
and systems might help explain poverty, especially the enabling of poverty, there are other
researchers who emphasize culture, behavior, and personal differences as the source of much
of the poverty that we observe in modern societies. Their argument is that there is a poverty
culture or a set of attitudes and behaviors that tends to get passed along from parents to
children and tends to perpetuate bad, self-defeating decisions, and hence poverty. Those
attitudes (fatalism and the rejection of common societal norms like hard work, rationality,
and non-violent dispute resolution) make many of the poor less attractive in the labor and
marriage market and less capable parents. This perspective does not suggest that it is easy
for low income people to resist these attitudes, but insists that each person has free will and
is ultimately responsible for their own life. The behavioral or cultural approach to explaining
poverty is typically favored by those who describe themselves as conservative or libertarian.
Examining the features emphasized by poor people is one approach to examining the causes
of poverty. Some of these features are:
 Lack of income and assets to attain basic necessities food, shelter, clothing, and
acceptable levels of health and education.
 Sense of voicelessness and powerlessness in the institutions of state and society.
  Vulnerability to adverse shocks, linked to an inability to cope with them.
To understand the determinants ofpoverty in all its dimensions, it is helpful to think in terms
of people‟s assets, the returns to (or productivity of) these assets, and the volatility of returns.
These assets are of several kinds:
 Human assets, such as the capacity for basic labor, skills, and good health.
 Natural assets, such as land.
 Physical assets, such as access to infrastructure.
 Financial assets, such as savings and access to credit.
 Social assets, such as networks of contacts and reciprocal obligations that can be
called on in time of need, and political influence over resources.
As stated clearly in various literatures, poverty mainly caused by labor market issues, education,
demographic characteristics (age and family structure), race, poverty-related policies and cultural
factors.
Relationship between Conflict and Poverty
There is increasing recognition among researchers, social activists as well as policy-makers that
violent conflict and poverty are inter-linked. In some instances, poverty can be identified as a
factor directly contributing to conflict and in other instances conflict could be seen as creating
poverty. Poverty has traditionally been a concern of development. Violent conflict on the other
hand has been considered a peace and security issue. It is only relatively recently that these idea
have begun to converge around the issue of violent conflict and poverty. The literatures on
conflict and chronic poverty to examine three hypotheses of relationship:
1. Conflict causes poverty
2. Poverty causes conflict
3. Resource wealth causes conflict
Conflict causes poverty
There is some consensus around the proposition that conflict causes poverty. Recently however,
partly due to the problems of getting reliable data, there have been mainly descriptive accounts
of the costs of conflict. The direct impacts including battlefield deaths, disablement and
displacement have long-term costs for societies. Chronic poverty is likely to increase
due to higher dependency ratios caused by an increased proportion of the old, women and
disabled in the population. In a global analysis of conflict affected countries found similar
patterns of macro-economic effects including a fall in GDP per capita, food production and
exports, a fall in gross investment, government revenue and expenditure. War can lead to
entitlement collapse and famine. Drawing upon the literature on famine and conflict, one can
distinguish a continuum from vulnerability to external shocks to starvation and death.

