YANGON UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

Physics Department

First Year (Second Semester)

Text Book

PHYSICS (Phys 1002)

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CHAPTER –9–
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

9.1 The difference between Temperature and Heat

Temperature: The property of a body or region of space that determines whether or
not there will be a net flow of heat into it or out of it from a neighbouring body or region and
in which direction (if any) the heat will flow. Temperature is a relative measure or indication
of hotness or coldness. If there is no heat flow the bodies or regions are said to be in
thermodynamic equilibrium and at the same temperature.
Heat: Heat is form of energy. Heat is energy transferred from one body to another
because of a temperature difference.

9.2 Temperature Measurement and Heat Units

Thermometer is used to measure the temperature of a body.
Common used temperature scales are Celsius temperature scale and Fahrenheit
temperature scale. A temperature scale in which the fixed points are the temperatures at
standard pressure of ice in equilibrium with water 0ºC, 32ºF) and water in equilibrium with
steam (100ºC, 212ºF).
Absolute temperature scales are the Kelvin temperature scale and Rankine
temperature scale.
No. Temperature scale Ice point Steam point
1 Celsius 0ºC 100ºC
2 Fahrenheit 32ºC 212ºC
3 Kelvin 273 K 373 K
4 Rankine 492ºR 672ºR

Relationships between Celsius temperature scale and Fahrenheit temperature scale

TF =

TC =
TK = TC + 273 (K)
TR = TF + 460 (ºR)

Heat Units
Since heat is energy, a quantity of heat may be expressed in standard units joule or ft-
lb. The commonly used units of heat energy are defined in terms of temperature changes.
These units are caloria, kilocalorie, and British thermal unit (Btu) are defined as
follows:
One calorie (1-cal) is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one
gram of water one degree Celsius.
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One kilocalorie (1-kcal) is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
one kilogram of water one degree Celsius. (1-kcal = 1000 cal)
One British thermal unit (1-Btu) is the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit.
1-Btu = 252 cal = 0.252 kcal, l-cal = 4.186 J, 1-Btu = 778 ft-lb = 1054 J.
Specific Heat Capacity: When a quantity of heat ΔQ is added to a substance, its
temperature normally increases. Similarly, if a substance loses heat, its temperature
decreases.
Hence we may write ΔQ ∞ ΔT which is read “the quantity ΔQ added (or removed) is
proportional to the change in temperature ΔT”.
ΔQ = C Δ T (C is the heat capacity of the substance)
The heat capacity is not a very useful quantity, since it is different for objects of the
same material. It should be evident that the amount of mass of a substance is important
consideration in describing the temperature change resulting from the addition or removal of
heat. Being more specific and taking mass into account,

where c is the specific heat capacity ( heat capacity per unit mass).
The specific heat capacity “c” is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature

of one gram of a substance one degree Celsius.

Units – cal g–1 – ºC–1
Thermal Capacity: The ratio of the amount of energy transferred to the temperature
change is called the thermal capacity.
Unit in SI system …… joule per Kelvin (JK–1)

9.3 Specific heat capacity: The specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat needed to
change the temperature of a unit mass of that substance by one degree.

In Symbols: …….
where c = specific heat capacity, m = mass, ΔT = change in temperature.
Units in SI system ……. joule per kilogram per Kelvin (Jkg–1K–1)
State the law of heat exchange. Some hot water was added to three times its mass of
water at 10ºC and the resulting temperature was 20ºC. What was the temperature of the
water? Specific heat capacity of water is 4169 Jkg–1 K–1.
Law of heat exchange: When heat is transferred from one body to another the total
heat lost by the body at high temperature is equal to the total heat gained by the body at lower
temperature. This statements is known as law of heat exchange.
Let m be the mass of the hot water.
Therefore, mass of the cold water at 10ºC = 3 m
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Final temperature of the mixture = 20ºC

Temperature of the hot water = t=?
Heat lost by the hot water = m × 4169 × (t – 20)
Heat gained by the cold water = 3 m × 4169 × (20 – 10) = 3 m × 4169 × 10
By the law of heat exchange,
Total heat lost = Total heat gained
m × 4169 × (t – 20) = 3 m × 4169 × 10
t = 30ºC
A man of mass 80 kg daily consumers food with a fuel value of about 3200 kcal. If
this energy were used to heat 80 kg of water, how many degrees would the temperature be
raised?
Fuel value of the food consumed by the man = 3200 kcal
This energy is used to heat 80 kg of water
Temperature rise = ?
ΔQ = mc ΔT
Specific heat capacity of the water = 1 kcal kg–1 K–1
3200 kcal = 80 × 1 × ΔT

ΔT =

Calorimetry: The basic principle of Calorimetry is the conservation of energy. If a

hot body and a cold body are brought into thermal contact, they will eventually come to
thermal equilibrium at the same temperature because of the transfer or “flow” of heat. If no
heat is lost to the surroundings, then by the conservation of energy:
Heat lost (by the hot body) = Heat gained (by the cold body)
A hole is cut in a flat metal plate. When the plate is heated, will the hole become
larger or smaller? An iron ball 5.00 cm in diameter is 0.001 cm large to go through a hole in a
brass late when the ball and plate are at 20ºC. At what temperature, the same for both ball and
plate will there be a snug fit?
When the plate is heated, the hole will become larger.
diameter of a iron ball = d1 = 5.00 cm
diameter of a hole of brass plate = d2 = 4.999 cm
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Since

∴ ΔT = 28.57ºC.

9.4 Phase Change and Latent Heat

The three phases (states) of matter-solid, liquid, and gases
Phase change and phase transition – the transition from one state to another.
Latent Heat: The quantity of heat involved in phase change per unit mass is called
latent heat.
Latent Heat of Fusion: The latent heat of fusion L f is the heat energy per unit mass

or (weight) involved in a solid-liquid phase change.

The units of latent heat: kcal kg–1 , cal g–1 , Btu lb–1
(The latent heat of fusion of water is 80 cal g–1)
Latent Heat of Vaporization: The latent heat of vaporization Lv is the heat energy

per unit mass or (weight) involved in a liquid-gas phase change.

(The latent heat of vaporization of water is 540 calg–1 or 970 Btu lb–1)
The triple point and the critical point are also shown on the phase diagram. At the
triple point, solid, liquid and vapour phase all exist together. At the critical point the
distinction between the liquid and vapour phase vanishes.

Phase Diagram for Water

Phase diagrams, like this phase diagram for water, show whether a substance exists as
a vapor, liquid, or solid at a given temperature and pressure. The point where the three lines
intersect in a phase diagram shows the pressure and temperature where the solid, liquid, and
vapor all exist in equilibrium. This point, which occurs for water at 0.01ºC (32.02ºF), is
known as the triple point.
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CHAPTER –10–
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

10.1 Heat transfer: There are three methods of heat transfer: conduction, convection and
radiation.
Conduction: The transition of heat through a substance from a region of high
temperature to a region of lower temperature.
Conduction is one mode of energy transfer. It is the passage of heat through a material
from molecule to molecule without any movement of the material as a whole. The individual
parts of a medium do not move as a whole in heat conduction.

The rate of heat conduction is

H = rate of heat flow/heat current (watt),  = heat conduction constant (Wm–1 K–1)
A = cross-sectional area of the connecting rod (media)
l = length of the connecting rod (media), T2 – T1 = temperature difference
Heat is transferred between the objects at different temperatures.
Heat is transferred from the body of higher temperature to the lower one.
Heat conduction takes place in solid materials.
The rate at which heat flows from higher to lower temperature is directly proportional
to the cross-sectional area of connecting media.
The rate of which heat flows from higher to lower temperature is directly proportional
to the temperature difference.
The rate of heat conduction is inversely proportional to the length of the connecting
media.
Temperature gradient: The ratio of the temperature difference to the length is called

temperature gradient. Temperature gradient = .

Heat Current: The rate of heat flow is called heat current.
Thermal conductivities of metals are greater than those of thermal insulators.
Wood is a thermal insulator.
One of the most important insulators is air.
For a person wearing warm clothes, it is the air that makes him warm by reducing
heat losses.
Body tissue is also a good insulator of heat. Body tissues are poor conductors of heat.
Heat cannot be removed from the body by means of conduction.
The flow of warm blood is the major factor in body heat transport.
Convection: The process by heat is transferred from one part of fluid to another by
movement of the fluid by itself. Heat convection is one mode of energy transfer in which heat
is carried by the motion of the fluid itself.
The rate of heat convection is, H = qA (T2 – T1)
where, H = rate of heat convection (W), q = Heat convection constant (Wm–2 K–1)
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A = surface area (m2), T2 – T1 = temperature difference (K)

Heat convection takes place in liquids and gases.
When liquid or gas is heated, generally it expands
Hot liquid is slightly lighter than cooler liquid.
When rooms are heated, heating is done by convection process.
Heat convection can create weather conditions.

Radiation: Energy travelling in the form of electromagnetic waves of photons.

Heat radiation is a form of energy transfer in which heat is transferred by means of
electromagnetic radiation.

The rate of radiation is H = c σ A T4

where H = rate of heat radiation, T = absolute temperature of the body
e = the emissivity (<1), σ = Stephan-Boltzmann’s constant (5.685 × 10–8 Wm–2 K–4)
The sun is the major source of heat for the earth.
Heat transfer from the sun to the earth is neither by conduction nor convection as in
the space between the sun and the earth there are hardly any molecules, is vacuum.
Heat is transmitted from the sun to the earth by means of (electromagnetic) radiation.
Every object including the sun emits energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
Thermal radiation or electromagnetic radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
Thermal radiation has the range of wavelength from about 1 μm to 100 μm.
Electromagnetic waves can travel through vacuum.
Energy can be exchanged as radiant heat between two objects.
If an object has a good rate of emission or radiation than it also has a good rate of
absorption.
The best absorber is defined as the object which can absorb all the electromagnetic
radiations falling upon it.
The best absorber is the black body.
Black Body: A body which can absorb all the electromagnetic radiations falling upon
it is called a black body.
The black body is not only a perfect absorber but it also the best in emitting radiation.
The black body is taken as a reference body in study the emissivity of bodies.
The total emissive Dower is defined as the total radiant energy of different
wavelength emitted from unit area of a surface of a body in one second.
Stephan-Boltzmann’s Law: The total emissive power of a black body is directly
proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature.
ε 0 = σ T4
where ε0 = total emissive power of a black body, T = absolute temperature of the body, σ =
Stephan-Boltzmann’s constant (5.7 × 10–8 Wm–2 K–4).
The Total Emissive Power ε of Objects Other than a Black body
ε = e ε0
where ε = emissive power of the object, e = emissivity (<1)
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ε0 = total emissive power of a black body

Heat conduction and convection occur whenever there is temperature difference
between the object and its surroundings.
Heat radiation occurs no matter whether there is temperature difference between the
object and its environment or not.
If there is no temperature difference the amount of heat absorbed by the object is
equal to that emitted by it.
If the temperature of the object is higher than its environment there is not radiation.
The net radiation per unit area of surface per second is

where T = temperature of the body, T0 = temperature of its environment

Radiation emission is commonly expressed in terms of the intensity 1, which is the

power emitted per unit area, or where is power (heat energy per unit
time).
The units of intensity are watt per metre square (W/m2) in SI system.

where σ is Stephan-Boltzmann’s constant (5.7 × 10–8 Wm–2K–4).

10.2 Thermal Expansion of Materials: The substances expand or change in size with
changes in temperature. (Thermal expansion occurs not only in solids but also in liquids and
gases).
Linear expansion: The change in any one dimension of a solid is called linear
thermal expansion.

Δ L = α L0 ΔT , ΔL = L – L0 , = The coefficient of linear thermal

–1 –1
expansion, (ºC , ºF ) L = L0 (1 + α ΔT)
Area expansion: Area expansion is simply linear expansion in two dimensions.
A = A0 (1 + 2α ΔT),
Volume expansion: Linear expansion of a solid in three dimensions.
V = V0 (1 + β Δ T), β = 3α.
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CHAPTER –11–
VIBRATION AND WAVES
Waves and Waves Motion

11.1 Waves: A wave is a process involving the propagation or transfer of energy due to
physical disturbance.
Wave Motion: Energy is transferred from one particle to another, and the disturbance
energy is propagated rather than the medium material. This is called wave motion.
Types of Waves: Waves are classified according to the direction of the particle
motion with respect to the direction of wave propagation. Two general types of waves are
transverse waves and longitudinal waves.
Transverse Waves: In transverse waves, the direction of the particle motion of the
medium is perpendicular to the direction of the wave propagation.
Longitudinal Waves: In Longitudinal waves, the direction of the particle motion of
the medium is parallel to the direction of the wave propagation.
Speed of Transverse Wave: The speed with which a transverse wave pulse travels
along a stretched string or cord depends on the tension force F in the string and the linear
mass density μ = m / l (mass per unit length) of the string.

