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YANGON UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

Physics Department

First Year (First Semester)

Text Book

PHYSICS (Phy 1001)

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A
CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER I MEASUREMENT AND SYSTEMS OF UNIT
1.1 What We Measure
1.2 Units and Systems of Units
Questions and Problems

CHAPTER II VECTORS
2.1 Vectors
2.2 Vector Addition
2.3 Vector Subtraction
2.4 Resolving a Vector and the Component Method
Questions and Problems

CHAPTER III KINEMATICS

3.1 Motion, Speed, and Velocity
3.2 Acceleration
3.3 Free Fall
3.4 Components of Motion
3.5 Projectile Motion
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER IV NEWTON’S LAWS AND GRAVITY
4.1 Newton’s First Law of Motion: The Law of Inertia
4.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion: Cause and Effect
4.3 Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Action and Reaction
44 Newton’s Law of Gravitation
Questions and Problems

CHAPTER V WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

5.1 Work
5.2 Energy
5.3 The Conservation of Energy
5.4 Power
Questions and Problems

CHAPTER VI MOMENTUM
6.1 Impulse and Momentum
6.2 Conservation of Linear Momentum
6.3 Collisions
Questions and Problems

CHAPTER VII ROTATIONAL MOTION AND DYNAMICS

7.1 Description of Rational Motion
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7.2 Torque and Moment of Inertia

7.3 Rotational Work, Power, and Kinetic Energy
7.4 Angular Momentum
Questions and Problems

CHAPTER VIII FLUID MECHANICS

8.1 Fluid Properties
8.2 Pressure and Pressure Measurement
8.3 Buoyancy and Archimede’s Principle
Questions and Problems
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CHAPTER -1-
MEASUREMENT AND SYSTEMS OF UNITS

What is Physics?
The word physics comes from a Greek word meaning “knowledge of nature”.
Physics is a group of science dealing with matter and energy. Physics is the study of
matter and energy and relations between them. The study of the laws that determine the
structure of universe with reference to the matter and energy consists in Physics. It is
concerned not with chemical changes that occur but with the forces that exist between objects
and the interrelationship between energy and matter.
Physics studies the nature of wave and particle aspects and interactions among
elementary particles.
Physics is a branch of knowledge that involves the study of the physical world.
Physicists investigate objects as small as subatomic particles and as large as universe.
They study the nature of matter and energy and how they are related. Physicists and other
scientists look at the world around them with inquisitive eyes. The observations lead them to
ask questions about what they see. Physicists make observations, do experiments, and create
models or theories to try to answer the questions such as what makes the sun shines? How
can people walk on the earth? How were planets formed? Of what is matter made? What
creates the weather? … etc. Finding explanations for the original questions often leads to
more questions and thus more observations, experiments and theories. The goal of all
scientists is to obtain a compelling explanation that describes many different phenomena,
makes predictions and leads to better understanding of the universe.
Sometimes the results of the work of physicists are of interest only of other physicists.
Other times, their work leads to the development of devices such as lasers, communication
systems, computers and new materials that change everyone’s life.

Fields of physics
Traditionally, the study of Physics is divided into separate fields:
mechanics, heat, sound, light, electricity and magnetism which are called classical Physics.
However, Quantum Mechanics and Relativistic Physics have become increasingly
important; the growth of modern Physics has been accompanied by the studies of Atomic
Physics, Nuclear Physics, Semiconductor Physics and Particle Physics.
The Physics of astronomical bodies and their interactions is known as Astrophysics,
cophysics is the physics of earth and the study of the physical aspects of biology is called
Biophysics.
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The following diagram shows the different fields in Physics.

Figure 1: Different fields in physics

1.1 What we measure?

How told are you? How much do you weight? What time is it?
The answer to these and many other such questions require that measurements made.
Commonly Measured Items
1. Length
2. Weight (mass)
3. Time
4. Volume or capacity
Fundamental properties
1. Length
2. Mass
3. Time
These properties describe the concepts of space, matter and time.

Length (L)
Length describes an object’s size and specifies its position in space.

Mass (M)
Mass is the quantity of matter an object contains.
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Time
Time is an involved concept and sometimes defined as the continuous,
forward flow of events. Time “flow” forward, never backward. Two events define an
interval of time.

1.2 Units and Systems of Units

Units
Basic Units: As physical quantities are of the basic type (length, mass, time,
temperature, etc.), their units are called basic units:
Derived units: As physical quantities are of the derived type (area, volume, velocity,
work, etc.), their units are called and derived units. A unit of measurement formed by
combining the base units of a system is called derived units.