Therefore a sole focus on destruction, poverty and people as victims provides only a partial
reading of war. But it has outlined the political, economic and social dimensions of conflict
which are likely to have an impact on chronic poverty. Moreover, the protracted, collapsed-state
conflicts are likely to lead to intergenerational exclusion and chronic poverty.
Poverty causes conflict
The hypothesis that poverty causes conflict is more contentious. Currently, conflicts are multi
causal with a range of short term and long term factors coming into play, including a sudden
economic slowdown in the face of rising expectations, external shocks and state crises.
Isolating and weighting the different „risk factors‟ is difficult. Is poverty a permissive or causal
factor? Is it a structural cause, a trigger or an accelerator of violent conflict? Searching for root
causes may have limited value given the capacity of conflicts to mutate over time. Few would
argue for a deterministic link between poverty and conflict and the challenge is to understand
how poverty may interact with a range of other factors in certain contexts and at certain times
to produce violent conflict. A body of empirical work has emerged which examines poverty‟s
role as one of a number of causal factors behind violent conflict.
Resource wealth causes conflict
Recent research works of the World Bank questions the view that conflicts are driven by
grievance. The study also argues that popular perceptions are shaped by the discourse which
conflicts themselves generate. War cannot be fought just on hopes and hatreds. Civil wars
occur when rebel organizations are financially viable. Therefore it is the feasibility of predation
which determines the risk of conflict. Rebellion is motivated by greed, so that it occurs when
rebels can do well out of war.
4.4.4 Globalization (Advantages and Limitations)
Advantages of Globalization
Globalization increases free trade: Globalization has increased the free trade between
countries. The increased capital liquidity has allowed investors in well developed nations to
invest in developing countries. Huge corporations from developed nations have great flexibility
to operate in other countries.
Global mass media ties the world together: The increased flow of communication has
allowed global mass media to tie the world together. Besides, global mass media has allowed
vital information to be shared between corporations and individuals around the world.
Globalization has also contributed to greater speed and ease of transporting goods and people.
Eradicates Cultural Barriers: Countries joining together economically, through politics
and education have reduced and can even eradicate cultural barriers, and increase the global
village effect. Globalization has proven to be the medium for the spread of democratic ideals to
well developed nations and greater independence to developing countries in the Global South.
Reduction of War: Reduction of war between well developed nations is probably one of the
primary benefits of globalization.
The following is a list of benefit that could be gained from globalization, both by the countries
of global south and north.
 Increased free trade between nations,
 Increased liquidity of capital allowing investors in developed nations to invest in
developing nations,
 Corporations have greater flexibility to operate across borders,
 Global mass media ties the world together,
 Increased flow of communications allows vital information to be shared between
individuals and corporations around the world,
 Greater ease and speed of transportation of goods and people,
 Reduction of cultural barriers increases the global village effect,
 Spread of democratic ideals to developed nations,
 Reduction of likelihood of war between developed nations, and
 Increases in environmental protection efforts in developed nations.
Disadvantages of Globalization
Decreased environmental integrity: Globalization has the potential to decrease
environmental integrity as polluting corporations from well developed countries can take
advantage of developing nations weak regulatory rules.
The seek for cheap labor: Globalizations increases jobs for non-skilled and skilled peoples
of the developing nations as huge corporations of developed countries seek for cheap labor. This
condition also creates further inequality between developed and developing countries. Thus the
economic trend can also increase the likelihood of economic disrupt in a single nations, which
could affect all nations socioeconomic condition, particularly in the impoverished developing
nations.
Limits cultural expressions: Globalization imposes limits on free expression as most of the
mass media tends to be controlled by huge corporations. This means that mass media can be used
by handful corporations to pose risks in the cultural heritage of both well developed and
developing nations.
The following are some of the general disadvantages of globalization.
 Increased likelihood of economic disruptions in one nation effecting all nations
 Corporate influence of nation-states far exceeds that of civil society organizations
and average individuals,
 Threat that control of world media by a handful of corporations will limit
cultural diversity,
 Greater chance of reactions for globalization being violent in an attempt to
preserve cultural heritage
 Greater risk of diseases being transported unintentionally between nations,
 Spread of a materialistic lifestyle and attitude that sees consumption as the path
to prosperity,
 International bodies like the World Trade Organization infringe on national and
individual sovereignty, and
 Increase in the chances of civil war within developing countries and open war
between developing countries as they vie for resources.
Globalization is a global economic trend that is here to stay. It has advantages and disadvantages,
and these things will not disappear. People just need to know how to reap its benefits and reduce
its risks. People must understand its impact globally, and work altogether to remedy
the problems that may arise in the future. All countries in the Global North and Global South
must work altogether to spread its benefits
4.4.5 The Growth imbalance between Regions and Countries
The concept of economic inequality between regions and countries
The idea of inequality is both very simple and very complex. At one level it is the simplest of all
ideas and has moved people with an immediate appeal hardly matched by any other concept. At
the same time, is a very complex notion that has been the subject of much research outputs by
philosophers, statisticians, political theorists, sociologists and economists. From the ancient
period to the present, theories have seen trade as a key instrument in determining the trend of
regional and country economic inequality.
Both the convergence and divergence hypotheses take it into account with their distinct
assumptions and methodologies. The available evidence on trends in global economic inequality
comes mainly from two types of studies. Studies of the first type have been concerned with
empirically testing the catching up or convergence hypothesis.
Convergence hypotheses states that less developed countries and regions should be expected to
grow faster than more developed ones. The hypothesis clearly refers to what we have called
inter-country inequality and proposes that we should expect this to decline over time. Three main
arguments have been advanced in support of the hypothesis.
 First, the latecomers into the world of modern economic growth enjoy an advantage
because they can simply adopt and exploit technologies, which the pioneers had to
develop through their own efforts.
 Second, assumption reflects there are diminishing returns to inputs factor. This implies
less developed economies have an advantage of low production cost because of low labor
wage and the price of other factor input. Thus, for equivalent rates of investment, the less
developed economies should be able to achieve higher growth.
 Third, the shift of large amounts of labor from farm to industry boosts labor
productivity in general. The importance of this source of productivity growth, however,
 declines with development as productivity tends to equalize across sectors and activities,
and fewer and fewer workers remain in low-productivity
Nevertheless, widening income inequality is the defining challenge of our time. In advanced
economies, the gap between the rich and poor is at its highest level in decades. Inequality
trends have been more mixed in emerging markets and developing countries. Thus, the Second
view investigates the divergent trends in inequality developments across advanced economies
and developing countries, with a particular focus on the poor and the middle class.
The pro-divergent notion primarily highlighted the rationale for this divergence as the countries'
current experience. They practically demonstrate a diverging pattern of inequality. The following
are some of the evidences that support the greater divergent pattern of inequality.
 Inequality has been exacerbated by technological development and the associated
increase in skill, as well as the collapse of various labor market institutions in both
advanced economies and developing countries.
 The growing skill premiums are related with expanding income inequalities in
advanced nations, whereas financial deepening is associated with rising inequality in
developing countries.
Cause and effect of trade imbalance
An important indicator of regional and national inequality is measuring the trade balance. A
trade imbalance occurs when the cost of a country's imports exceeds the cost of its exports.
It is one approach to measure international commerce, and it's also known as a negative
trade balance. A country's trade deficit may be calculated by subtracting the entire value of its
exports from the total value of its imports. The major causes and effect of this imbalance are
stated below.
Causes: A trade imbalance happens when a country does not produce what it requires and
must borrow from other countries to pay for imports. This is referred to as a current account
deficit. A trade deficit also occurs when companies manufacture goods in other countries. The
raw materials for manufacturing that are shipped overseas for factory production count as an
export. The finished manufactured goods are counted as imports when they're shipped back
to the country. The imports are subtracted from the country's gross domestic product even
though the earnings may benefit the company's stock price, and the taxes may increase the
country's revenue stream.
Effects: A trade can enhance a country's standard of living since citizens can access a broader
range of goods and services at a lower cost. It can also reduce the threat of inflation since it
creates lower prices. However, a trade imbalance may result in more job outsourcing to foreign
countries over time. As a country imports more goods than it buys domestically, then the
home country may create fewer jobs in certain industries. At the same time, foreign companies
will likely hire new workers to keep up with the demand for their exports.
Measurement of countries and regional inequalities
Economic inequality, in this context, measures the inequality between a percentage of population
and the percentage of resources (such as income) received by that population. Inequality studies
explore the levels of resource disparity and their practical and political implications. Though
there are number of measures, the most often used metrics for evaluating global economic
disparity is per capita GDP. The major characteristics or features that were considered in such
assessment are listed below.
 Physical attributes – distribution of natural ability is not equal
 Personal Preferences – Relative valuation of leisure and work effort differs
 Social Process – Pressure to work or not to work varies across particular fields or
disciplines
 Public Policy – tax, labor, education, and other policies affect the distribution of
resources.
Most people believed that economic disparity in Africa was quite modest and, at best, wasn't a
significant barrier to reducing poverty until recently. Mostly because they are all generally
impoverished. However, there was a general sense of concern when it was found that inequality
in Sub-Saharan Africa was among the greatest in the world. The discrepancy can be seen in both
income and non-income circumstances.
Income inequality of sub-Saharan Africa is one of the most unequal, despite low levels of per
capita income. Inequalities in non-income dimensions of welfare are also high, particularly
between men and women and between regions, and have remained persistent over time.
Furthermore, although income inequalities are typically more of an urban phenomenon, asset
based and capability-based inequalities in fact tend to be higher in rural than urban areas.
In countries where there is a significant initial income difference, economic growth is less
effective at alleviating poverty. Economic expansion and inequality reduction must go hand in
hand to significantly reduce poverty. Based on data from the World Bank
gathered between 2011 and 2018, shows the level of inequality in a chosen number of sub-
Saharan African countries. According to the data, a country's index value rises when levels of
economic disparity among its citizens‟ decline.
The Widening current global imbalance
Measures of inequality based on GINI coefficients of gross and net incomes have increased
substantially since 1990 in most of the developed world. Inequality, on average,
has remained stable in developing countries, Although at a much higher level than observed in
advanced economies. However, there are large disparities across developing countries, with Asia
and Eastern Europe experiencing marked increases in inequality, and countries in Latin America
exhibiting notable declines (although the region remains the most unequal in the
world). During 1990–2012, market income inequality in advanced economies increased by an
average of 50 GINI points compared to a 3 GINI point increase in the net GINI coefficient.
 UNIT 5