(11.1)
where, v = velocity , F = Tension, μ = mass per unit length .

Example 11.1: A 5.0 m length of rubber cord having a mass of 0.60 kg is stretched with a
force of 10N. If the cord is struck sharply near the held end, what will be the speed of the
resulting wave pulse traveling down the cord?
Solution: m = 0.60 kg , l = 5.0 m , F = 10 N

Notes: – Longitudinal waves will propagate in all forms of matter-solids, liquids, and
gases.
– Transverse waves propagate in solids but not in liquids or gases.

11.2 Periodic Motion: A periodic disturbance is one that is repetitious in time. In response
to a continuous periodic disturbance, the particles are in periodic motion.
Period of Oscillation: The time for one complete oscillation is called the period of
oscillation.
Hookers Law: A force is proportional to the displacement of a particle from its
equilibrium position.
F = – kx (11.2)
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where, k = spring constant, F = force (restoring force),

x = displacement (from equilibrium position),
The minus sign indicates the force is in opposite direction to the displacement.
Note: A wave vibration requires a restoring force.

Simple Harmonic Motion: A particle in motion under the influence of a force with
the form of Hooke’s law is said to be in simple harmonic motion (SHM).

Fig. 11.1 An example of simple harmonic motion

Amplitude: The maximum displacement is called the amplitude of the oscillation.

Period (T): The period (T) of oscillation, or the time for one complete oscillation, is given by

(11.3)
where, T = period , m = mass , k = spring constant

Example 11.2: A mass of 0.10 kg oscillates on a spring with a spring constant of 16 Nm–1.
What is the period of oscillation?

Solution: m = 0.10 kg , k = 16 Nm–1 , .

A Simply Pendulum
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Fig. 11.2 A simple pendulum

Simple harmonic motion occurs in other common systems, such as for small
oscillations of a simple pendulum. In general, for all types of simple harmonic motion, the
period of oscillation is given by

(11.4)
The acceleration is obtained from Newton’s second law. For example, in the case of
simple pendulum, the gravitational restoring force is

Where the minus sign indicates that it is a restoring force and (side
opposite/hypotenuse).

actual arc length displacements, i.e., x ≃ s. Then using Newton’s second law
For small oscillation, the horizontal displacement x is approximately equal to the

Then by equation 11.4, (11.5)

(period of oscillation of a simple pendulum)

Frequency: The frequency (f) is the number of vibrations per second. The frequency
is reciprocal of the period.

(11.6)
where, T = period, f = frequency
The vibrational frequency of a mass on a spring is given by

(11.7)
The unit of frequency in SI unit is the hertz (Hz).

Displacement Equation for SHM Motion: The term harmonic refers to in simple
harmonic motion. Harmonic means that the motion can be described in terms of a sinusoidal
function– a sine or a cosine. That path of motion of the mass, can be described by the
equation of motion:

(11.8)
Where,y = displacement, A = amplitude, T = period, t = time
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Since The equation can also be written

y = A sin 2π f t (11.9)
Another common form of the equation is y = A sin ω t (11.10)

where, ω = angular frequency or angular speed: .

The general equation for simple harmonic motion is commonly written

(11.11)

The angle of the sine function is called the phase angle, and ϕ is the
phase constant.

Wave Energy
The total energy E of a wave disturbance is the sum of the kinetic and potential
energies of the oscillating particles.
E = KE + PE

where, KE = , PE =
The total energy can be expressed in terms of the amplitude of the vibration. Consider
a mass oscillating on a spring. When the mass id at the maximum displacement or amplitude
position (y max = A), the total energy is all potential.

(11.12)
The total energy is proportional to the square of the amplitude. Hence

E = PE =
= (KE) + (PE) (11.13)

Example 11.3: What is the magnitude of the maximum velocity of a mass of a spring
oscillating in SHM?
Solution:
The maximum velocity vmass occurs when y = 0, or as the mass passes through the
equilibrium position.

E = PE = kA2 =
= (KE) + (PE)
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(Since, and
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11.3 Wave Characteristics

Wave speed
The wave speed can be expressed in terms of the length and time parameters of the
wave using the relationship v =.

Wavelength
The wavelength λ of a periodic wave is the distance between adjacent particles that
are in phase.

Wave Speed Equation

The time for a wave crest (or trough) to travel a distance λ is just the period T of the
particle oscillation. Hence, we may write the wave speed v,

where (11.14)

Example 11.4: A periodic wave has a wavelength of 30 cm and a frequency of 1 kHz. What
is the wave speed?
Solution:
λ = 30 cm, f = 1 kHz = 103 Hz (= 103s–1)
v = λf = (30)(103) = 3 × 104 cms–1.

Example 11.5: A small stick floating in a lake is observed to bob up and down 15 times in
60 seconds owing to a periodic surface disturbance. If the wave crests are 4.0 ft apart, what is
the wave speed of the disturbance?

Solution:
The stick undergoes 15 cycles in 60s, so the frequency of the wave oscillation is

Then, with a wavelength or crest-to-crest distance of λ = 4.0 ft

v = λf = (4.0) (0.25) = 1.0 fts–1.

Reflection
When a wave propagating in one medium strikes the boundary of another medium,
the wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted. The degree of reflection and
transmission, depends on the elasticity of the second medium.
A wave reflected from a rigid boundary is 180º out of phase with the incident wave.
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(a)

(b)
Fig. 11.3 Reflection

Characteristic Frequencies of Standing Waves in a Stretched String

f1 : fundamental frequency

f2 = 2f1 = 2nd harmonic (1st overtone)

f3 = 3f1 = 3rd harmonic (2nd overtone)

f4 = 4f1 harmonic (3rd overtone)

Fig. 11.4 Characteristic Frequencies of Standing Waves in a Stretched String

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As can be seen from the figure, the boundary conditions are satisfied by “fitting” an

integral number of half wavelengths for the given length l of the string i.e.

where n = 1,2,3 … (11.15)

Knowing the wave speed v and using the relation v = f λ, corresponding frequencies
of vibration are

n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ….. (11.16)
The speed is the same for all the frequencies, since it depends on the particular
characteristic of the medium. As a result, the frequencies f n are called the natural or

characteristic frequencies of the normal modes of vibration. Using equation for the
wave speed in a stretched string, the characteristic frequencies can be written

(11.17)
where, n = 1,2,3,4, …. , F is the tension in the string and μ is the linear mass density.
The lowest frequency f1 is called the fundamental frequency, and the higher
frequencies, f2 , f3 , etc., are called overtones. The first overtone is f 2, the second overtone f3,
and so on. The first harmonic is the fundamental frequency (n = 1), the second harmonic is
the first overtone (n = 2), and so on.

The principle of superposition

When two or more waves interfere in a medium, the individual particle displacement
is given by the vector sum of the displacements of each particle.

Constructive Interference
When two positive wave pulses interfere, the displacement of the combined wave is
greater than either component wave, which is called constructive interference.

Destructive Interference
When a positive wave and negative wave interfere, the displacement of the combined
wave is smaller than either component wave. This is called destructive interference.
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Fig. 11.4 Interference and superposition

11.4 Standing Waves

The effect of the interference of the waves with the same amplitude and frequency
traveling in opposite direction s is to set up a so called standing wave.

Notes
The positions of zero displacement are called nodes.

Antinodes
Other positions along the string are found to have maximum displacements. The
positions of maximum displacement are called antinodes.

Fig. 11.5 Traveling wave interference

Example 11.6: What are (a) the fundamental frequency and (b) the second overtone
frequency for a string with a length of 25 ft fixed at both ends of the wave speed in the string
is 200 fts–1?
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Solution:
L = 25 ft, v = 200 fts–1
(a) For n = 1,

(b) The second overtone is the third harmonic (n = 3)

11.5 The Nature of Sound

Sound is any longitudinal disturbance in an elastic medium. For example, a vibrating
tuning fork in air produces compressional or longitudinal waves that propagate outward from
the source. The regions of compression (increased pressure and density) are called
condensations and the region of expansion (decreased pressure and density) are called
rarefactions.
The range of the frequency response of the human ear, which is approximately from
20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.

Speed of Sound in a Medium

Longitudinal (sound) waves propagate in solids and liquids as well as gases. The
speed of sound in a medium depends in general on the elasticity of the medium and the
inertia of its particles. The speed of sound or longitudinal waves in a thin rod is given by,

(solid rod) ….. (11.8)

where Y is Young’s modulus, ρ is mass density and v is speed of sound.
In liquids, the speed of sound is given by a similar expression

(liquid) ….. (11.9)

where B is Bulk’s modulus, ρ is mass density and v is speed of sound.

Example 11.7: What is the speed of sound in (a) a steel rod and (b) water? (Young’s
modulus of the steel is 20 × 1010 Nm–2 and bulk modulus of the water is 0.22 × 1010 Nm–2).
Solution:
Using the moduli and densities are given in Table and, respectively,
(a) Ysteel = 20 × 1010 Nm–2 , ρsteel = 7.8 × 103 kg m–3

(b) Bwater = 0.22 × 1010 Nm–2 , ρwater = 1.0 × 103 kg m–3

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The speed of sound in solids is generally greater then the speed of sound in liquids.
Why?

The speed of Sound in Cases

The speed of sound in gases is also given by an expression similar to liquids equation.
Using the gas laws, the speed of sound in air, the most common gaseous medium, is
At Tc = 0ºC v = 331 ms–1
(T1 = 32ºF) (v = 1087 fts–1 ≈ 740 mi hr–1)
Temperature affects the speed of sound because as the temperature increases, so does
the speed of the molecules of the gas.
It is found that the speed of sound increases approximately linearly with temperature
over normal ranges at a rate of 0.6 ms –1 for each degree above 0ºC (or 1.1 fts –1 for each
degree above 32ºF). These results can be expressed in equation form by
v = 331 + 0.6 Tc ms–1 (11.20)
or
v = 1087 + 1.1 (TF – 32) fts–1 (speed of sound in air)
where TC and TF are the Celsius and Fahrenheit temperatures, respectively.

The relationship between wave quantities

λ f = v, where, λ = wavelength, f = frequency, v = wave speed.

Example 11.8: What is the speed of sound in air at room temperature (20ºC or 68ºF).
Solutions:
TC = 20ºC or TF = 68 F
v = 331 + 0.6 TC ms–1 = 331 + 0.6 (20) = 343 ms–1
or
V = 1087 + 1.1 (TF – 32) fts–1 = 1087 + 1.1 (68 – 32) = 1127 fts–1
As a general rule, the speed or sound on air at normal temperatures is on the order of
–1
mis .