Standard Unit
A standard unit has a fixed and reproducible value for purpose of taking accurate
measurements.
For example, the foot (ft) and the metre (m) are standard units.

Systems of Units
Two major Systems of Units: The British System and The Metric System

The British System

It is based on foot (ft), pound (lb) and second (s) and called FPS system.
The FPS system can be called the British gravitional system. Pound is the unit of
weight not mass. The unit of mass is slug (sl).

The Metric System

The Absolute systems are the CGS, the MKS and the SI systems.
The CGS system is based on centimeter (cm), gram (g) and second (s).
The MKS system is based on metre (m), kilogram (kg) and second (s).
The SI is a specialized and modernized version of the metric system that designates
the use of specific units for various properties. There are seven base units, two
supplementary units; and other additional units that are derived from the base units in
the SI metric.

The seven base units are

No. Quantity Basic unit Symbol
1 Length (l) metre m
2 Mass (m) kilogram kg
3 Time (t) second S
4 Electric current (I) ampere A
5 Thermodynamic temperature (T) kelvin K
6 Luminous intensity (l) candela cd
7 Substance mole mol
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The two supplementary units are

No. Quantity Base Unit Symbol
1 Plane angle radian (rad)
2 Solid angle steradian (sr)

The Metric Prefixes

No. Prefix Abbreviation Value
1 exa E 1018
2 peta P 1015
3 tera T 1012
4 giga G 109
5 mega M 106
6 kilo k 103
7 hector h 102
8 deka da 10
9 deci d 10–1
10 centi c 10–2
11 milli m 10–3
12 micro μ 10–6
13 nano n 10–9
14 pico p 10–12
15 femto f 10–15
16 atto a 10–18

Problems
Fill in the blanks.
1. Units that are formed by combining the fundamental units of length, mass and time are
called ……… .
2. The physical unit slug is convertible into ……… .
3. ……… is a unit of mass in FPS system.
4. The physical quantities which are not derived from fundamental quantities are ………,
……… and ……… .
5. The distance that light travels in one year is called ……… .
6. The unit ……… is used in particle physics.
7. Angstrom (Å) is used in ……… physics.
8. The unit is frequency (Hz) is the unit derived from unit of ……… .
9. The standard ……… has been experimentally measured and reproducible in terms of
the wave length of orange-red light from krypton-86.
10. The period of rotation of the earth is equal to ……… day.
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CHAPTER –2–
VECTORS

2.1 Vectors
Scalar quantity:
A quantity which has magnitude only is a scalar quantity.
eg: distance, speed, time.

Vector quantity:
A quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called a vector quantity.
eg: displacement, velocity, acceleration.

Vector Symbols:

Unit Vector

where = a vector, = magnitude of

= a unit vector of and its direction is along
A vector whose magnitude is one is called unit vector.

Equal Vectors

Negative Vector
The negative vector of is defined as a
vector having the same magnitude as and
a direction opposite to that of
The negative vector is written by

, The unit vector is

in the opposite direction of
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2.2 Vector addition

1. Parallelogram Method 3. Graphic method 5. Polygon method
2. Triangle Method 4. Calculation method

1. Parallelogram Method

The diagonal vector is the vector sum or the resultant of and .

The result vector
The direction of is specified by an angle θ relative to one of the vectors.

Resultant Vector
The resultant vector quantity is equivalent to the combined effect of the added vector
quantities.

the resultant force is physically equivalent to the combined effect of and

2. Triangle Method (Tip & Tail method)

When the triangle is a right triangle, the magnitude of is given by Pythagoras

theorem:

The direction of is given by

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Example 1: A man walks three blocks east and then four blocks north. What is his
displacement (magnitude of straight – line distance and direction) from his starting
point?

= 5 blocks

2.3 Vector Subtraction

Vector subtraction is a special case of vector addition. The subtraction of a vector is
defined as the addition of the corresponding negative vector. The vector is in the
opposite direction of The resultant vector is obtained by adding to

Polygon Method
The polygon method is an extension of the triangle method. The vectors are placed
“tip-to-tail” and the resultant of vectors is formed by drawing a vector from the tail
of the initial vector to the tip of the last vector, which completes a polygon.

2.4 Resolving a Vector and the Component method

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Answer the following questions.

Can the magnitude of the resultant velocity of two velocities having the same
magnitude be
(i) greater than smaller than or equal to the magnitude of each velocity?
(ii) greater than or equal to the sum of the magnitude of the two velocities?
(Answer with diagrams)
(i)* The magnitude of the resultant velocity of two velocities having the same
magnitude can be greater than the magnitude of each velocity.
If v1 and v2 are in the same direction, V > V1; V > V2 and actually v = 2v1 = 2v2; and
takes placed in the same direction as v1 and v2.