CONTEMPORARY GEOGRAPHIC ISSUES AND PUBLIC CONCERNS

5.1 Environmental Problems and Natural Resource Degradation
Currently, environmental problems have become globalized in terms of their existence and
impacts as well as the socioeconomic factors that generate them. This subsection discusses the
nature of environmental problems and their global reach. Yet, while the problems are clearly
global and affect human societies worldwide, it is obvious that some societies (and people)
have contributed a hugely disproportionate share to our current problems and demands on
the global ecosystem. Environmental analysts emphasize that the ecological footprints of
poorer nations, and particularly the individual footprints of their citizens, are vastly lower than
those of wealthy nations and their citizens. In both the academic and practical senses, interest in
global environmental concerns has grown significantly in the aftermath of the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.

Some of the major Global Environmental Problems discussed in this section include climate
change, ozone depletion, biodiversity loss, air and water pollution, and land degradation.
I. Climate Change
The environmental problem most discussed at the moment is climate change (see also unit 2 for
details). Climate change already has observable ecological and social effects, and its projected
impacts could potentially result in profound changes in global mean surface temperature,
sea level, ocean circulation, precipitation patterns, climatic zones, species distributions and
ecosystem function. The climatically active Green House Gases are disrupting the earth‟s
thermal balance by partially blocking thermal radiation into outer space thus, intensified
greenhouse effect. As you learned in Unit 2, governments all around the globe have proposed
various mitigation and adaptation measures that have to be practiced by industries and each
citizen of them to prevent the devastating impacts of climate change.