Example 11.9: Complete the wavelength of sound waves in the media in the previous
examples if the frequency is 2000 Hz.
Solution:
In steel rod with v = 5.1 × 103 ms–1

In water with v = 1.5 × 103 ms–1

In air with v = 343 ms–1

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11.6 Sound Phenomena

Interference
Interference effects occur for sound as they do for all types of waves. Similar to
transverse standing waves in a string, longitudinal standing waves can occur in vibrating air
columns in pipes and cavities. Some possible standing wave modes for closed and open pipes
are illustrated in given figure. Notice that a closed pipe has one closed end and one open end
that an open pipe has two open ends.
For an air column in an open pipe, antinodes are required at both ends. This leads to
standing waves in the pipe with an integral number of half wavelengths,

and so on. In terms of the wavelength, these may be written collectively as

(open pipe) n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ..... (11.21)

The speed of sound is given by v = fλ, so the possible characteristic frequencies are

(open pipe), n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ….. (11.22)

Thus, all of the standing wave harmonics are possible for an air column in an open
pipe.
As can be seen from given figure for a closed pipe, only an odd integral number of

quarter wavelengths can be fitted into the pipe: and so on,

and (closed pipe)

The characteristic frequencies are then

(closed pipe) (11.23)

Thus, only the odd harmonics are possible for a closed pipe. The first overtone (above
the fundamental frequency) is the third harmonic (n = 3), the second overtone is the fifth
harmonic (n = 5), and so on.
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Fig. 11.7 Characteristic frequencies of vibration air columns in pipes

Example 11.10: What are the fundamental frequencies for closed and open organ pipes with
lengths of 1.0 m at room temperature?
Solutions:
From Example 11.8, the speed of sound at room temperature (20ºC) is v = 343 ms –1.
Then, for a closed pipe, the fundamental frequency (n = 1) is

Similarly, for an open pipe,

The Doppler Effect

The apparent charge in frequency of a sound source due to relative motion between
the source and the observer is called the Doppler Effect.
The frequency f ′ heard by a stationary observer from an approaching source is given
by

(11.24)
(observed frequency of an approaching source)
where v is the speed of sound, v s the speed of the source, and f s the frequency of the source.
Similarly, the frequency heard by a stationary observer as the moving source recedes is given
by

(11.25)
(observed frequency of a receding source).
These equations are often written in combined form as

(11.26)
(moving source, stationary observer)
Approaching source, – vs
Receding source, + vs

Example 11.11: The driver of a car blows the horn, which has a frequency of 500 Hz, as it
passes by a stationary observer. If the car travels at 60 mph, what is the frequency of the horn
as heard by the observer (a) as the car approaches and (b) as the car recedes? (Assume the
speed of sound to be 1088 fts–1).
Solution:
(a) fs = 500 Hz, vs = 60 mph = 88 fts–1 , the speed of sound v = 1088 fts–1
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(b) Similarly, when the car is receding,

For Moving Observer and Stationary Source

The observed frequency of a stationary source by an observer moving with a speed v 0
is given by

(11.27)
(moving observer, stationary source)
Approaching the source, + v0
Receding from the source, –v0
In the event that both the source and the observer are moving, the observes frequency
is given by a combination of above two equation.

(11.28)
where the sign conventions are as before.

Problems

1. Show that has the units of speed.

2. A stretched string has a linear mass density of 0.10 kg m –1. If the tension in the string
is 20 N, what is the speed of a transverse wave in the string?
3. A 10 ft length of rubber cord has a weight of 1.6 lb. If the cord is stretched with a
force of 8.0 lb, with what speed will a transverse disturbance travel in the cord?
4. If it is desired for a wave pulse to travel with a speed of 30 ft –1 in the cord in Problem
3, what would be the required tension in the cord?
5. A 4.0 m string stretched with a force of 20 N transmits waves at a speed of 10 ms –1.
What is the mass of the string?
6. Two strings have mass densities of 0.0125 kgm –1 and 0.0500 kgm–1, respectively. If
both strings are stretched with equal tensions, in which string will the wave speed be
greater and by how much?
7. A mass of 0.1 kg oscillates on a spring with a spring constant of 2.3 Nm –1. What are
(a) the period and (b) the frequency of oscillation of the mass?
8. A simple pendulum has a length of 0.50 m and a bob with a mass of 0.25 kg. What are
(a) the period and (b) the frequency of the pendulum’s awing?
 23

9. If the length of a pendulum is shortened from 24 inches to 18 inches, what is the

change in the period?
10. A mass oscillates on a spring with an amplitude of 4.0 inches. What distance does the
mass travel in one period?
11. The equation of motion describing a SHM is y = 8.0 sin 10 t(cm). (a) What is the

frequency of oscillation? (b) What is the displacement at

12. A SHM is described by y = –5.0 cos ωt (cm). If the frequency of oscillation is 4 Hz,
what is the displacement at (a) t = 0.50s, (b) t = 1.0s, and (c) t = 4.0s?
13. The motion of a 0.15 kg mass oscillation on a spring with a spring constant of 150
Nm–1 is described by y = 0.5 cos ωt. What is the total energy of the mass?
14. What is the position and magnitude of the maximum velocity of the mass in Problem
13?
15. The equation of motion if a 0.75 kg mass oscillating on a spring is y = 0.25 sin 8t. (a)
What is the total energy of the mass? (b) What is its speed at t = 1.7s?
16. A wave has a period of 0.40s and a wavelength of 20 cm. What is the wave speed?
17. What is the wavelength of a wave with a frequency of 200 Hz and a wave speed of 50
ms–1?
18. The wave speed in a stretched string of length 150 cm is 60 cms –1. What are (a) the
fundamental frequency and (b) the frequency of the first overtone of the string?
19. A 10 ft rubber cord with a linear weight density of 0.080 lbft –1 is stretched with a
force of 20 lb. What are (a) the fundamental frequency and (b) the frequency of the
third harmonic?
20. A cord 5.0 m long has a mass of 0.25 kg and is stretched with a tension of 40 N. (a)
What is the fundamental frequency of the cord? (b) What are the frequencies of the
second harmonic and the second overtone?
21. The speed of sound in a particular liquid is 1.6 × 10 3 ms–1. If the bulk modulus of the
liquid is 0.15 × 1010 Nm–2, what is the density of the liquid?
22. What is the speed of sound in air on a warm summer day when the temperature is
86ºF?
23. A tuning fork has a frequency of 540 Hz. What is the wavelength of the sound coming
from the vibrating fork when the air temperature is (a) 0ºC and (b) room temperature
(20ºC)?
24. An open organ pipe has a length of 0.80 m. What is the fundamental frequency and
second overtone of the pipe at room temperature (20ºC)?
25. A closed organ pipe has a length of 2.0 ft. If the air temperature is 72ºF, what are the
two lowest characteristic frequencies of the pipe?
26. At room temperature (20ºC), a closed organ pipe has a fundamental frequency of 256
Hz. What is the length of the pipe?
27. A truck approaches a stationary observer with a speed of 90 km h –1. If the truck driver
blows the horn, which has a frequency of 1000 Hz, what is the frequency of the horn
 24

heard by the observer (a) as the truck approaches and (b) as the truck recedes?
(Assume an air temperature of 20ºC.)
28. A worker driving to work down a straight road toward the factory at a speed of 60 mi
h–1 hears the factory whistle blow. If the frequency of the whistle is 6000 Hz and the
air temperature is 72ºF, what is the frequency heard by the worker?
29. A trucker traveling along a straight road sounds the truck horn, which has a frequency
to be 520 Hz, how fast is the truck moving? (Assume the speed of sound to be 340
ms–1).
30. A car and a truck approach each other on a highway both traveling at 60 mi h –1. If the
driver of the truck sounds the truck’s horn, which has a frequency of 1000 Hz, what is
the frequency heard by the driver of the car? (Assume the speed of sound to be 1100
fts–1).
*********************
 25

CHAPTER –12–
LIGHT

12.1 The Nature of Light

Light is an electromagnetic wave. Light waves are characterized by electric and
magnetic fields, they are perpendicular to each other and are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. Light is a transverse wave. Light of a single frequency or wavelength is called
monochromatic light. The wave nature of light is called physical optics or wave optics. The
separation of light into its component wavelengths is called dispersion.
The relation between frequency and wave-length of light is
c = fλ
8 –1
where, c = 3 × 10 ms (speed of light in vacuum)
f = frequency of light
λ = wavelength of light
The visible region comprises wavelength between 400 nm and 700 nm.

Example 12.1: Light traveling in vacuum has a frequency of 6 × 10 14 Hz. What is the
wavelength of the light?
Solution:
f = 6 × 1014 Hz, c = 3 × 1010 cms–1
c = fλ

λ =

12.2 Interference
By principle of superposition, interference are determined constructive and
destructive interference. Sinusoidal waves in space can be described by the

(12.2)

If ϕ = 0, (12.3)
The phase difference of two waves of the same frequency is

(12.4)
where , Δθ = phase difference, Δx = path difference , λ = wavelength
 26

(a) Constructive interference (b) Destructive interference

Total constructive interference occurs if the path difference is zero or an integral
number of wavelengths.
Conditions for total constructive interference:
phase difference (rad) path difference
Δθ = 0, 2π, 4π, 6π, … when Δx = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ, …
Total destructive interference occurs if the path difference is an odd integral number
of half wavelengths.
Conditions for total destructive interference:
phase difference (rad) path difference

Δθ = π, 3π, 5π, … when Δx =

Example 12.2: What is the phase difference for two waves of the same frequency arriving at
a point P with the respective path lengths of 6 λ and 45 λ?
Solution:
The path difference of the waves is

∴
Phase difference
Total destructive interference occurs.

Young’s interference experiment

Young’s double-slit experiment, Young used light from a single source passing
through two small slits to obtain coherent light waves. The two slits act as “sources” and
since they “emit” the same light. The waves interfere, and an interference pattern of alternate
bright and dark fringes is observed on a screen.
For constructive interference
d sin θ = nλ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … (12.5)
where, d = distance between the slits
d sin θ = path difference between the two light rays from the source
n = 0 (central maximum)
 27

n = 1 (first bright fringe)

Fig. 12.2. Young’s interference experiment

From the geometry of the experiment

If θ is very small, so cos θ = 1

yn = L sin θ (12.6)

nλ = d sin θ is become.

(12.7)
Young’s experiment provides a method of measuring the wavelength of light from the
geometry of the experiment.

Example 12.3: A monochromatic light source is used in Young’s double-slit experiment

where the distance between the slit is 0.05 mm and the screen is a distance of 1.5 m from the
slits. The centre of the second-order bright fringe is located 3.0 mm from the center of the
central maximum on the screen. What is the wavelength of the light?
Solution:
d = 0.05 mm, L = 1.5 mm = 1.5 × 103 mm, n = 2, y = 3.0 mm

∴ λ = 5.0 × 10–5 cm

∴
= 5000 Å.
The light would appear blue-green since the wavelength is in that region of the visible
spectrum.

12.3 Diffraction
Diffraction refers to the bending of waves around the corner or edge of an opaque
object. The grating equation is
d sin θn = nλ, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … (12.8)
where, d = the distance between the lines or the slit width
 28

λ = the wavelength of the light

d = N = number of the lines (per inch or centimeter)

Example 12.4: A diffraction grating has 7000 lines cm–1. When monochromatic light is
diffracted, it is found that the first-order fringe is at an angle of 20º. What is the equation of
the light?
Solution:

N = 7000 lines cm–1 ,

For n = 1, θ = 20º
d sin θn = nλ

Problems
1. What is the equation of a spatial sinusoidal wave with a phase constant of

(a) (b) λ rad, (c) and (d) 2λ rad?

2. A wave in space is described by the equation y = 10 sin π × (cm).
(a) What is the wavelength of the wave? (b) What is the displacement of the wave
after it has traveled a distance of 5λ?
3. What is the wave equation of a transverse light wave in vacuum with an amplitude of
0.25 cm (at x = 0) and a frequency of 6.0 × 1014 Hz?
4. What is the phase difference for two waves of the same frequency arriving at a point
after interfere constructively or destructively?
5. Two waves with the same frequency interfere after traveling 20 λ and 22 λ,
respectively. (a) What is the phase difference of the waves? (b) Is the interference
constructive or destructive?
6. Two waves have identical wave forms given by y = 12 sin 2πx (cm). What is the
amplitude of the combined waves if they interfere after traveling (a) 9.0 λ and 8.0 λ,
respectively, and (b) 7.0 λ and 5.5 λ, respectively?
7. Young’s double-slit experiment is performed with monochromatic light with a
distance between the slits of 0.10 mm and with the screen a distance of 1.2 m from the
slits. If the centre of the second-order bright fringe is located 1.5 mm from the center
of the central maximum on the screen, what is the wavelength of the light and what is
its color?
8. When orange light (λ = 600 nm) is used for Young’s experiment, the first-order bright
fringe is observed 2.5 mm from the center of the central maximum on a screen 1.0 m
from the slits. What is the slit width used in this experiment?
9. A diffraction grating has 25000 lines in–1. What is the slit width of the grating?
 29

10. Monochromatic light is diffracted by a grating with 10000 lines cm –1. It is found that
the first order fringe is diffracted by an angle of 15º. What is the wavelength of the
light?
11. A diffraction grating has 2500 lines cm–1. What is the angle of the second-order fringe
when light with a wavelength of 5000Å is diffracted?
12. A diffraction grating has 10000 lines cm –1 and illuminated with light having a
frequency of 5.0 × 1014 Hz. What is the angle of (a) the first-order bright fringe and
(b) the second-order bright fringe?
13. What is the angular difference between the ends of the first-order spectrum when
white light diffracted by a grating with 5000 lines cm–1?
 30

CHAPTER –13–
MIRRORS AND LENSES

13.1 Light rays

Wave front: a wave front is defined by the adjacent of a wave that are in phase.
A ray: a ray is defined by a line drawn perpendicular to the wave fronts in the
direction of the wave propagation.
Light any travels in straight lines. A beam of light can be thought of as a parallel
group of rays. We usually draw a single ray to represent a light beam. The analysis of light
phenomena using rays is called geometrical optics or ray optics.