** The magnitude of the resultant velocity of two velocities having the same
magnitude can be smaller than the magnitude of each velocity.
If v1 and v2 makes an angle of over 120, V < V1; V < V2; (cos 120, < –0.5).

(i) The magnitude of the resultant velocity of two velocities having the same
magnitude can be equal to the magnitude of each velocity.
If V1 and V2 makes an angle of 60º, V = V1 = V2

(ii)* The magnitude of the resultant velocity V cannot be grater than the sum of the
two velocity of same magnitude (v1 + v2).

If two velocities of same magnitude are in the same direction, the magnitude of the
resultant velocity is the sum of the magnitude of the two velocities.
If these two V1 and V2 are in the opposite direction, the magnitude of the resultant
velocity is zero. Therefore, the magnitude of the resultant velocity cannot be greater
than the sum of the two velocities.
(b) A body is initially moving with velocity 5 ms –1 due east. After a short interval
of time its velocity is 5 ms–1, 30º north of east. What is the change of velocity?
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(30º north of east), the change of velocity

∴ θ = 75º – 60º = 15º

∴ the change of velocity = 2.588 ms–1, 15º W of N.

Problems
1. Two vectors and of magnitude 3 and 4 units are placed tail to tail with an angle
of 60º between them. Determine the sum of the two vectors.
2. Find the resultant of the vectors shown in figures by component method.
(i)

(ii)

(iii)
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CHAPTER –3–
MOTION

Motion: an object is moving or in motion when the object is undergoing a continuous change
of position.

Displacement: The displacement of a body is its change in position or distance travelled in a

particular direction.

Speed: The speed of a body is how far it travels during every unit of time. (OR) The rate of
change of distance. Speed is a scalar quantity. SI unit → ms–1.

Velocity: Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement. (OR) The rate of change
of distance traveled along a particular direction. SI unit = ms–1.
The speed of a body tells us how far it travels during every unit of time. Speed is a scalar
quantity, whereas velocity is a vector quantity.

Average velocity: The ratio of the total displacement to the timer taken.

This expression holds true for any kind of motion. Unit in SI: ms–1.

Instantaneous velocity: If Δt → 0, velocity at a point A, or at a given instant of time is

called instantaneous velocity. Unit in SI: ms–1

Uniform velocity: Uniform velocity is such equal displacements take place in equal intervals
of time. SI unit → ms–1.

Acceleration
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity. SI unit = ms–2

Average acceleration: The ratio of the change in velocity the time taken.
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where and are instantaneous velocities at t1 and t2,

respectively.

Instantaneous acceleration: The instantaneous acceleration is the time derivative of

velocity.

Motion with constant acceleration

velocity against time graph for constant acceleration

Distance against time graph for constant acceleration

Equations used to describe motion

x =

=
vf = vo + at

x =

Example (1) A city jogger jogs 4.0 km eastward along a street in 25 min, then turns north
and jogs 3.0 km in 20 min. What is the jogger’s average speed and average velocity?
d = dt + d2 = 4.0 + 3.0 = 7.0 km
t = tt + t2 = 25 + 20 = 45 min = 0.75 h
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(average speed)

By Pythagoras Theorem,

The direction of the displacement and the average velocity can be specified by the

angle 0. .

Example (2) An automobile travelling initially at 30 mph acceleration uniformly at a rate of

10.0 ft s–2 for 5.0s. How far does the automobile travel during this time?
v0 = 30 mph = 44 fts–1 , a = 10.0 ft s–2 , t = 5.0s , x = ?

x =

Example (3) A worker sitting on a scaffold 30 m above the ground accidentally drops a
wrench. If the wrench falls with a uniform acceleration of 10 ms –2, (a) how fast will it be
raveling when it strikes the ground? (b) What is the time of fall?
(a) x = 30 m, a = 10 ms–2 , v0 = 0, vf = ? By using the equation

Ans: vf = 24 ms–1

(b) By using where vo = 0, Ans: t = 2.447 s.

Example (4) A car 60 mph slows down at a uniform rate to 15 mph in 10s. (a) What is the
car’s acceleration? (b) How far does the car travel in the first 5s?
(a) vo = 60 mph = 88 ft s–1 , vf = 15 mph = 22 ft s–1 , t = 10s, a = ? Ans: –6.6 fts–2
(b) t = 5.0 s, a = –6.6 fts–2 , x = ? Ans: 358 ft.