II. Ozone Layer Depletion

The ozone (O3) layer forms a barrier in the stratospheric layer (approximately 15 to 30
kilometers above the Earth's surface) thereby protecting humanity from the sun's damaging
UltraViolet (UV) rays. It became clear that the ozone layer is being depleted by ozone layer
depletion substances such as chlorofluorocarbon (CFC). When an ozone layer is depleted,
harmful ultra violet rays reach the Earth‟s surface, causing health hazards such as skin cancer or
cataracts. Ozone layer is being depleted globally except over tropical areas and the rate
of depletion is higher in the highest latitude regions

Therefore, by reducing emissions of ozone-depleting substances, the Montreal Protocol has

protected both the ozone layer and the climate at the same time. The approach used to reduce
ozone depletion substances (ODS) is to replace them with fluorinated gases known as F-gases,
which include hydrofluorocarbons (HFCS), perfluorocarbons (PFCS), and sulfur-hexafluoride
(SF6). Despite the fact that they are not ODS, these gases have been recognized as greenhouse
gases that contribute to climate change. In reality, F-gases are considerably smaller than CO2
and are rising in the atmosphere on a regular basis.
III. Biodiversity Loss
The "United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity" was adopted by 154 states during
the UN conference in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and came into effect in December 1993.
This conveys the global community's recognition that environmental protection requires a
far-reaching paradigm shift. The concept of biological diversity or biodiversity embraces all
animal and plant species, including microorganisms, the genetic variability within the species,
and the earth's ecosystems in which these species live together.

Despite several international agreements on the conservation and wise use of biodiversity,
natural ecosystem degradation and the loss of species linked with it continue rapidly. The
main reason no doubt is that the approaches to international protection of nature and species
previously adopted do not go far enough; and the situation is exacerbated by the lack of
political will and of financial commitments needed to address it. The Biodiversity Convention
raises the claim to change this situation.
IV. Air and Water Pollution
Air Pollution Air pollution is defined as the intrusion of chemicals, particles, or biological
elements into the atmosphere that cause discomfort, sickness, or death in people, harm other
living creatures such as food crops, or harm the natural or built environment. Pollutants are divided
into two types: primary and secondary. The following are some of the significant air pollutions identified
in the given category:
Primary pollutant: Pollutants that are formed and emitted directly from particular sources.
Sulphur dioxides (SO2) is a chemical compound produced by volcanoes and in various
industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain Sulphur compounds, their
combustion generates sulfur dioxide. The interaction of sulfur with oxygen produces acid rain,
which can cause significant environmental harm.

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are expelled from high temperature combustion, and are also
produced naturally during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be seen as the brown
haze dome above or plume downwind of cities. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This
reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor, and it is one of the prominent
pollutants.
Carbon monoxide (CO) - is a colorless, odorless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a
produced by incomplete combustion of fuel such as charcoal, natural gas, coal or wood.
Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide. For example, have you
heard of individuals dying or suffering from significant cardiovascular problems as a result of
incomplete burning of charcoal in a confined room? This is an important tangible example of the
consequences of CO pollution.

Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are important outdoor air pollutants. They are often
divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane
is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhance global warming.
Pollutants are divided into two types: primary and secondary. The following are some of the
significant air pollutions identified in the given category:

Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone
and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending
on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the perfume compounds benzene, toluene and
xylene are suspected chemicals and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure.
Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter,
or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol
refers to particles and the gas together. Sources of particulates can be man-made or natural.
Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland
fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in
vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of
aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols currently account for about 10
percent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles
in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function and lung
cancer.
Secondary Pollutant: Pollutants that are formed in the lower atmosphere by chemical
reactions. Particulates are created from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in
photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a combination of
smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused
by a mixture of smoke and Sulphur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal
but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet
light from the sun to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to
form photochemical smog.

Ground level ozone (O3) is formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent
of the troposphere; it is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere
commonly known as the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it
drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At
abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of
fossil fuel). It is a pollutant and a constituent of smog.

V. Water Pollution and Ocean Exhaustion

Water pollution occurs when harmful substances often chemicals or microorganisms contaminate
a stream, river, lake, ocean aquifer or other water bodies that damage the quality
and rendering it toxic to humans or other environment. Basically, water is able to dissolve more
substances than any other liquid, this is the main reason why it is easily polluted. Toxic
material emitted from farmyards, urban areas and industries simply mix with it thereby causing
water pollution. When the contaminant is originated from a single source, we call the pollution
point source pollution. When the pollutant comes from diffused sources, we call it nonpoint
source pollution. Chemicals and heavy materials from industrial and municipal wastewater
contaminate water ways as well. These contaminants are toxic to aquatic life most often reducing
an organism‟s life span and the ability to reproduce.
Damage and depletion of the marine environment, which covers roughly 70% of the earth‟s
surface and more than 95% of the water system, has a substantial impact on the overall
environmental balance. Pollutants from the land along the edge and interior portion of the
continent have severely harmed the world's oceans and seas. Though chemicals, fertilizers, and
heavy metals are the most common contaminants, plastic debris carried by rivers and winds is
also a significant pollutant. Ocean "dead zones” regions of the sea where oxygen is severely
or entirely depleted and most forms of life cannot survive are becoming more numerous, and
scientists warn that they will continue to increase unless we curb the factors driving global
climate change, which is fueling this alarming shift in ocean chemistry. Even outside these
near-lifeless ocean regions, rising global temperatures and invasions of nutrient pollution are
regulating oxygen levels in the open ocean and in coastal areas, threatening communities of
sea life around the world.
Over the past 50 years, the ocean suffered from a loss of about 85 billion tons of oxygen,
affecting an accumulated area approximately the size of the European Union. Globally, the
amount of zero-oxygen ocean water has quadrupled, while the area occupied by low-oxygen
zones has increased by 10 times. In coastal areas and seas that are semi-enclosed, once low
oxygen conditions are established, they can persist for thousands of years, according to some
studies.
VI. Land Degradation and Soil Contamination