13.2 Reflection and Refraction

Reflection
When a wave strikes the boundary of another medium, the wave is reflected or
transmitted. The direction of the reflected wave depends on the direction of the incident
wave. By the law of reflection, the angle of incident is equal to the angle of reflection (θ i =
θr). The incident and reflected rays lie in the same plane.
– The reflection from a smooth surface is called regular speculum reflection.
(Example-mirror surface)
– The reflection from a rough surface is called irregular or diffuse reflection.

Refraction
When light is transmitted from one medium to another at an angle, the light is “bent”
or refracted.
The deviation of light from its original direction when transmitted from one medium
to another at an angle due to different wave speeds in the media.

where, n = index of refraction, c = speed of light in vacuum c m = speed of light in the

medium.

Notes:
– Light passing into an optically denser medium is refracted or bent toward normal.
– Light passing into a less optically dense medium is refracted or bent away from
the normal.

Example 13.1: What is the speed of light in water?

Solution:
From Table 13.1, nw = 1.33
 31

Snell’s Law: The angle of incidence θ1 and the angle of refraction θ2 are related by
an expression known as Snell’s law:
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
where n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction in the respective media.

Table 13.1 Typical Indices of Refraction for Different Materials

Material n (Index of Refraction)
Gases
Air 1.00029
Carbon dioxide 1.00045
Liquids
Benzene 1.50
Carbon tetrachloride 1.46
Ethyl alcohol 1.36
Water 1.33
Diamond 2.42
Glass
Ordinary crown 1.50
Dense flint 1.70
Ice 1.31
Polystyrene 1.58

Example 13.2: A light beam in air enters water in a container at an incident angle of 30.
What is the angel of refraction in the water?
Solution:
θ1 = 30º , nair = 1, nw = 1.33

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 , .

Critical angle
When light passes from a denser medium into a dense medium, the angle of incidence
corresponding to the angle of refraction 90º is called a critical angle.

Where, θ1 = critical angle, n = index of refraction.

Total Internal Reflection

The reflection at a surface when the incident angle is greater than the critical angle of
the medium. (n1 > n2).
 32

Example 13.3 What is the critical angle for total internal reflection in crown glass?
Solution:
n (crown glass) = 1.5

13.3 Mirrors
A mirror is any smooth surface that regularly or specularly reflects light. Two
common types of mirrors are plane mirror and spherical mirrors.

Plane mirror
Reflecting surface that are flat or planar form plane mirrors. Plane mirror image is
found by ray tracing and the low of reflection. The image is the same size as the object and
behind the mirror. The same distance as the object is in front of the mirror.

Spherical mirror: Two types of spherical mirrors are concave mirror and convex mirror.

Concave mirror (diverging mirror): The reflecting surface is the outside of a spherical
surface.

Notes
– The concave mirror can form both real and virtual images, depending on the
position of the object.
– The plane mirror and convex mirror always form virtual images.

Real image: Real image is one formed by the convergence of light rays and which can be
formed on a screen.

Virtual image: Virtual image is one formed which light rays appear to diverge and which
can be formed on a screen.

Spherical Mirror Equations

1. 2. 3.
f = focal length of mirror, R = radius of curvature, D0 = object distance,
Di = image distance, M = magnification

Sign Convention for Spherical Mirror Equation

If mirror is its f is If Di is Image is If M is Image is
Concave + + Real + Up right
Convex – – Virtual – Inverted
 33

Example 13.4: An object is place 15 cm in front of a concave mirror that has a radius of
curvature of 20 cm. Where is the image formed? What are its characteristics?
Solution:

D0 = 15 cm, R = +20 cm,

∴ The image is real and is formed 30 cm in front of the

∴
mirror.
The image is inverted (–M) and is twice as tall as the object.

Example 13.5: An object is place 30 cm in front of a diverging mirror that has a focal length
of 10 cm. Where is the image and what its characteristics?
Solution: D0 = 30 cm, f = –10 cm (convex)

∴ The image is virtual and appears to be 7.5 cm behind the mirror.

∴ The image is upright.

Example 13.6: Using the spherical mirror equation. Show that the image distance is equal to
the object distance for a plane mirror.
Solution: For plane mirror, f = ∞

(virtual image)

13.4 Lenses
A lens: A transparent object that converges or diverges light due to refractive
properties and shape.
There are several types of converging and diverging lenses.
– A converging lens is thicker at its center that at its periphery. They are double
convex, plano convex and concavo-convex.
– A diverging lens is thinner at its center that at its periphery. They are double
concave, plano concave and convexo-concave.
– A convex lens always forms a virtual image when the object is inside the focal
point.
– A concave lens always forms a virtual image.
 34

The Spherical Thin Lens Equations

D0 = object distance, Di = image distance, f = focal length of lens, M = magnification

Sign Convention for Thin Lenses

If mirror is Its f is If Di is Image is If M is Image is
Concave + + Real + Up right
Convex – – Virtual – Inverted

Example 13.7: An object is placed 25 cm in front of a biconvex converging lens that has a
focal length of 10 cm. Where is the image formed? What are its characteristics?
Solution: D0 = 25 cm, f = 10 cm (biconvex)

∴ The image is real.

∴ The image is inverted.

Lensmaker’s Equations
The focal length of a lens depends on the index of refraction of the lens-material and
on the radius of curvature of each spherical surface. The lensmaker’s equation enables one to
compute the focal length f, if the index of refraction n and the radii of curvature R 1 and R2 are
known:

where, f = the focal length of the lens

n = the index of refraction of lens material
R1 = the radius of curvature of the first surface of the lens
R2 = the radius of curvature of the second surface of the lens
If the lens is immersed in a substance of index of refraction n the formula is
generalized to
 35

Fig. Sign convention for the lensmaker’s equation

Example 13.8: A converging lens has surfaces will radii of curvature R 1 = 80 cm and R2 =
36 cm. An emerald 2.0 cm tall is placed. What is the focal length? (n = 1.63)
Solution:

= (0.63) (0.0125 + 0.0278)

= 0.02539
f = 39.18 cm

Problems:
1. A light ray strikes a plane mirror surface at an incident angle of 35º. At what angle
relative to the surface is the ray reflected?
2. Two light rays strike a common point on a mirror surface a angles of 25º and 40º,
respectively. What is the angle between the reflected rays?
3. Two plane mirrors are set side-to-side with an angle of 30º between their reflecting
surfaces. If a light ray is incident on one of the mirror at an angel of 40º and is
reflected to the other mirror, what is the angle of reflection of the ray from the second
mirror?
4. What is the speed of light in ice?
 36

5. The speed of light in a transparent substance is 1.5 × 10 10 cms–1. What is the index of
refraction of the substance?
6. A light beam in air is incident on a water surface at an angle of 45º relative to the
normal of the water surface. What is the angle of refraction of the light in the water?
7. An open container made of crown glass is full of water. If light strikes the water
surface at an angle of incidence of incidence of 50º and passes through the water into
the glass. What is the angle of refraction in the glass? (b) What would be the effect
without water?
8. What is the critical angle of (a) diamond and (b) ethyl alcohol?
9. A person stands 1.0 m in front of a plane mirror. Where is the images formed? and
what are its characteristics?
10. What is the minimum length of a plane mirror that can be used by a person 5 ft 6 in.
tall to view his or her complete image? Assume the person’s eyes to be 4.0 in. below
the top of the head.
11. A concave mirror has a radius of curvature of 40 cm. If an object 6.0 cm tall is placed
30 cm in front of the mirror, where is the image formed and what are is
characteristics?
12. An object is placed 10 cm from the vertex of a concave mirror with a radius of
curvature of 30 cm. (a) Is the image larger or smaller than the object, and by how
much? (b) Can the image be formed on a screen?
13. A convex spherical mirror has a radius of curvature of 20 cm. If an object is placed 20
cm from the mirror, where is the image formed and what are its characteristics?
14. A convex spherical mirror in a department store has a focal length of 0.50 m. The
manager of the store stands 3.0 m in front of the mirror. Where is the manager’s
image? What are its characteristics?
15. An image is formed on a screen located 50 cm from a concave mirror with a radius of
curvature of 60 cm. (a) Where is the object located? (b) What is the magnification
factor?
16. (a) An inverted image is formed on a screen located 50 cm in front of a concave
mirror. If the image is twice the size of the object, what is the radius of curvature of
the mirror? (b) Where should the object be located to have a magnification factor of
one?
17. Draw ray diagrams for a biconvex lens for the general object distance of (a) D0 = 2f.
(b) f < D0 < 2f, and (c) D0 < f.
18. An object is placed 30 cm in front of a biconvex lens that has a focal length of 20 cm.
(a) Where is the image formed? What are its characteristics? (b) If the object is 10 cm
tall, how tall is the image?
19. What is the magnification factor of the image formed by a converging lens that has a
focal length of 30 cm if an object is placed 20 cm from the lens?
20. A biconcave lens has a focal length of 10 cm. If an object is placed 25 cm from the
lens, where is the image and what are its characteristics?
 37

21. In a particular application, it is desired to have a biconcave lens from an image one-
half the size of an object located 20 cm from the lens. What is the focal length of the
required lens?
22. An image of an object is magnified by a factor of 2.5 and formed on a screen 20 cm
from the lens. What is the focal length of the lens.
23. A biconvex lens with a focal length of 10 cm forms an image on a screen 25 cm from
the lens. (a) Is the image upright or inverted? (b) Where is the object located?
 38

CHAPTER –14–
VISION AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

14.1 The Human Eye

Eye

Fig. 14.1 Structure of the human eye

The eyeball is nearly spherical with a white outer converging called the sclera (white
of the eye). Light enters the eye through a curved, transparent tissue called the cornea. Behind
the cornea is a circular diaphragm, the iris, which has a central hole, called pupil. The size of
the pupil aperture or opening is adjusted by muscle action and controls the amount of light
entering the eye. In very bright light the iris diaphragm closes, and the pupil becomes very
small. A converging crystalline lens composed of glassy fibers is situated behind the iris. The
shape or curvature of the crystalline lens is controlled by the ciliary muscles. By adjustments
and changes in the curvature of the lens, which is called accommodation, the images of
objects at different distance from the eye can be focused on the retina on the back wall of the
eyeball. The eyeball contains a fluid in front of the lens and a gelatinous material in the space
behind the lens. The retina of the eye is composed of two types of photosensitive cells called
rods and cones. The cones respond selectively to certain colors of light, some to one color
and others to other colors. Cones are less sensitive to light than are rods. The rods and cones
of the retina are connected to optic nerve fibers, which relay the light-stimulated signals to
the brain. The operation of eye is similar in several ways to that of a simple camera.

Notes
Accommodation …… Adjustment of the curvature of the crystalline lens of the eye for
focusing
Retina …… The light-sensitive part of the eye on which images are formed.
Rods …… Photosensitive cells of the retina that can distinguish between low
light intensities for twilight vision.
Cones …… Photosensitive cells of the retina responsible for color vision.
 39

Common defects of vision

The two common vision defects are
1. Nearsightedness
2. Farsightedness
1. Nearsightedness
Nearsightedness or myopia, arises when the image is formed in front of the retina,
nearsighted person can see close or near objects clearly, but not distant objects. This defect
corrected by wearing glasses with a diverging lens for the nearsighted eye.

2. Farsightedness
Farsightedness persons can see far objects clearly, but near objects are blurred or out
of focus. Farsightedness of hyperopia, is due the image being formed behind the retina,
converging lens will correct this by converging the incoming rays so that the image is moved
forward to the retina.