Example (4) A car accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 20 ms –1 in 25s and is
brought to rest from that speed with negative acceleration of 4 ms –2. If the total distance
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traveled is 1 km. Determine (a) the time during which the car is uniform retarded. (b) the
distance traveled at uniform speed.

(i) vo = 20 ms–1 , v = 0 , a = –4 ms–2 , t = ?

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(ii) total distance = 1 km = 1000 m,

total distance = area 1 + area II + area III

∴ S2 = 1000 – (250 + 50) = 700 m

Example (5) A train T is moving eastward at 8 ms –1, a waiter W is walking toward the rare

ms–1. What is the velocity of the fly relative to the earth 𝔼?

of the train at 1 ms–1; and a fly of F is crawling toward the north across the waiter’s tray at 1.5

vFE = vFW + vWT + vTE

where the magnitudes of these vector are:
vFW = 1.5 ms–1 (towards north)
vWT = 1 ms–1 (towards west)
vTE = 8 ms–1 (towards east) (vector diagram drawn by using triangle method)

∴ , tan θ = 1.5/7 : θº = 12º N of E.

Example (6) A body starts with 44 fts –1 and attains a constant acceleration of 44 fts –2 in 5s.
Determine the average velocity. Check your answer using the following data.
t = 0s 1s 2s 3s 4s 5s
–1
v0 = 44 ft s v1 = ? v2 = ? v3 = ? v4 = ? v5 = ?
v0 = 44 ft s , a = 4.4 ft s–2, t = 5s , v = ? , v = vo + at = 44 + 4.4 × 5 = 66 ft s–1
–1

Checking by using data

at t = t1 = 1s, v = v1 , v = v0 + at
v1 = vo + at = 44 + 4.4 × 1 = 48.4 ft s–1
at t = t2 = 2s, v = v2 , v2 = vo + at = 44 + 4.4 × 2 = 52.8 ft s–1
at t = t3 = 3s, v = v3 , v3 = vo + at = 44 + 4.4 × 3 = 57.2 ft s–1
at t = t4 = 4s, v = v4 , v4 = vo + at = 44 + 4.4 × 4 = 61.6 ft s–1
at t = t5 = 5s, v = v5 , v5 = vo + at = 44 + 4.4 × 5 = 66 ft s–1.

Exercises:
(1) How long would it take a racing car to go around a circular track 2 km in diameter
traveling at an average speed of 150 kms–1?
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(2) An object with an initial velocity of 12 ms –1 accelerates uniformly at a rate of 8.0 ms –2

in 6.0s. What is the final velocity of the object?
(3) A sport car accelerates uniformly at 8.0 fts –2 to a speed of 60 mph in 4.0s. What was
the initial velocity of the car?
(4) A monorail train traveling at 75 km h –1 slows down uniformly to 15 km h –1 in 10s.
How far does the train travel during this time?

Free fall
Motion resulting from a gravitational field that is unimpeded by a medium that would provide
a frictional retarding force or buoyancy is called free fall. In the earth’s gravitational field,
free fall takes place at a constant acceleration, known as acceleration of free fall.

A freely falling body: A body which moves vertically downward with acceleration due to
gravity (air resistance in neglected).

Acceleration due to gravity:

The acceleration of free fall is called acceleration due to gravity. The acceleration due to
gravity, g acts vertically downwards. The standard value is taken as 9.80665 ms–2. (OR)
The acceleration experienced by any massive object falling freely in the earth’s gravitational
field. (OR)
If an object falls freely (neglecting air resistance) under the influence of gravity its
acceleration is called acceleration due to gravity.
The value of ‘g’ in SI system is 9.8 ms–2. (10 ms–2)

Projectile motion
In projectile motion, there are two types of motion occurring at the same time.
The horizontal part of the motion is uniform motion in a straight line, since there is no
horizontal resisting force.
The vertical part of the motion is uniformly accelerated motion, since it is governed by the
laws of falling body.
Example: (i) Motion of a ball thrown from a cliff.
(ii) Motion of a bomb released from a flying jet plane.
(iii) Motion of a ball thrown at a velocity of v o at an angle of θ above the
horizontal.
If a ball is thrown at a velocity of v o at an angle of θ above the horizontal, calculate the
maximum height of the ball, the time in air and the range.
vox = vo cos θ
voy = vo sin θ; At the maximum height the vertical velocity,

vy = 0, will become

o = vo sin θ2 – 2gH The maximum height

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If t is the time to reach the highest point,

vy = voy – gt,

o = voy – gt (at hmax , vy = 0) ∴ The time in air

t =
The range ‘R’ is the horizontal distance covered in total time (2t).
x = vox t = vo cos θ t

∴ The range, .