Land degradation is defined as a negative trend in land condition, caused by direct or indirect
human-induced processes including anthropogenic climate change, expressed as long-term
reduction or loss of at least one of the following: biological productivity, ecological integrity, o
value to humans. Land deterioration has been associated with mankind since the widespread
introduction of agriculture during the Neolithic period, around 10,000 to 7,500 years ago.
Land degradation has multiple and complex impacts on the global environment through
a range of direct and indirect processes affecting a wide array of ecosystem functions and
services.
Land degradation is one of the world‟s most pressing environmental problems and it will
worsen without rapid remedial action. When land is degraded, soil carbon and nitrous oxide is
released into the atmosphere, making land degradation one of the most important contributors
to climate change. Scientists recently warned that 24 billion tons of fertile soil was being lost
per year, largely due to unsustainable agriculture practices.

Soil pollution, on the other hand, is defined as the presence of harmful substances (pollutants
or contaminants) at such amounts in a soil to endanger human health and/or the ecosystem.
Soil contamination happens as a result of direct infection, such as raw material leaks owing
to improper treatment, or indirectly through water pollution or air pollution induced by
commercial operations. Once soil is contaminated, hazardous substances are deposited,
causing a long-term contamination. In the case of contaminants which occur naturally in soil,
even when their levels are not high enough to pose a risk, soil pollution is still said to occur if
the levels of the contaminants in soil exceed the levels that should naturally be present.
Soil pollution affects plants, animals and humans alike. Anyone is susceptible to soil pollution
or soil pollution effects: however, the susceptibility may vary based on age, general health
status and other factors, such as the type of pollutant or contaminant inhaled or ingested.
Children, for instance, are usually more susceptible to exposure to contaminants, because they
come in close contact with the soil by playing on the ground; combined with lower thresholds
for disease, this triggers higher risks than for adults.

The Global Environmental Facility (GEF) is an initiative focused at addressing this type of
issue. The GEF is well-placed to help countries implement convention decisions and facilitate
coordinated investments in sustainable land management practices. The three GEF Impact
Programs form a major component of the GEF delivery towards combating land degradation
and deforestation are: The Food Systems, Land Use, and Restoration (FOLUR) Impact Program
provides
the opportunity for an integrated approach to implementing sustainable land management to
increase the prospects for food security for smallholders and communities that are dependent on
farming for their livelihoods.

The Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) Impact Program seeks to avoid further degradation,
desertification, and deforestation of land and ecosystems in drylands through the sustainable
management of the landscapes. The sustainable cities impact program will create opportunities
for countries to integrate voluntary Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) target in to urban
planning.
Natural Resource Degradation
Concepts of resource degradation and their causes

Resource degradation is the overall loss (decline) of the quality and quantity of land resources
such as soils, water, and biological mass .It is often initiated by human activity and sometimes by
natural hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, land-sliding, and flooding.

he degradation of land resources happens at a wider scale all over the world yet, its impacts are
much worse in developing countries like those in Africa. The devastating damages of resource
degradation are more evident from loss of soil productivity, water and air pollution, and
contraction of vegetation cover over an area. It is commonly connected with other environmental
and socioeconomic hazards such as climate change and widespread poverty. The sources of land
resource degradation can be categorized as underlying and proximate Causes. The underlying
sources are major causes that promote proximate issues to happen. The proximate causes are
secondary issues that are initiated by the primary (underlying) agents.
Table 5.1 Causes and consequences of resource degradation

Consequences and controlling measures of resource degradation

Rapid population growth and technological advances over the past 50 years have initiated
worldwide land-use changes. Forest covers have significantly decreased whilst cultivated
lands have increased. The sizes of rain-fed areas expanded; irrigated areas have doubled
and permanent meadows and pastures increased. A significant proportion of the world‟s
arable land was destroyed also by soil erosion. Similarly, the per capita farmland needed to
adequately feed people had declined. Future improvement of rural livelihoods and income
levels would thus be possible largely through the rational use of available resources and
increased application of agricultural technologies.

The depletion and degradation of natural resources can be checked through land management
practices The practices include:

 afforestation: planting of trees on barren lands that were not under forest cover before,
 reforestation: replanting trees in deforested areas,
 area closures: closing deforested areas from livestock contact to restore the previous
status,
 terracing: constructing bench terraces on steep lands to reduce the force of running water
and to trap down moving soil,
 a check dam is a small or temporary dam or structure constructed across a waterway to
control erosion by reducing water flow velocity. It is important to conserve gullied areas.
 Mulching refers to the covering of soil with plant residue to let the soil regain some
nutrients as the residue decays. It is important to reduce water loss from evaporation.
 shelterbelts: is the planting of trees along a line to break the speed of the blowing wind
and reduce its erosivity,
 diversion canals: to divert upcoming floods on farmlands,
 trenches: to trap down-moving water and soil,
 Drainage channels (ditches): to remove excess water from depressed areas,
 Legume-rotation: to replenish soil fertility,
 Addition of animal manure: to replace lost nutrients,
 Inter-cropping: to augment soil fertility,
 Proper irrigation: to minimize soil salinity,
 Addition of chemical fertilizer: to replace lost nutrients,
 Using green-manure: to uphold soil fertility.
5.2 Unplanned Urbanization
Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas. It involves the
corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas. It also relates to the
ways in which societies adapt to these situations. It is predominantly the process by which towns
and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in them.