14.2 Color
A Physiological sensation of the brain in response to light excitation of the cone
receptors of the retina.
– In the human eye, the cones are sensitive to light with frequencies between about
7.5 × 1014 Hz and 4.3 × 1014 Hz. (4000 Å to 7000 Å a wavelength)
– Different cones of the eye are believed to respond to different frequencies of light
to give three basic color responses.
– The blue cones have maximum response for light with a wavelength around 4300
A, the green cones for wavelength around 5500 A and the red cones for
wavelength around 5800 A.
– When red and green cones are equally stimulated by light of a particular
frequency, the brain interprets this as yellow in color. But when the red cones are
stimulated more strongly than the green cones, the brain sees orange.
– It is difficult or impossible to distinguish colors of the larger wavelengths, and the
condition is called red-green color blindness.
o Primary colors … Primary colors are red, green and blue.
o Complementary colors … Combinations of colored lights that produce
white.
o Subtractive primaries … Subtractive primaries are cyan, magenta and
yellow.
 40

14.3 Projectors

Fig. 14.2 Diagram of a simple projector

The projection of the images of slides and films on a screen is commonplace. A pair
of condensing lenses concentrates light from a source on a slide. The slide is placed just
beyond the focal point of the converging lens and a magnified image of the slide is formed on
the screen. The image of an upright object is inverted. Therefore, slides are placed in the
projector upside down so the image on the screen is seen right side up.
To reproduce the sound when the film runs through the projector, an optical system
sends a beam of light through the sound track to a photocell or phototube. The variations in
the light and dark portion of the track cause fluctuations in the light beam, which are
monitored by the phototube and the electrical impulses are fed into an amplifier-speaker
system that reproduces the original sounds.

14.4 Microscopes
When we want to see small objects better, we might use a magnifying glass or simple
microscope, which is a biconvex lens. A single lens or simple microscope expands the angle
of view so that an object appears larger. A magnifying glass is used on microscope. As a
result a magnified, virtual image is viewed by the eye.
The magnification of a magnifying glass is

(14.1)
If D0 ≈ f, the magnification is maximum,
When Di is near point, talking average near point is 25 cm (Di = 12 cm),

(14.2)

Example 14.1: A draftsman views the fine details of a blue print with a magnifying glass
that has a focal length of 10 cm. What is the maximum magnification?

Solution: F = 10 cm,
 41

The Compound Microscope

To obtain greater magnification than that given by a single lens or magnifying glass,
compound microscope may be used.

Fig. 14.3 The compound microscope

The objective lens forms a real, magnified image just inside the focal point of the
eyepiece, which produces a magnified, virtual image that is viewed by the observer.
The total magnification of a compound lens system,

(14.3)
where, Mt = total magnification, M0 = objective magnification,
Me = eyepiece magnification

If the objective (D0 ≈ f0), Di = 20 cm, then

For the intermediate (object) image of the eyepiece, if (D 0 = fe), Di = 25 cm, then

.
The magnification of compound microscope is

(14.4)

Example 14.2: A technician uses a low-power compound microscope to view the etched
circuits on a printed circuit board. The objective and eyepiece of the “scope” have focal
lengths of 20 mm and 50 mm, respectively. What is the magnification?
Solutions:
F0 = 20 mm = 2 cm, fe = 50 mm = 5 cm, Mt = ?
 42

14.5 Telescopes
Telescopes are used distinct objects appear closer. Telescopes collect and concentrate
light energy to form images. A astronomical telescopes used to view distant stars and
galaxies. Smaller telescopes are used to view terrestrial objects.
There are two general types of telescopes,
1. Refracting telescope
2. Reflecting telescopes

1. Refracting telescope: A telescope that uses the refractive properties of lenses.

2. Reflecting telescope: A telescope that uses a mirror for the collection and converging of
light.

Magnification of refracting telescope is (14.5)

where, f0 = focal length of the objective, fe = focal length of the eyepiece.

Example 14.3: A refracting telescope has an objective lens with a focal length of 100 inches
and an eyepiece with a focal length of 2.0 inches. What is the magnification of the telescope?
Solution: F0 = 100 in, fc = 2.0 in, M = ?

Problems
1. An old “lantern” projector has a lens with a focal length of 30 cm. If a slide is placed
23 cm from the lens and an image is formed on a screen, where of the lens?
2. A slide is positioned in a screen carousel projector 41.0 mm from the lens and an
image is formed on a screen at a distance of 1.64 cm. What is the focal length of the
lens?
3. A machinist examines a metal piece with a magnifying glass having a focal length of
5.0 cm (a) What is the approximate maximum magnification? (b) Would the observed
image be sharp?
4. A compound microscope has an objective that gives a magnification of (10) of an
object on the microscope stage and an eyepiece with (20) magnification. What is the
total magnification?
5. A specimen is observed under a compound microscope that has an objective with a
focal length of 15 mm and an eyepiece with a focal length of 45 mm. What is the
approximate total magnification?
6. A compound microscope has an objective lens with a focal length of 20 mm and an
eyepiece with a magnification of 15.What is the approximate total magnification?
7. The objective and eyepiece of a refracting telescope have focal lengths of 100 cm and
5.0 cm respectively. What is the magnification of the telescope?
 43

8. Given four converging lenses with focal lengths of 75 cm, 50 cm, 10 cm, and 5.0 cm
respectively. What are the possible magnifications of refracting telescopes you could
construct with the lenses?
********************
 44

CHAPTER –15–
ELECTROSTATICS

15.1 Electric Charge and Force

Electric Charge
Electric charge is a fundamental property. There are two types of charges. They are (i)
positive charge, (ii) negative charge.
The standard unit of charge in SI system is “coulomb” (C).

The Law of Charges

Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
A conductor: A conductor is a material in which electrons are relatively free to move.
e.g. metals such as copper, brass, aluminium, silver …
An insulator: An insulator is a material in which there is relatively little electrons mobility.
e.g. wood, plastic, wax, quartz, rubber …
A semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material with electrons mobility between that of a
good conductor and that of a poor conductor (an insulator). A material with intermediate
electron mobility is a semiconductor.
e.g. silica, germanium,
Coulomb’s Law: The magnitude of the electrostatic force F between two charges q 1 and q2 is

given as This expression is known as Coulomb’s Law, where “r” is the distance
between the two charges and “k” is a constant.
The value of “k” in the SI system is k = 9.0 × 10 9 N m–2 C–2, the constant “k” is
sometimes written as

where ϵ0 = 8.85 × 10–12 C2 N–1 m–2 is the permittivity of free space (vacuum).
The direction of the force is given by law of charges. If there are more than two
charges the net force on a particular charge is the vector sum of the forces acting on the
charge.

Example 15.1: Two points of charges 2.0 × 10–6C and 8.0 × 10–6 C, respectively are 0.30 m
apart. What is the force on the 2.0 × 10–6 C? What is the magnitude and direction of the force
on the other charge?
(Ans: 1.6 N, away from the other change)

Example 15.2: On a relative scale, how much stronger is the electrical force than the
gravitational force?
(Ans: The electrical force is 1040 times the gravitational force)
 45

15.2 Electrostatic Charging

1.2.1 Charging by friction
The outer electrons of the atoms in some materials are loosely bound and can be freed
and transferred to another object. For example, when a hard rubber rod is rubbed with a piece
of fur, electrons are transferred to the rod from the fur. With an excess of electrons the rod is
negatively charged.
Similarly, when a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the glass gives up electrons to the silk
and becomes positivity charged. This is called charging by friction.

15.2.2 Charging by contact

The electroscope tells us that the rods are charged, but not how they are charged
(positive or negative). However, this can be determined by charging the electroscope with
known type of charge. For example, if the bulb was touched with a negatively rod, some
electrons would be transferred to bulb and the electroscope would be negatively charged and
the leaves would discharge. This is called charging by contact.

15.2.3 Charging by induction

An object can be charged without friction or contact of a charged rod. This can be
done by bringing a charged rod close by. For example, suppose a charged rod is brought near
an electroscope bulb. Touching the bulb with finger “grounds” the electroscope. This
provides a path for electrons to get farther away from the charged rod and some of them are
conducted to ground. When the finger is removed the electroscope is left with a deficiency of
electrons and it is positively charged.
Charging by need not involve a removal of a charge. An object can have regions of
charge. For example, if a charged rod is brought near an insulated metal ball, there is a
separation of charge and a net electrical force, even though the net charge of the ball as a
whole is zero. Induction was also used in charging the electroscope. This induction results in
a polarization or separation of charge. All materials including insulators can be polarized by
induction to some degrees. Some materials have permanent dipoles and some molecular
dipoles can be induced in others.

15.3 Electric Field

Electric field is the force field surrounding a charge body. The electric field
(strength/intensity) E is defined as the force per unit charge.
Electric field = Force / Charge, in the direction a positive charge would experience a
force. In symbols:

, (15.2)
where, E is electric field, F is electric force and q0 is positive test charge.
The electric field at a particular point in space due to a charge q is determined by
placing (or imaging) a positive test charge q0 at the point. A positive charge is used by
 46

convention. Then, the magnitude of the electric field is given by the SI unit of E is newton
per coulomb (NC–1).
The direction of the electric field is in the direction a positive charge would
experience a force.
Coulomb’s law is analogous to Newton’s law for the gravitational force.
Both gravitational and electric forces decrease with the square of the distance between
the objects, and both forces act along a line between them.
Electric field intensity is a vector quantity.
The unit of electric field intensity in SI system is newton per coulomb (NC–1).
The other unit of electric field intensity is volt per metre (Vm–1).
The ratio of the electric force and the gravitational force between two electrons is

given by
With K = 9 × 10–9 NC–2 m2, G = 6 × 10–11 Nkg–2 m2, e = 1.6 × 10–16 C and m = 9.1 ×
10–31 kg FC/FG ~ 1042.
The ratio of the electric force and the gravitational force between a proton (m p = 1837

m) and an electron is given by

What is the value of the ratio if we replace the proton with a neutron? Remember the
neutron carries no charge (e = 0) but has about the same mass as the proton (m n ≈ mp). Thus,
FC is zero and FG is not zero. The ratio will be zero.

Calculation of Electric Field from Coulomb’s Law

By Coulomb’s Law, the force on q due to Q is .

By the definition of electric field .

Thus
If the result electric field intensity at a point due to two or more charges is to be
found, the vector sum of the electric field intensities at that point must be taken.

Electric field and lines of force

Electric lines of force: An electric line of force is a path such that the tangent, drawn
at any point on it, indicates the direction of the electric field at that point.
The electric field cannot be seen. There exists an electric field in the vicinity of an
electric charge. The concept of lines of force was introduced by Faraday. Electric lines of
force do not really exist. Electric lines of force are only imaginary. The direction of the
electric field varies from point to point.
 47

The electric lines of force are usually curves. In order to know the direction of the
electric field at a point on the electric line of force, a tangent must be drawn at that point. An
arrowhead on the electric line of force indicates the direction in which the tangent is to be
drawn. The electric lines of forces in an electrostatic field are continuous lines which start
from a positive charge and end on a negative charge.
If a small positive charge is placed in the electric field it will move along a particular
electric line of force. The electric lines of force around a single positive charge are directed
radially outward. The electric lines of force starting from a positive charge will terminate out
negative charges situated at infinity. The electric lines of force are close together when the
electric field intensity is large and far apart when the electric field intensity is small. The
electric lines of force never intersect. The electric field intensity at any point can have only
one direction. Only one electric line of force can pass through a point.
When a positive charge q is given to a metal sphere, the individual electric charges
which from the charge q will move on the surface of the sphere. When a positive charge q is
given to a metal sphere, the charge q spreads out uniformly on the surface of the sphere. The
electric field around a point charge q and that around a metal sphere carrying a charge q can
be represented by the same number of electric lines of force. The pattern of electric lines of
force around a point charge q is identical with that around a metal sphere carrying a charge q.
When a positive charge q is given to a hollow metal sphere, the charges are uniformly
distributed only on the outer surface of the sphere.
When a charge is given to a conducting object of any shape the charge is found to be
spread out over the outer surface of the object. When a charge is given to a conducting object
of irregular shape the charge are not uniformly distributed. When a charge is given to a
conducting object of irregular shape, the more highly curved parts of the objects have greater
concentration of charge than the less curved parts. Charges are highly concentrated at the
pointed portion of the object. The charge concentration at the pointed end is so large that
some of the charges leak off into the air.
Pointed rods are very useful as a lightning conductor. Copper rods are used as
lightening conductors. The pointed end of the copper rod reaches above the highest part of
the building. The other end of the lightening conductor is connected to the copper plate
buried in the earth. When a thundercloud containing charged particles of water passes over
the building it induces an opposite charge in the lightening conductor. There is an electric
field surrounding a charged conducting object.
The electric fields due to the individual charges on the surface of the charged
conducting object all cancel inside the object. the electric field is zero everywhere inside a
charged conducting object of any shape. If there were an electric field in the interior of the
charged conducting object, the charges inside the object that are free to move would move
under the influence of the electric field. The motion of charges or the current is not observed
in a charged conducting object.
 48

Fig. Electric lines of force around a single positive and negative charge

Example 15.3: (a) What is the electric field at the origin for the charge configuration shown
in Figure 15.3? (b) What force would be experienced by a charge of –0.6 μC placed at the
origin?