Example (2) A golfer drives a ball with a velocity of 120 fts –1 at an angle of 45º. (i) What is
the maximum height if the ball above the level fairwary? (ii) What is the length of the drive?
v = 120 fts–1, θ = 45º , maximum height of the ball hmax = ? length of the drive x = ?
vox = vo cos 45° = 120 × 0.7071 = 84.85 fts–1
voy = vosin 45º = 120 × 0.7071 = 84.85 fts–1
At hmax , vy = 0, vy = voy – gt,

(b) time of the flight = 2t = 2 × 2.65 = 5.3s

the length of the drive = vox t = 84.85 × 5.30 = 450 ft

Given the correct answer of the followings;

(1) The magnitude of velocity is called
(a) average velocity (b) acceleration (c) speed.
(2) An acceleration which is constant in time result in a velocity which
(a) remains constant (b) varies linearly with time (c) depends inversely on time.
(3) If a particle is moving with constant velocity, then
(a) its acceleration is zero, (b) its direction may be changing
(c) its acceleration is constant.
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Exercises
(1) A person throws a ball vertically upward with an initial velocity 48 ft s –1. (a) How high
above the point of release does the ball go? (b) How long after being thrown does it take
for the ball to return its starting point? (c) What is the height of the ball at t = 2.0s?
Ans: (a) 36 ft (b) 3.0s (c) 32 ft
(2) If in figure the ball is thrown horizontally from a
height of 30 m and give an initial horizontal
velocity of 8.0 ms–1, how far from the building will
it land?
Ans: 20 m

(3) A hunter sighting in his rifle aims directly and horizontally at the center of a bull’s eye
of a target 100 yd away. If the muzzle velocity of the bullet is 2100 fts –1, how far below
the center of the bull does the bullet strokes the target?
Ans: –0.33 ft
(4) Suppose the projectile in were given an initial velocity of 14 ms –1 at an angle of 60º
relative to the horizontal. What are (a) the maximum height and (b) the range of the
projectile?
Ans: (a) 7.3 m, (b) 17 m
(5) An artillery shell with a muzzle velocity of 4.0 × 10 2 fts–1 is fired at an angle of 35º to
the horizontal. If the shell explodes 10s after being fired, what is location?
(6) An object is dropped form rest. What is its velocity 3s after being released?
(7) A football player kicks off from the 40 yd line. How far will the ball travel before
hitting the ground if its initial speed is 80 fts –1 and the ball leaves the ground at an angle
of 30º?
Ans: 173.2 ft
(8) A ball is thrown nearly vertically upward from a point near the cornice of a tall
building. It just missed the cornice on the way down, and passes a point 160 ft below its
starting points 5s after it leaves the thrower’s hand. (i) What was the initial velocity of
the ball? (ii) How high did it rise above its starting point? (iii) What was the magnitude
its velocity as it passed a point 64 ft below the starting point?
(9) A ball is thrown downward with a speed of 4.0 fts –1 from a height of 80 ft. How long
does it take for the ball to strike the ground?
(10) A ball is thrown horizontally with a speed of 20 fts –1 from the top of a building 100 ft
above the ground. (a) How long does it take for the ball to strike the ground? (b) How
far from the building does it strike the ground?
(11) A golfer drives a ball with a velocity of 120 fts –1 at an angle of 45º. (a) What is the
maximum height of the ball above the level fairway? (b) What is the length of the
drive?
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CHAPTER –4–
NEWTON’S LAWS AND GRAVITY

4.1 Newton’s First Law of Motion:

An object remains (a) at rest or (b) in motion with constant velocity unless acted by an
by an unbalanced (nonzero resultant) force upon.
In vector form; if then
where is the net or unbalanced (resultant) force.

– In other words, if a stationary object remains at rest.

– An object in motion in free space, where there is no air (resistance) and all other
forces are negligible, it would move with a uniform velocity until acted upon by
another force.
– Newton’s first law gives the definition of “force”.
Force is a quantity capable of producing motion or a change in motion.
Newton’s first law is also called law of inertia.
Inertia is the property of matter that describes its resistance to changes in motion.
Mass is a measures of inertia.