As cities grow in population size, spatial extent and density, their environmental and ecological
footprints increase (i.e., human impact on the environment increases). Urban expansion that
takes place in forests, wetlands and agricultural systems leads to habitat clearing, degradation
and fragmentation of the landscapes. Urban lifestyles, which tend to be consumptive, requiring
great natural resources and generating increasing amounts of waste also lead to increased levels
of air, water and soil pollution. Therefore, unplanned urbanization is the root cause of damage to
the environment and nature. However, urbanization is by no means bad per se. It brings
important benefits for economic, cultural and societal development. Well managed cities are both
efficient and effective, enabling economies of scale (the term “economies of scale” refers to the
advantages that can sometimes occur as a result of increasing the size of a business).
Furthermore, the proximity and diversity of people can spark innovation and create employment
as exchanging ideas breeds new ideas.

Those ideal concepts however are threatened by some of the factors driving rapid urbanization.
For example, one of the main factors is rural-urban migration; which is driven by the prospect of
greater employment opportunities and the hope of a better life in cities. A rapid increasing
population density can create severe problems, especially if planning efforts are not sufficient to
cope with the influx of new inhabitants. The result may, in extreme cases, be widespread
poverty. Finally, unplanned urban expansion creates big slums, exacerbating socio-economic
disparities and creates unhealthy or poor sanitary conditions that facilitate the spread of diseases.
To sum up, carefully considered urban planning and good governance with effective regulatory
frameworks are required for rapid urbanization to provide opportunities to all.
Unplanned Urbanization
Key features of unplanned urbanization
 Urban sprawl and compactness
 Unplanned urban growth
 Land use change
 Accelerated poverty
 Environmental degradation
 Poor air and water quality
 Insufficient water availability
 Waste-disposal problems

Causes of Unplanned Urbanization in Africa

Though Africa is still largely rural, it is one of the fastest urbanizing continents in the world.
Africa‟s urban population is expected to reach 2.5 billion in 2050. This accounts for 21% of the
world‟s projected urban population. Currently, the continent has seven megacities, that is cities
with populations over 10 million: Cairo, Kinshasa, Lagos, Accra, Johannesburg–Pretoria,
Khartoum, and Nairobi.

Despite high rates of urban population growth, many African countries still have
a high degree of urban primacy. That is, one city - usually the capital, has the population,
economic activity, and political power that are several times greater than the next largest city.
Although Africa‟s high urbanization rates make it similar to other rapidly urbanizing places in
the world, it is important to underscore that the underlying processes that shape urbanization in
Africa are vastly different from those experienced elsewhere.
Much of urban expansion in Africa is characterized by unplanned and unregulated growth,
exacerbated by the legacy of colonialism, structural adjustment program, and effects of
neoliberalism that spawned weak urban planning institutions.
Unplanned urbanization in Africa is the result of:
 Unplanned and unregulated growth
 The legacy of colonialism
 The policy pressure of international institutions (e.g., the structural adjustment
program of IMF)
 Pressure of developed countries (e.g., neoliberalism policies towards developing
countries)
 Weak urban planning institutions

Consequences of Unplanned Urbanization

The cost of living in urban areas is very high. Urbanization has a lot of effects on the living
conditions of the inhabitants. Some of the consequences of unplanned urbanization are discussed
as follows:
1. Development of Slums and Squatter Settlement
When urbanization takes place as a result of a random and unexpected growth it leads
to the spread of unlawful residential settlements represented by slums and squatters. The growth
of slums and squatters in urban areas is even further exacerbated by fast-paced industrialization,
lack of developed land for housing, large influx of rural immigrants to the cities in search of
better life, and very high prices of land beyond the capability of the urban poor.
2. Poor Infrastructure
The quality of city‟s infrastructure is central to the residents‟ quality of life, social
inclusion and economic opportunities. It also determines the city‟s resilience to a number of
common risks such as economic, environmental, social and health-related risks. The availability
and quality of infrastructure are at the core of many of the challenges faced by rapidly urbanizing
cities in African countries.

As cities expand rapidly, the rate at which infrastructure growth does not keep pace with the
growth or the increased demands of populations. Therefore, action is urgently needed to close the
infrastructure gap and reduce the potential risks that have negative effects. Moreover, many
African countries face tight budget constraints and they tend to allocate much of their national
income to meet the basic needs of their population.
Characteristics of Urban Infrastructure in Africa
Urban infrastructure in Africa is characterized by the following features
 Infrastructure investments in urban areas in most African countries are insufficient
to maintain the quality of infrastructure.
 Transportation infrastructure (roads, railroads, airports, and ports) is very weak.
 Electric power supply and distribution are inadequate.
 Water supply and sewage are in serious shortage.
 Communications infrastructure is very weak.