Ans: (a) 1.3 × 10-6 NC–1, E45ºN, (b) 7.8 N in the direction opposite the E field.

15.4 Electric Potential Energy and Electric Potential

With an electric force between two charges q 1 and q2, there is also a mutual potential
energy of the charges. This potential energy U is given by the relationship

(1.3)
where “r” is the separation distance between charges q 1 and q2. Essentially, this is the energy
gained or lost in bringing the charges together.
– The potential energy may be positive or negative, depending on whether the force
between the charges is regular or attractive.

– and
– Since the potential is scalar quantity, the total energy of a configuration of charges
is simply the scalar sum, U1 + U2 + U3 + ….
– When one or both of the charges are moved, there is the change in potential
energy ΔU.
– To bring two positive or two negative charges closer together (compression of a
spring) would require work and result in an increase in potential energy.
– Similarly, to separate two unlike charges, work is required and the potential
energy is increased.
– How would the potential energy of two like charges be affected if the charges
were moved farther apart?
 49

– It should be apparent that this would result in a decrease in potential energy, i.e..
ΔU < 0 or negative.

Example 15.4: Two charges q1 = –2.0 μC and q2 = +3.0 μC are 0.20 m apart. What are (a)
the mutual potential energy of the charges and (b) the change in potential energy if the
separation distance is decreased to 0.15 m?
Ans: (a) Ua = –0.27J, (b) Ub = –0.36 J, Ub – Ua = –0.09 J (The potential energy
decreased)

Electric Potential
The electric potential is the potential energy per unit charge. The electric potential
energy at any point due to a charge “q” is determined by using a positive test charge “q 0”, i.e.

Then the electric potential (V, or voltage) is defined as

(1.4)

Therefore, Electric potential = the SI unit of the electric potential is

joule per coulomb, (JC–1).
1 JC–1 = 1 volt
Since the electric potential and the workdone in bringing charges together are equal in
magnitude.

∴ the potential (or) voltage difference between two points is equal

to the work done in moving a test charge between two points, i.e. .
Relationship between the potential difference and the electric field

V=E
 50

Fig. 15.5 Electric

In moving a positive test charge from point “a” to point “b” against the field the work
done is Wab = Fd = q0 Ed.

Since, then .
Therefore which is commonly written V = Ed. (15.5)
Remark: Unit of E is volt per metre, as well as newton per coulomb. (Vm = NC–1)
–1

The electron Volt

A common unit of energy used in modern physics is the electron volt (eV). An
electron volt is the energy required by an electron accelerating through a potential difference
of 1 V.
In terms of the joule unit, ΔU = eΔV = (1.6 × 10–16 C) (1 volt) = 1.6 × 10–16 J = 1 eV.
1 eV = 1.6 × 10–16 J, 1 keV = 103eV, 1 MeV = 106 eV

Example 15.5: A doubly ionized particle is released in a uniform electric field of 1000
Vm–1. (a) What is the potential difference between the point of release and the location of the
particle after it has traveled 0.25 m? (b) How is the energy of the particle affected? (c) If the
particle has a mass of 3.0 × 10–26 kg, what is its acceleration?
Ans: (a) q = 2e = 2 (–1.6 × 10–19C), d = 0.25 m, ΔV = Ed = 250 V
(b) ΔU = q ΔV = –0.8 × 10–17 J, (c) F = qE = ma, a = 1.1 × 10–10 ms–2.

Problems
1. It is desired to give an insulted conductor a net charge of +9μC. How many electrons
would have to be removed?
2. Two particles with electric charges of +2.0 μC and –4.0 μC are a distance of 0.30 m
apart. What is the force acting on each particle?
3. How far apart would an electron and a proton have to be to have a mutual electric
attraction of 1.0 N?
4. What is the electric field (magnitude and direction) 60 cm away from a charge of +
3.0 μC?
5. The electric potential at a particular location is 9.0 + 10 4 JC–1 as determined by using a
test charge of +3.0 μC. What is the electric potential energy of the charge at this
point?
6. An alpha particle has a charge of +2 and a mas of 2.4 × 10 27 kg. A charge of +2 means
the particle has an equivalent charge of two protons. How much energy in (a) eV and
(b) joules is acquired by the particle when it accelerates through a potential of 50 kV?
 51

CHAPTER –16–
CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS

16.1 Capacitance and Capacitors

Capacitor: A device which can be stored electrical energy is called a capacitor.
Capacitance: A measure of the charge on a conductor at a given potential is given by
a quantity called capacitance.
– A charge conductor has electric potential by virtue of its charge, since work is
done in charging a conductor (electric potential = work/charge). Hence, a charged
conductor has energy or the capacity to do work.
– Two closely separated conductors each with equal and opposite charge Q is called
a capacitor.
– The total charge Q that is transferred depends on the electric potential or voltage
V of the battery. The greater the voltage, the greater the charge on the plates, i.e.,
Q ∞ V.

Q = CV or (16.1)
Where C is called the capacitance.
The capacitance is essentially the charge “capacity” of a capacitor for a given voltage.
The unit of capacitance: The unit of capacitance is coulomb per volt (CV–1). One
coulomb per volt is one farad (F). 1 μF = 10–6 F, 1 pF = 10–12 F.
Parallel-plate capacitor: It consists of two parallel-plate conductors each of area A
separated by a distance ‘d’.
Two parallel plates of area A separated by a distance ‘d’ form a capacitor. It is called
a parallel-plate capacitor.
When connected to a battery, the plates obtain a charge Q. The battery supplies the
work to charge the capacitor.
When the plates of a capacitor are charged with a charge Q (+Q and –Q on opposite
plates), it can be shown that there is a uniform electric field between the plated, which has a
magnitude.

(16.2)

where, = the surface charge density of the plates

= the permittivity of free space (vacuum) = 8.85 × 10–12 C2 N – m–2

for parallel plate capacitor,
 52

∴ (16.3)

16.2 The Energy of a Charges Capacitor

A charged capacitor has electric potential energy. As the charge on the plates goes
from zero to a total charge Q in the charging process, the potential difference or voltage
across the plates goes from zero to V.
Work is done in moving charge (from the negative plate to the positive plate) through
the increasing potential difference.

Average potential difference

The work or the potential energy of the charged capacitor is

But

Energy stored in a capacitor

Example 16.1: A 2.0 μF capacitor is connected to a 6.0 V battery. How much energy is
stored in the fully charged capacitor?
Solution:
C = 2μ F = 2.0 × 10–6 F, V = 6.0 V

Notice that the energy is proportional to the square of the applied voltage. If a 12 V
battery had been used, the capacitor would have four times the energy as with a 60 V battery.

16.3 Dielectrics and Dielectric Constants

Dielectric: An insulating material used between capacitor plates.
Dielectric Constant (K): The radio of dielectric capacitance and vacuum
capacitance,

(16.5)
where, Cd = dielectric capacitance, C = capacitance of a capacitor in air
*** The dielectric constant of air is almost one. This is why air can be used instead of
vacuum, which has a K of exactly one.
 53

Expression of K in terms of the permittivity 

The capacitance of a capacitor in air =

Capacitance with a dielectric = Cd = CK

∴ , where,  = permittivity.

Example 16.2: A parallel-plate capacitor with a plane area of 0.50 m 2 has a poly-styene
plastic film 0.030 mm thick sandwiched between the plates. (a) What is the capacitances? (b)
If the capacitor is connected to a 12 V battery, how much energy is stored in the “cap”? (A
capacitor is sometimes called “cap” for short.)
Solution:
A = 0.50 m2, d = 0.030 mm = 3.0 × 10–5 m
K = 2.6 for polystyrene

(a) Cd =

(b)

Table 16.1 Typical (Average) Dielectric Constants and Dielectric Strengths of Some
Materials
Dielectric Strength
Material Dielectric Constant K
volts/mil volts/metre
Vacuum 1 0 0
Air 1.0006 75 3 × 106
Liquid
Ethyl alcohol 25
Silicone oil 2.5 500 20 × 106
Transformer oil 4 400 16 × 106

Water 80
Solids
Glass 3.6 – 6.8
Mica 7 5000 200 × 106
Paper
Paraffined 2.3 1100 45 × 106
Polyethylene 2.3 450 18 × 106
Polystyrene 2.6 550 22 × 106
 54

Porcelain 6.0 – 10 50 – 400 2.0 – 16 × 106

Teflon 2.1
Titanates (Ba, Ca, Mg, etc.) 15 – 12000 50 – 300 2.0 – 12 × 106
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) 14 – 110 100 – 200 4.0 – 8 × 106
16.4 Capacitors in Series and Parallel
Capacitors in Series

Fig. 16.1 Capacitors in Series

Capacitors in series connections the negative plate of one capacitor is connected to the
positive plate of another.
As such, the charge on each capacitor is the same as that transferred by the battery,
i.e.
Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 (capacitors in series)
The sum of the electric potential or voltage drop, across the capacitors is equal to the
voltage rise of the battery:

∴ (16.6)
where, Cs = the equivalent capacitance of the three capacitors in series.

For the capacitors in series,

i.e. The equivalent capacitance of capacitors in series is always less than that of the
smallest capacitance.

Capacitors in Parallel

Fig. 16.2 Capacitors in parallel

 55

For capacitors in parallel, the positive plates of all the capacitors are connected, as are
all the negative plates.
– The voltage drops across the capacitors are all equal to the voltage rise of the
battery.
i.e., V = V1 = V2 = V3 (capacitors in parallel)
– The total charge transferred from the battery is equal to the sum of the charges on
the individual capacitors: Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 (capacitors on parallel)

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 (capacitors on parallel)
CpV = C1 V1 + C2 V2 + C3 V3 = V (C1 + C2 + C3)
Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 (16.8)
where, Cp = the equivalent capacitance of three capacitors in parallel.

Example 16.3: Three capacitors are connected in a circuit, a shown in Figure. What is (a)
the equivalent capacitance of the circuit and (b) the charge transferred by the battery?

Solution:
(a) The equivalent capacitance if C1 and C2 in parallel is
Cp = C1 + C2 = 2.0 + 5.0 = 7.0 μF
The total equivalent capacitance is the combination of Cp is series with C3, and

(b) V = 3.0 V, Q = CT V = 6.3 μC.

16.5 Capacitor Charging and Discharging

When a capacitor is charged in a dc circuit, a transient current will flow until the
capacitor is fully charged. A sustained current will not flow, since the capacitor gap is in an
‘open’ in the circuit.
A capacitance C charger through a resistance R (in series) does so at an exponential
rate, and the charge Q on the voltage V across the capacitor at time t is given by
Q = Qmax (1 – e–t/RC)
V = Vmax (1 – e–t/RC) Capacitor charging (16.9)
where, Qmax and Vmax are the maximum charge and voltage respectively.
The constant RC is called the time constant, τ = RC. In one time constant, t = τ, a
capacitor is charged to 0.63 (63%) of the maximum value of charge or voltage, in two time
constants t = 2r, to 0.87 of its maximum value, and so on.
 56

Similarly a capacitor discharge according to the relationship.

Q = Qmax e–t/RC
V = Vmax – e–t/RC Capacitor discharging
In this case, the capacitor loses its charge exponentially and after one time constant, =
τ, a capacitor loses 0.63 of its charge of it voltage is reduced to 0.37 (37%) of its maximum
value.