4.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion:

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the applied force and
inversely proportional to its mass.
– In symbols,
Force = mass × acceleration
Where “m” is the mass of the object and “a” is the acceleration of the object.
– The acceleration of an object is always in the direction of the applied net force.
– Newton’s second law relates an applied force directly to an object’s acceleration a
sort of “cause” and “effect” relationship – the force is the “cause” and the
acceleration is the “effect”.
– Newton’s second law predicts no change in motion if no net force acts upon the
body.

If then and this is Newton’s first law, which is just a special case of
the second law of the motion.
– Newton’s second law gives the magnitude of the force.

4.3 Newton’s Third Law of Motion (Action and Reaction):

For every force (action), there is an equal and opposite force (reaction).

In symbols,
where the negative sign indicates the opposite direction.
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The action force and reaction force cannot cancel each other because the force pair of
the third law acts on different bodies.
4.4 Newton’s law of Gravitation
The gravitational force is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the two
bodies and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

In symbols,

where, F = the attractive gravitational force between the two masses

m1, m2 = masses
r = the distance between the two masses
G = universal gravitational constant = 6.67 × 10–1 N m2 kg–2.

Mass and Weight

Mass
The mass of a body of the quantity of matter it contains or a measure of
inertia.

Weight
Weight is the force with the body is attracted towards the centre of the earth or
the weight of the body is the gravitational force acting on it.
W = mg
where ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity.

The values of ‘g’

In SI system …………….. g = 9.8 ms–2
In MKS system …………….. g = 9.8 ms–2
In CGS system …………….. g = 980 ms–2
In FPS system …………….. g = 32 fts–2

The unit of force

In SI system …………….. Newton (N)
In MKS system …………….. Newton (N)
In CGS system …………….. dyne
In FPS system …………….. pound (lb)

1 newton
1 N is the force that produces an acceleration of 1 ms –2 when it acts on a mass
of 1 kg.
1 N = (1 kg) (1 ms–2)
= (103 g) (102 cm–2)
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= 105 gcms–2
1 N = 105 dynes
Example (1) A force of 20 N acts on an object of 4.0 kg mass that is initially at rest. What
is the resulting acceleration of the object and (b) how far does the object travel in 6.0 s?

Using equations F = ma and , Ans: (a) 5.0 ms–2 (b) 90 m

Example (2) A block weighing 16 lb is initially at rest on a horizontal frictionless surface.

A constant force gives the block an acceleration of 12 fts –2. What is the magnitude of the
applied force if the force is (a) parallel to the surface and (b) at an angle of 30º to the surface.
Ans: (a) 6.0 lb (b) F cos θ = ma, F = 6.9 lb.

Example (3) What is the gravitational forces acting between the Earth and the moon?
Mass of the Earth = Me = 6.0 × 2024 kg, Mass of the moon = Mm = 7.4 × 1022 kg.
The distance between the Earth and the moon is r = 3..8 × 108 m.

Exercise:
(1) A force F acts on an object of mass “m”. If the force is doubled and the mass is
decreased to ¼ m, what is the acceleration of the system.
(2) A 4.0 kg mass and a 6.0 kg mass are separated by a distance of 3.0 m. What is the
magnitude of the gravitational force acting on the object?
(3) A 60 kg student holds her 1 kg physics book at a distance of 0.30 m. How strongly is
she (gravitationally) attracted to her book? (Consider the student and her book to be
particles.)
(4) How massive would an object have to be so that a person weighing 539 N would
experience a gravitational attraction of 4.45 N when standing 10 m from the object?
(Consider a spherical object and the person as a particle.)
(5) The mutual force of gravitational attraction between two identical spherical masses is
2.03 × 10–5 N when their centers are separated by a distance of 3.30 m. What is the
mass of the spheres?
(6) What is the magnitude of the gravitational force between the Sun and the Earth?
(mass of the Sun = 2.0 × 1030 kg, mass of the Earth = 6.0 × 1024 kg, consider the Earth
to be 93 million or 1.5 × 108 m from the Sun.)
(7) The mass of the moon is 7.4 × 10 22 kg, and its radius is 1740 m. Calculate the
magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity (a) on the moon’s surface and (b) 1000
km above the moon’s surface. Ignore the gravitational pull of the earth.
G = 6.7 × 10–11 SI unit.
(8) A man mass 100 kg stands on a scale in an elevator which has upward acceleration of
2 ms–2. What is his apparent weight? G = 10 ms–2.
(9) Give a short answer of the following questions.
(i) Which is more difficult to move an iron block or a wooden box? Why?
(ii) Why passengers standing in a car thrown forward when the car suddenly stops?
22

(iii) Although two forces and act simultaneously on a body, it continues to

move with a constant velocity. What can you say about these forces?
 23

CHAPTER –5–
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Work
Work is generally defined as the product of the magnitude of the force and the parallel
displacement through which the force acts.
W = Fd (or)
W = F d cos θ (when applied force is not parallel to the displacement).