3.Economic Problem

Residents in many urban centers in Africa face huge economic problems. The costs of housing,
food and transportation is very high in the urban centers. In addition, in urban areas,
unemployment rates are high and about 60 percent of jobs are in the informal or grey economy
which are neither taxed nor monitored by the government.

4. Health Problem
Urbanization creates opportunities but also exacerbates health risks, (e.g., obesity,
respiratory diseases, etc.). Moreover, large proportion of urban dwellers in Africa
lack adequate sanitation and are exposed to high health risks. Such risks happen at a
rapid speed hence it puts the capacity of the health sector to plan and adapt under big
challenge. This is particularly true in Africa. Therefore, unplanned urbanization in
combination with high population density, poverty and lack of infrastructure can have
adverse effect on the health of residents by fostering conditions for communicable diseases.

5. Social Instability
Rapid and unplanned urbanization can also quickly lead to urban violence and social
unrest. This could be because of widening inequalities largely observed in urban than rural areas.
The combination of inequality, competition for scarce resources such as land, violation of law
and weak city governance increase the risk of violence and potential breakdowns in law and
order.
Moreover, unplanned urbanization can accelerate social instability. For example, high population
density fuels the price of house. When there is a shortage of affordable housing, it contributes to
the disregard of urban poor residents. This in turn may increase social instability and the
prevalence of crime in urban centers.

Climate Change and Unplanned Urbanization in Africa

Climate change poses serious problems on urban centers in Africa.
Rapid, inadequate and poorly planned expansion of cities in Africa leave urban populations
highly exposed to the effects of climate change. For instance, the migration of large number of
people from rural areas to cities is at least partially driven by the increasing prevalence of
extreme weather. Moreover, cities located near the sea or natural waterways, are at more risk of
flooding. Therefore, making cities more resilient to extreme weather events should be a priority
for both local governments and the private sectors in African countries.

5.3 Migration – Factors and Impacts on Africa

Human migration is the permanent change of residence by an individual or group of people. It
can occur within a country or international boundary. Migration falls into several broad
categories. First, internal and international migration may be distinguished. Within any country
there are movements of individuals and families from one area to another (for example, from
rural areas to the cities), and this is distinct from movements from one country to another.
Second, migration may be voluntary or forced. Most voluntary migration, whether internal or
external, is undertaken in search of better economic opportunities or seeking good life. Forced
migrations usually involve people who have been expelled by different factors, such as war,
drought, famine, natural disasters, or other political conflicts. The causes of migration are
multitude since a complex web of factors underlie the process. There are push and pull factors
of migration. In Africa multiple push factors spur migration both within the continent and to
other regions. Some of the push factors are economic in nature, like; poor socio-economic
conditions, low wages, high levels of unemployment, and poverty. These factors are usually
brought about by a mismatch between the rapid population growth and the available resources,
low level of requisite technology and capacity to create employment origin.
In addition to economic factors, various political and social factors create fertile grounds for
migration. Among these, poor governance, corruption, political instability, conflict and civil
strife are major causes of migration for both skilled and unskilled workers. The real or perceived
opportunity for a better life, high income, greater security, better quality of education and health
care at the destinations influence decision to migrate. Throughout its history, Africa has
experienced important migratory movements, which have contributed to its present-day
demographic landscape. This could be either voluntarily or in a forced manner. The forced act of
slave migrations those compelled by European slave traders operating in Africa from the 16th to
the 19th centuries had significantly reduced the total population of the continent. Moreover, in
many parts of the continent, communities are found spread across two or three nation states as
movement of people is often not limited by political boundaries.

5.4 Coastal Pollution in Africa

The major of pollutants that make their way into the ocean caused by human activities along the
coastlines and far inland. Pollution of coastal waters may arise from various sources, such as: the
discharge of sewage and industrial waste from coastal channels, the dumping of wastes at sea,
the discharge of sewage and rubbish from ships, the handling of cargo, the exploration and
exploitation of the sea bed and ocean floor, accidental pollution by oil spills, and other substance
of pollutants from the land by air and other routes. Undoubtedly the most frequent cause of
coastal pollution problems is the discharge of municipal sewage and industrial wastes into
coastal waters or into estuaries through low quality disposal facilities.