Problems
1. A parallel-plate air capacitor with a capacitance of 3.0 .0μ F is connected to a 12 V
battery. How much charge is transferred to the capacitor?
2. When a capacitor is connected to a 120 V cource, it is found that there is a charged of
6.0 × 10–5 C on the plates. What is the capacitance?
3. An capacitor has a charge of 5.0 × 10 –8 C on its plates, which each have an area of
0.75 m2. (a) What is the electric field between the plates? (b) If the separation distance
of the plates is 2.0 mm, what is the potential difference of the plates and the
capacitance?
4. A parallel-plate air capacitor has plates 100 cm by 75 cm that are separated by a
distance of 1.0 mm. (a) What is the capacitance? (b) If the capacitor is connected to a
100 V voltage supply, how much energy is stored in the capacitor when it is fully
charged?
5. The plates of a capacitor each have an area of 15 m 2. What separation distance would
give a capacitance of 0.25 μF in air?
6. A 20 pF air capacitor is charged to 12 V. How much energy is stored in the capacitor?
7. A parallel-plate air capacitor with a plate area of 0.50 m 2 and a separation distance of
1.4 mm is charged to 12 V. (a) How much energy is stored in the capacitor? (b) What
is the energy density?
8. A parallel-plate air capacitor is charged to 20 V. If the plate area in 0.80 m 2 and the
separation distance is 1.0 mm, (a) how much energy is stored in the capacitor? (b)
What is the energy density? (c) What is the force on the plates?
9. If the capacitor described in Problem 7 has a material with a dielectric constant of 4.0
between its plates, (a) what would be its capacitance? (b) How much energy is stored
in the capacitor?
10. What is the total capacitance of two capacitors of 2.0 μF and 4.0 μF connected in (a)
series (b) parallel?
11. What are the maximum and minimum capacitances that can be obtained by
combinations of three capacitors with capacitances of 0.50 μF, 1.0 μF and 1.5 μF?
************************
 57

CHAPTER 17
CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND POWER

17.1 Electric Current

An electric current I is the net charge q passing through a cross-sectional area of a
conductor per unit time.

(17.1)
–1
The unit of current is coulomb per second (Cs ).
One coulomb per second is one ampere (A or amp).

Example 17.1: A current of 1.0 amp flows in a conductor. How many electrons pass through
a cross-sectional area of the conductor in 1s.

Solution: I = 1.0 A, t = 1.0s, , q = I , t = 1.0 C

q = ne, where is the electronic charge, electrons.

17.2 Ohm’s Law

The current I in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference or
voltage V across the conductor, i.e.,
V ∞ 1 or V = IR (17.2)
where R is the resistance.
– A conductor that obeys Ohm’s Law is called an ohmic conductor.
– For an ohmic conductor, the ratio of the voltage and current is equal to a constant,

where R is the resistance.

In symbol,

Fig. 17.1 Ohm’s Law

Example 17.2: When a particular lamp is connected to a 12 V battery, a 0.20 A current

flows in the circuit.
(a) What is the resistance of the lamp?
 58

(b) If the lamp were replaced with one having twice the resistance, how much current
would flow in the circuit?
Solution: V = 12 V, I = 0.20 A
(a) By Ohm’s law,

(b) Since the resistance of the replacement lamp is twice as great

R = 2 (60 Ω) = 120 V, as you might expect the current would be half as much, or
directly from Ohm’s law,

Remark
– The actual flow of charge in a circuit is in the direction of the net electron motion.
– By convention, the current direction in a dc circuit is taken to be in the direction
on that positive charge carriers would move.
– Thus, the direction of the conventional current is opposite to that of the actual
electron flow or away from positive terminal of the battery.

17.3 Resistance and Resistivity

Resistance: Resistance of a resistor is defined as the ratio of the voltage to the
current flowing through it.

In symbols, where, V = voltage, I = current, R = resistance

In circuit symbols, SI unit ….. ohm (Ω)
Remark
– The electrical resistance of a conductor depends on
– Its length, its cross-sectional area, the kind of material, and temperature.

Resistivity
The resistance of a conductor (say in the form of a wire) depends on its length “l” and
its cross-sectional area A.

(17.3)
The resistivity of the conductor is defined as the resistance of a conductor of one unit
cross-sectional area and one unit length.
SI unit … ohm-metre (Ω-m)

Temperature Dependence of Resistance

For most metallic conductors, the resistance increases with increasing temperature.
The resistivity for temperature change ΔT,
 59

Δρ = α ρ0 ΔT (17.4)
where α = the temperature coefficient of resistance
Δρ = α R0 ΔT
ΔR = R – R0 = the difference between the final and initial resistance, for temperature charge
ΔT.
R = R0 (1 + α Δ T) (17.5)
ρ = ρ0 (1 + α Δ T)

Example 17.3: A piece of aluminum metal has a resistance of 65 Ω at 20ºC. If the metal is
heated to 100ºC, what is its resistance at this temperature?
Solution: R0 = 65 Ω, ΔT = T – T0 = 100ºC – 20ºC = 80ºC
From table 16.1, αAl = 3.9 × 10–3 ºC–1
ΔR = αR0 ΔT = (3.9 × 10–3) (65) (80) = 20 Ω
R = R0 + Δ R = 65 + 20 = 85 Ω

17.4 Electric Power

Electric Power is the electric energy per unit time.

In symbols, (17.6)
P = IV
Since unit of power …….. watt (W)
Larger unit …….. kilowatt (kW)

Since V = IR, P = IV = (17.7)

Example 17.4: What is the current requirement and resistance of a 60 W, 120 V house-hold
light bulb?
P = 60 W, V = 120 V

Example 17.5: An automatic coffee marker is rated at 1625 W at 120 V. (a) How much
current does the coffee maker draw? (b) What is its resistance?
Solution: P = 1625 W, V = 120 V

(a)

or, alternately by Ohm’s Law, V = IR (or)

60
 61

Table 17.1 Resistivities and Temperature Coefficients of Resistance for Various Materials
ρ (20ºC) α
Material
Ω-m ºC–1
Conductors Aluminum 2.8 × 10–8 3.9 × 10–3
Carbon 3.6 × × 10–8 –0.5 × 10–3
Copper 1.7 × 10–8 3.9 × 10–3
Gold 2.4 × 10–8 3.4 × 10–3
Iron 10 × 10–8 5.0 × 10–3
Magnanin (alloy of Cu, Mn and Ni) 44 × 10–8 0.01 × 10–3
Mercury 96 × 10–8 0.89 × 10–3
Nichrome (alloy of Ni and Cr) 100 × 10–8 0.44 × 10–3
Nickel 7.8 × 10–8 6.0 × 10–3
Platinum 10 × 10–8 3.0 × 10–3
Silver 1.6 × 10–8 3.8 × 10–3
Tungsten 5.6 × 10–8 4.5 × 10–3
Insulators (typical orders of magnitude) 1012 –
Glass
Rubber 1015 –
10
Wood 10 –

Problems
1. A net charge of 3.0 C flows through a cross-sectional area of conductor in 0.75s.
What is the current?
2. If a current of 1.0 A flows in a wire, what is the net number of electrons passing
through a cross-sectional area of the wire in 5.0s?
3. When a trouble light is connected to a 12 V battery, a current if 500 mA flows in the
circuit. What is the resistance of the circuit? What accounts for most of this
resistance?
4. An ohmic resistance in a circuit draws 150 mA from a 12 V source. How much
current would be draw from a 60 V source by the same resistance?
5. If a 12 V battery causes the current flow in Problem 1, what is the resistance of the
circuit?
6. In a particular application, it is desired that a 50 m length of aluminum wire have a
resistance of 2.0 Ω. What diameter wire should be used?
7. A carbon resistor has a resistance of 240 Ω at room temperature. What would be the
resistance at 100ºC?
8. A portable electric heater is related at 1400 W at 120 V. (a) How much energy is
dissipated by the heater in 5.0 minutes? (b) What is the resistance of the heater?
9. How many kilowatt-hours of electrical energy does a 100 W light bulb use during 5.0
hours operation?
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CHAPTER –18–
BASIC dc CIRCUITS

18.1 Resistances in Series and Parallel

Resistance in Series:

Fig. 18.1 Resistance in series

In a circuit with resistance in series, the voltage rise V of the voltage source (e.g. a
battery) is equal to the sum of the voltage drops across the individual resistance.
Vs = V1 + V2 + V3
Also, in a series circuit, the current through each resistance is the same.
I = I1 = I2 = I
IRs = I1 R1 + I2R2 + I3R3
= 1 (R1 + R2 + R3) (since I = I1 = I2 = I3)
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 (18.1)
where R, is the equivalent resistance of the series arrangement.

Example 18.1: Suppose the resistance in Figure 18.1 are each 10 ohms and the battery has a
terminal voltage of 12 V. (a) What is the equivalent resistance? (b) How much current is
drawn from the battery?
Solution: R1 + R2 + R3 = 10 Ω, V = 12 V
(a) Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 = 10 + 10 + 10 = 30 Ω
The three 1 Ω resistance could be equivalently replaced with a 30 Ω resistance.
(b) V = IRs = (0.40) (10) = 4V
Similarly, V2 = V3 = 4 V
V = V1 + V2 + V3 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12 V (voltage drops equal voltage rise)
 63

Resistance in parallel

Fig. 18.2 Resistance in parallel

Above circuit diagram shows that the three resistance are connected in parallel. (One
side of each resistance connected together and the other sides connected together.)
In a circuit with resistance in parallel, the voltage drop across each resistance is equal
to the voltage rise of battery.
i.e. V = V1 + V 2 + V 3
The current from the battery divides at the junction, and
I = I1 + I2 + I3
For resistances in parallel, the current entering a junction is equal to the sun of the
currents leaving the junction.

(18.2)
where, Rp the equivalent resistance of the parallel arrangement.

Example 18.2: Suppose the resistance in Figure 18.2 are two 10 Ω resistances and a 20 Ω
resistance and that the battery has a terminal voltage of 12 V. (a) What is the equivalent
resistance? (b) What is the current drawn from the battery and the current through each
resistance?
Solution:
R1 = R2 = 10 Ω, R3 = 20 Ω, V = 12 V

∴
(a)
Rp = 4 Ω
Alternately, combining the two 10 Ω resistances,
 64

Then, combining this equivalent resistance with the 20 Ω resistance,

(b) The current drawn from the battery is

Since the voltage drop across each resistance is the same,

Notice that I = I1 + I2 + I3 = 1.2 + 1.2 + 0.6 = 3.0 A

Example 17.3: (a) What is the current through each of the resistance in Figure 17.3? (b)
How much power is expended by each?

Fig. 18.3 Series-parallel resistances and circuit reduction

Solution: It was shown that 1.0 A is drawn from the battery. Since R 1 is in a series with
the battery, a current of 1.0 A flows through R1. The voltage drop across R1 is then
V1 = I1 R1 = (1.0) (6.0) = 6 V
The voltage drop across Rp is
Vp = I1 Rp = (1.0) (6.0) = 6 V
(Notice that V = V1 + Vp = 6.0 + 6.0 = 12, or voltage drops equal voltage rise.)
Vp is the voltage drop across both R2 and R3.

(Notice that 11 + 12 + 13 = 0.60 + 0.4 = 1.0 A. That is the current divides between the
two resistances at the junction.)
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(a) With the preceding values,

P1 = I1 V1 = (1.0) (6.0) = 6.0 W
P2 = I2 Vp = (0.60) (6.0) = 3.6 W
P3 = I3 Vp = (0.40) (6.0) = 2.4 W
Notice that the power expended by the total equivalent resistance R3 = 12 Ω is
P = IRs = (1.0) (12) = 12 W and that P = P1 + P2 + P3 = 6.0 + 3.6 + 2.4 = 12 W

18.2 Kirchhoff’s Rules and Multiloop Circuits

Kirchhoff’s Rules
1. Kirchhoff’s current rule
The sum of the currents entering and leaving a junction is zero.
i.e. ∑I = 0 (or) ∑Iin = ∑Iout (18.3)

2. Kirchhoff’s voltage rule

The sum of the voltage rises and the voltage drops around a closed circuit loop is
zero.
i..e ∑V = 0 (18.4)

Example 1.
By Kirchhoff’s current rule, I1 – I2 – I3 = 0
(or) I1 = I2 + I3
(or) Iin = Iout

Fig. 18.4 Kirchhoff’s current rule

Example 2.
By Kirchhoff’s current rule, –V1 + IR1 + IR + IR3 = 0

Figure
Fig. 18.5 Kirchhoff’s voltage rule
 66

Sign Convention for Kirchhoff’s Rules

Fig. 18.6 Sign Convention for Kirchhoff’s Rules

Example 18.4: Find the current in each of the resistances in Figure (18.3) using Kirchhoff’s
rules.