The units of work

Work = force × distance
No. System Force Distance
W=F×d
1 CGS dyn cm ergs = dyn.cm
2 MKS newton M joules = N.m
3 SI newton M joules = N.m
4 British Sysem (FPS) pound ft ft – lb = foot – pound
1 N = 10–3 dyn
1 J = 10–7 ergs

Energy: Energy is ability to do work. There are different forms of energy. They are:
Mechanical energy, Light energy, Heat energy, Sound energy, Chemical energy, Magnetic
energy, Electrical energy and Nuclear energy.

1. Mechanical energy
(a) Kinetic energy: All objects in motion have kinetic energy.
e.g. A moving car, a flying aeroplane, a roller coaster.
(b) Potential energy (P.E.)
(i) Gravitational P.E.
e.g. a water fall, raised objects
(ii) Elastic P.E.
e.g. Compressed or stretched spring or Rubber bands of catapult, the bent
condition of a diving board

2. Chemical energy
e.g. Fuels such as oil, wood, electric cells, food and explosives.

3. Nuclear energy:
The energy released from nuclear reaction like fissions and fusion.
e.g. Atomic bombs, nuclear reactions.
24

4. Radiant energy
e.g. The electromagnetic (E.M.) spectrum such as visible light, radio waves, infra red
(IR) radiation, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, X-rays and γ-rays.

5. Electrical energy:
e.g. The energy associated with the current in electric drills, power tools and immersion
heaters and electrical appliances.

6. Internal energy:
e.g. The energy possessed by the atoms or molecules of matter in the form of kinetic and
potential energy.

The law of conservation of energy

The law of conservation of energy is stated briefly as follows:
The total energy of an isolated system is constant. (OR) Energy cannot be
created or destroyed. The total energy of the universe is constant.
In the second statement the whole universe is taken as an isolated system.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but energy can be changed from one form to
another.
Therefore, for an isolated system the sum of the different forms of energy must be
constant.

Why is the energy concept important?

Without a supply of energy, neither people nor machines can do work. Furthermore,
the fact that energy is conserved makes it easier to solve practical problems.
For example, in daily life, it can figure out the velocity of a moving car at any point
by using the law of conservation of energy.
A child uses chemical energy (battery) to wind up the spring in a mechanical toy. This
energy becomes kinetic energy as the spring is being wound up. The kinetic energy of
winding turns into stored elastic potential energy inside the wound up spring. When the toy is
released, the spring slowly unwinds. The elastic potential energy is converted into kinetic
energy as it moves about.

Energy conservation
Oil is burnt (chemical energy)

steam (heat energy)

turbine rotates (kinetic energy)

generator (electrical energy)

 25

Energy Conversion

A diver on a spring board

Stored chemical energy in the body of the diver allows him to bend the diving board. This
causes the bent diving board to store elastic potential energy which is converted into kinetic
energy for the diver by giving him an upward push.

A cyclist going up to the top of a hill

Stored chemical energy in the body of the cyclist allows him to do work against
gravity. At the top of the hill, he will possess gravitational potential energy which will
allow him to go down the hill with increasing kinetic energy even without pedaling.

The burning of fuels such as oil, coal or wood:

Stored chemical energy in the fuels is converted by oxidation through burning, into
heat energy and light energy.

Connecting a battery to a filament lamp:

Stored chemical energy in the battery is converted into electrical energy which in turn
is converted in the filament into heat energy and light energy.

Knocking a nail into a wooden block with a hammer:

Stored chemical energy in the person’s body is used to do work in lifting up the
hammer, which is its raised position, possesses gravitational potential energy and this, in turn,
is converted into kinetic energy of the moving hammer. The kinetic energy is then used to do
work in driving the nail into the wood, the production of sound energy in the air and heat
energy in the block, nail and hammer.
26

Kinetic Energy: Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. The kinetic energy of a moving
object is equal to one-half of the product of its mass and the square of its velocity.

In symbols,
where, KE = kinetic energy, M = mass, v = velocity
the work done on an object is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the object.
W = KEf – KE0
where, W = work done, KEf = final kinetic energy, KE0 = initial kinetic energy
This expression is called the work-energy theorem.