If wastes contain persistent pollutants, discharge into rivers even at considerable distances
upstream from the mouth can result in substantial quantities reaching the sea. The major classes
of pollutant reaching coastal waters are decomposable organic materials, heavy metals and other
toxic matter, dissolved and suspended non-toxic inorganic substances, and pathogenic
organisms. Many factors such as dilution, temperature, adsorption, sedimentation and nutrient
deficiencies negatively affect self-purification of the sea. The marine environment is generally
unfavorable to the survival of most pathogenic organisms. Under special circumstances,
particularly in temperate and warm coastal waters near large cities, pathogenic agents may be
found in marine waters in the proximity of the coastline and in estuaries. The many people living
in coastal zones, and even those located far inland, generate large quantities of wastes and other
polluting substances that enter the seas directly or through coastal watersheds, rivers and
precipitation from polluted air. Coastal pollution is rising rapidly as a result of population
growth, urbanization, and industrial development along many coastal areas of Africa. Hence, its
coastlines and marine protected areas of Africa are under a high degree of threat from industrial
wastes. The coastal marine environment is clearly being affected by the modification and
destruction of habitats, over-fishing, and pollution. Many of these impacts can be traced back to
land-based human activities located far from the sea. Many coastal waters carry excessive
sediment and are contaminated by microbes and organic nutrients. Nitrogen, resulting from
sewage discharges, agricultural and urban run-off, and atmospheric precipitation, is a common
problem. The destruction of wetlands and mangroves, which act as natural filters for sediment,
excessive nitrogen and wastes, has also accelerated nutrient buildup. Additional pollution
sources are oil leaks and accidental spills from shipping, discharge of bilge water, oil drilling and
mineral extraction. Some persistent pollutants are even reaching deep ocean waters.

5.5 Recurrent Droughts and Famines

Drought is a prolonged deficiency of moisture and water for certain activities. It is often allied
to rainfall abnormality that commonly causes a serious hydrological imbalance. Drought can be
categorized as metrological, hydrological, agricultural, environmental, and/or socioeconomic
based on intended specific purposes. Famine is accompanied by severe and prolonged hunger due to a
lack of edible items as the result of drought or any other risk. It is commonly linked to drought or perhaps
the two complement each other. Both cause a wide range of devastations on the environment, population,
health, and livelihoods. This topic thus focuses on these two environmental catastrophes.
Drought
As can be seen from the preceding paragraph, drought is the persistent absence of rainfall that causes
water shortage for certain activities. It is often allied to rainfall abnormality that commonly causes a
serious hydrological imbalance. Drought can be categorized as metrological, hydrological,
agricultural, environmental, and/or socioeconomic based on intended specific purposes. It results
in hydrological imbalance and abnormal dry spells due to long periods of dry weather. As
mentioned earlier, the definition of drought can vary with the variations of the intended
objectives of different professions. For instance, in the science of metrology, drought is primarily
defined as an extended shortfall of rainfall. Hydrological drought on the other hand relates to the
under-normal water flow in the lakes, streams, and underground sources. Agricultural drought is
defined as the deficit of moisture on the topsoil. This is because the absence of moisture on the
topmost part of the soil affects the growth of crops. The aforementioned three drought types in
combination form the environmental drought. They together lead to the imbalance between
demand and supply in society; commonly named socioeconomic drought. Socioeconomic
drought thus links to the supply and demand of material goods (like water, fodder, food crops,
fish, and energy). It has also strong links with the features of meteorological, hydrological, and
agricultural droughts.
Droughts are very common in arid drylands. They frequently happen in those areas through
the occurrences of extreme climatic events. The persistent occurrence of anticyclones or
advection of hot and dry air masses exacerbates the conditions of the drier areas. Rainfall
reductions and excessive moisture losses because of high-temperature levels in the drier areas
causally drive the occurrence of droughts.

a) Global Trends and Patterns of Drought

The global trends (frequency & intensity) of droughts have been increasing in West Africa
and the Mediterranean region since the 1950s. Conversely, droughts have been showing
decreasing trends in Central America, North America, and northwest Australia. Due to
climate change, the intensity and frequency of droughts have also been shown to exacerbate
the severity of meteorological and agricultural droughts over the drylands of the world.
b) The Impacts of Drought
The following are the direct and indirect effects of drought:
 droughts directly affect agricultural production They reduce water supply (dry-up
wetlands),
 Reduce plant diversity and composition,
 Cause the loss of biodiversity and natural ecosystems,
 Droughts indirectly affect business, employment opportunities, and income,
 They cause health hazards to humans and animals,
 Cause rise in food prices, food insecurity, malnutrition, widespread famine,
starvation, and poverty,
 Raise school dropout rates, Migration, social unrest, and even conflict in extreme
cases.
Response and mitigation strategies of drought
The responses for drought occurrence include the use of: Improved drought monitoring services,
Better water and crop management strategies (e.g. the use of groundwater supplies), Creation of
public awareness and education, Watershed management and local planning strategies,
Developing early-warning capacities.

Famine
Famine is persistent and acute hunger or starvation caused by food and water scarcity over a
geographic area. It is a widespread and severe state of malnourishment, starvation, illness,
and death of a significant part of the population. It is caused by natural and human factors.
Recurrent droughts, landslides, floods, tsunamis, locust invasions, epidemics, an unfair share of
resources, inequalities, plus wars, and conflicts result in famines and starvations among human
beings. Famines may cover considerable periods lasting from some months to a few years
Geographic issues and concerns
Famines can be minimized by using the following strategies:
 Accessing humanitarian aid: this involves the donation of food and other necessities
including healthcare to address the immediate and basic needs of the victims
 Rebuild communities: taking rehabilitation and restoration measures,
 Strengthen local food system resilience: working on sustainable food access options,
 Focus on long-term economic strategies: promotion of long-term socio-economic
development measures (e.g. diversification of the economy; expansion of employment
options; liberalizing the market and product distribution patterns; etc.).