Fig. Application of Kirchhoff’s rules

Applying the current rule at the junction indicated in Figure 18.7, ∑I = 0,

I1 – I2 – I3 = 0 (1)
Then applying the voltage rule around loop (1) and loop (2),
Loop (1): V – I1R1 – I2R2 = 12 – 6I1 – 10I2 = 0 (2)
Loop (2): V – I1R1 – I3R3 = 12 – 6I1 – 15I3 = 0 (3)
(2)–(3): –10I2 + 15I3 = 0, I2 = 1.5I3 (4)
From (1) I1 = I2 + I3 + 1.5 I3 + I3 = 2.5 I3
12 – 6 (2.5 I3) – 15.I3 = 0.
Then I3 = 0.40 A
I2 = 0.60 A
I1 = 1.0 A

Example 18.5: Find the currents in the branches in the circuit in Figure 18.8.

Fig. 18.8 Multiloop circuit with two voltage sources

(Ans: I3 = 2.4 A, I2 = –1.8A, I1 = 0.6A)
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18.3 Voltages sources in series

The equivalent voltage source of two or more dc sources in series in one circuit
branch is found by summing the sources according to directional polarity.

Fig. 18.9 Voltages sources in series

Fig. 18.10 Current reduction

Problems
1. What resistance should be connected in series with a 10 Ω resistor in circuit with a
120 V source so that a current of 2.4 A flows in the circuit?
2. A current with a 6.0 V battery has resistance 3 Ω resistor and a 15 Ω resistor in series.
(a) What is the current through each resistor? (b) What is the voltage drop across each
resistor?
3. A current is made up of a 12 V battery and a 4 Ω resistor and a 6 Ω resistor in parallel.
(a) What is the voltage across each resistor? (b) How much current flows through
each resistor?
4. What resistances should be connected in parallel with a 5 Ω resistor in circuit with a
12 V source so that a current of 3 A is drawn from the source?
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5. (a) What is the equivalent resistance of the arrangement shown in Figure? (b) If the
circuit is connected to a 12 V battery, how much current flows through each
resistance?

6. What is the equivalent resistance of the arrangement shown in Figure if all of the
resistors are 10 Ω?

7. Compute the currents in a circuit as in Figure (17.8) with V 1 = 20 V, V2 = 6.0 V, R1 =

4.0 Ω, R2 = 1.0 Ω and R3 = 5.0 Ω.

8. What is the current through each of the resistors in the circuit in Figure 17.9 (c)?
 69

9. For the circuit shown in the Figure, (a) compute the current through each resistor and
(b) compute the power dissipated by each resistor and the power drawn from each
battery.

*********************
 70

CHAPTER –19–
MAGNETISM

19.1 Magnets and Magnetic Fields

Magnets: The bar magnet
The horseshoe magnet
Magnetic poles: The regions of apparently concentrated field strength in a magnet,
designated as north and south poles.
Law of poles: Like magnetic poles repel and unlike magnetic poles attract.

Fig. 19.1 The law of poles

Magnetic field: The magnetic force per moving electric charge. A magnetic field
surrounds a magnet and it represented by magnetic field lines (of force),
as illustrated in Figure 18.2.

Fig. 19.2 Magnetic field and lines of force

19.2 Electromagnetism
A relationship between electricity and magnetism
“An electric current gives rise to a magnetic field”.
This can be shown by the arrangement illustrated in Figure 18.3.
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Fig. 19.3 An electric current gives rise to a magnetic field

When current is flowing in the circuit, the compass needle is deflected, indicating the
presence of a magnetic field. When there is no current in the circuit, the compass needle
points in normal north-south direction.

The magnetic field around a current-carrying wire

– The magnetic field is found to be a series of concentric circles around the wire.
– The direction of the magnetic field is given by a right-hand rule.

Right-hand rule: (thumb) rule:

If a current-carrying wire is grapsed with the right-hand with the thumb in the
direction of the conventional current, the curled fingers indicate the circular sense (direction)
of the magnetic field.

Fig. 19.4 The magnetic field around a current-carrying wire

The actual direction of the B field at a particular point is tangential to the circular field
line. The magnitude of the magnetic field at a distance “d” from a long straight wire given by

(19.1)
(magnetic field around a long, straight wire)
where, μ0 =permeability of free space (vacuum) = 4π × 10–7 weber/ampere-metre
= 4π × 10–7 Wb A–1m–1
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The units of magnetic field

The unit of the magnetic field is weber per metre squared of Wb m –2. Its SI system is
tesla (T).
1T = 1 Wb m–2

Example 19.1: A wire carrying a current of 2.0 A runs along the right outer edge of
the page of this text (I toward the top of the page). What is the magnetic field (magnitude and
direction) at a point 15 cm from the edge of the page toward the binding in the plane of a flat
page?
Solution:
I = 2.0 A, d = 15 cm = 0.15 m
The magnitude of the magnetic field at a point 0.15 m perpendicular from the wire is

The direction of the field, as given by the right-hand rule, is upward out of the plane
of the page.

Magnetic field at the center of a circular loop

The magnitude of the magnetic field at the center of a circular current loop is given by

(19.2)
where, r = the radius of the loop

Fig. 19.5 Magnetic field at the center of a current-carrying circular loop

Remark: The complete magnetic field for a circular loop is similar that of a bar magnet.

Magnetic field at the center of a coil of N circular loops

If there are N adjacent similar loop, then the magnitude of the field at the center of the
coil of loops is

(19.3)

Magnetic field inside a solenoid

A solenoid is a long coil of many circular turns of wire closely wound in the shape of
a cylinder.
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Fig. 19.6 The magnetic field of a solenoid

A solenoid is considered long if its length is several times greater than its diameter.
The many loops of wire produce a rather uniform magnetic field in the interior of the
solenoid. The magnitude of the magnetic field in the interior of a solenoid is given by

(19.4)

where, l = the length of the solenoid

= turns density (or) numbers of turns per unit length

Faraday’s Law
The magnitude of induced emf is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux
through the whole coil.

Lenz’s Law
The direction of the induced current is such that the magnetic field resulting from the
induced current opposes the change in flux that caused the induced current.

Example 19.2: A coil of 50 turns is pulled in 0.02s from between the poles of a magnet
where its area includes 31 × 10 –5 Wb to a place where its area includes 1 × 10 –5 Wb.
Determine the average emf induced in the coil.
Solution: Neglecting the sign of emf

 =

=
= 0.75 V

Example 19.3: A ring solenoid has a section area of 6 cm 2 and the magnetic induction in its
air core is 500 × 10–3 Wbm–2. What is the magnetic induction B and flux ϕ in the solenoid if
an iron core of assumed relative permeability replaced the air core.
 74

Solution: A = 6 × 10–4 m2
B = 500 × 10–3 Wbm–2 = 0.5 Wbm–2
Φ = BA
= 0.5 × 6 × 10–4
= 3 × 10–4 Wb

19.3 Magnetic Materials

Magnetic materials are classified as being ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, or
diamagnetic.
Ferromagnetic materials: A material with a high relative permeability. (Km > 100)
The basic ferromagnetic materials are iron. Niclel, ane cobalt and some allots.
Paramagnetic material: A material with a relative permeability slightly greater than
one.
For example, aluminum.
Diamagnetic material: A material with a relative permeability slightly less than one.
For example, bismuth.
Relative permeability (Km): A relative measure of the magnetizability of a material

Fig. 18.7 Permeability

When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the material becomes

magnetized and the field in the vicinity of the material is concentrated. This does not occur
for a nonmagnetic material.
A quantity used to indicate the relative magnetic field strength of a material and its
magnetizability is the relative permeability, which is defined as

(19.5)
where, B is the magnetic field in a circular coil with an air (vacuum) core, and B m is the
magnetic field in the coil with a material core.
For example, if a current-carrying solenoid had a material core, the magnetic field in
the core is
Bm = Km B = Km μ0 nI = μ n I
 75

where, μ = the permeability of the material

(19.6)
– Magnetic materials are classified as being ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, or
diamagnetic.
– Ferromagnetic materials have high relative permeabilities
– Paramagnetic materials have a Km slightly greater than one.
– Diamagnetic materials have a Km slightly less than one.

Problems
1. A long, straight, vertical wire carries a current of 20A in the upward direction. What
is the magnetic field (magnitude and direction) at a distance of 50 cm east of the wire?
2. A long, horizontal, straight wire runs north and south. It is desired to produce a
magnetic field of 2.0 × 10–6 Wb m–2 vertically upward at a point 40 cm directly east of
the wire. What should be magnitude and direction of the current in the wire?
3. Two long, straight parallel wires 30 cm apart each carry a current of 5.0 A as
illustrated in Figure. What are the magnetic fields at points A, B, and C? (Note that
the symbols fire currents into and out of a page are a cross (x) and a dot (),
respectively. Think of the notched end and the tip of an arrow.)
4. Suppose in Figure 18.8 that the current I1 is into the page. What would be the
magnetic fields at points A, B and C in this case?
5. A circular loop of wire with a diameter of 20 cm carries a current of 10A. What is the
magnitude of the magnetic field at the center of the loop?
6. An air solenoid 12 cm long and with a diameter of 3.0 cm has 60 loops of wire. What
is the magnitude of the magnetic field inside the solenoid if it carries a current of 5.0
A?
7. The turn density of an air solenoid is 10 turns cm –1. What current would produce a
magnetic field of 1.0 × 10–5 T in the solenoid?
8. A solenoid with a turn density of 50 turns cm –1 has an iron core with a relative
permeability of 8000. (a) If the solenoid carries a current of 2.0 A, what is the
magnetic field near the end of the core? (b) If the core is removed, what is the
magnetic field in this case?
9. A 5 turns coil encircles a rectangular area 2 cm × 3 cm, through which there is a
uniform (perpendicular) magnetic field of 4 × 10–2 Wbm–2. If the magnetic field is
reduced to zero in 10–3 second, what will be the emf induced in the coil?
****************
 76

CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER 9 TEMPERATURE AND HEAT 1
9.1 The Difference between Temperature and Heat 1
9.2 Temperature Measurement and Heat Units 1
9.3 Specific Heat Capacity 2
9.4 Phase Changes and Latent Heat 4
Problems

CHAPTER 10 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 5

10.1 Heat Transfer 5
10.2 Thermal Expansion of Materials 7
Problems

CHAPTER 11 WAVE MOTION AND SOUND 8

11.1 Waves and Wave Motion 8
11.2 Periodic Motion 8
11.3 Wave Characteristics 12
11.4 Standing Waves 15
11.5 The Nature of Sound 16
11.6 Sound Phenomena 18
Problems

CHAPTER 12 LIGHT AND ILLUMINATION 23

12.1 The Nature of Light 23
12.2 Interference 23
12.3. Diffraction 25
Problems

CHAPTER 13 MIRRORS AND LENSES 28

13.1 Light Rays 28
13.2 Reflection and Refraction 28
13.3 Mirrors 30
13.4 Lenses 31

CHAPTER 14 VISION AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 36

14.1 The Human Eye and Cameras 36
14.2 Color 37
14.3 Projectors 38
14.4 Compound Microscopes 38
 77

14.5 Telescopes 40
Problems
CHAPTER 15 ELECTROSTATICS 42
15.1 Electric Charge and Force 42
15.2 Electrostatic Charging 43
15.3 Electric Field 43
15.4 Electric Potential Energy and Electric Potential 46
Problems

CHAPTER 16 CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRICS 49

16.1 Capacitance and Capacitors 49
16.2 The Energy of a Charged Capacitor 50
16.3 Dielectrics and Dielectric Constants 50
16.4 Capacitors in Series and Parallel 52
16.5 Capacitor Charging and Discharging 53
Problems

CHAPTER 17 CURRENT, RESISTANCE, AND POWER 55

17.1 Electric Current 55
17.2 Ohm’s Law 55
17.3 Resistance and Resistivity 56
17.4 Electric Power 57
Problems

CHAPTER 18 BASIC DC CIRCUIT 59

18.1 Resistances in Series and Parallel 59
18.2 Kirchhoff’s Rules and Multiloop Circuits 62
18.3 Voltage Sources in Series 64
Problems

CHAPTER 19 MAGNETISM 67
19.1 Magnets and Magnetic Fields 67
19.2 Electromagnetism 67
19.3 Magnetic Materials 71
Problems