Potential energy: Potential energy is the energy of an object due to its position.
In symbols, PE = mgh = wh
where, PE = potential energy
M = mass
G = acceleration due to gravity
H = height of the object
W = weight of the object

The Conservation of Energy

The total energy of any physical situation is always conserved.
PE1 + KE1 = PE2 + KE2
PE1 + KE1 = total initial energy
PE2 + KE2 = total final energy

Power: Power is the time rate of doing work.

where, P = power, W = work, t = time, = average spped

The unit of power

In SI system ………………. joule per second (Js–1) = watt (W)
In MKS system ………………. joule per second (Js–1) = watt (W)
In CGS system ………………. erg s–1
In British system ………………. foot pound per second (ft–lb s–1)
550 ft – lb s–1 = 1 horsepower = 1 hp

Examples:
(1) A worker applies a horizontal force of 75 lb to move a crate along a distance of 6.0
ft along a level floor. How much work is done? (W = F d = 450 ft–lb)
 27

(2) A load in a skid is moved on a lift trunk by a worker who pulls on lift handled at an
angle of 30º to the horizontal with a force of 150 N. If the skid is moved through a
distance of 10 m, how much work is done? (W = F cos θ d = 1299 J)
(3) A 3.0 kg object moving initially with a velocity of 2 ms –1 is acted upon by a force
and the velocity is increased to 6.0 ms –1. (a) What is the final kinetic energy of the
object? (b) How much work is done by the applied the force? (c) How much work is
required to bring the object to a rest?

(a) (b) W = KEf – KE0 = 48 J

(c) W = KEf – KE0 = 0 – KE0 = –54J
(4) A 10 lb vise and a 3.0 lb hammer rest on shelves that are 4.0 ft and 6.0 ft high,
respectively. (a) What is the potential energy of each object relative to the floor? (b)
How much work is required to lift the vise to the upper shelf?
[(a) PE1 = m h g = 40 ft–lb, PE2 = 18 ft–lb, (b) w = 20 ft–lb]
(5) A 2.0 kg ball is dropped from a height of 10 m. Neglecting air resistance, the system
is conservative while the ball is falling. The total mechanical energy is all potential
energy. When the ball strikes the ground, what is its velocity?

(6) A mechanical pile driver with a driver weight of 480 lb and a vertical length of 20 ft
is used to drive a small pile into the ground. (a) How much energy is delivered to
the pile on the initial strike? (b) With what velocity does the driver strike the pile?
(Neglect friction)

[(a) E = PE = mgh, = 9600 ft–lb, (b)

(7) A simple pendulum with a mass of 0.50 kg is released from a height of 0.25 m
above its equilibrium position (lowest position, h = 0).
(a) What is the magnitude of its velocity at the bottom of the swing?
(b) What is the magnitude of its velocity when the pendulum bob at a height of
0.01 m?
(c) Will the pendulum swing to a height greater than 0.25 m at the opposite side of
the swing?
[(a) 2.2 ms–1 , (b) 1.7 ms–1, (c) NO]
28

CHAPTER (6)
MOMENTUM

Momentum

Linear Momentum Angular momentum

The linear momentum of a body is the The angular momentum is the product of
product of mass and velocity it’s the product of the angular velocity of
a body and its moment of inertia about
the axis of rotation.
p = mv L = Iω

Momentum = mass × velocity

– Vector quantity,
– Units ………………. kgms–1 , gcms–1 , sl fts–1

Impulse
Impulse the product of the applied force and time of application. It is equal to the
change in linear momentum.

By Newton’s second, law, = mvf – mvo

impulse = change in momentum
Units …………. N.s, dyne.s, lb.s

Conservation of Linear Momentum

In the absence of an unbalanced, external force, the total linear momentum of a
system is conserved.
In the case of two particles,
p1 + p2 =
total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision

Collisions
For any interaction in which momentum is exchanged or transferred.
Collisions are generally classified two collisions.
(i) Elastic collision (ii) Inelastic collision
 29

Elastic collision
A collision in which the total linear momentum and the total kinetic energy are
conserved is called elastic collision.

Inelastic collision
A collision in which the total kinetic energy is not conserved is called inelastic
collision.
The total linear momentum is conversed in an elastic collision.

Examples (1)
A softball with a mass of 0.20 kg is pitched horizontally with a speed of 150 ms –1.
When hit by the batter, the ball leaves the bat with a speed of 200 ms –1 in the opposite
direction. What is the impulse of the collision?
m = 0.20 kg, v0 = –150 ms–1, vf = 200 ms-1, impulse = ?

Impulse =

Examples (2)
An automobile traveling at 30 mih–1 is braked to a sudden stop in 3.0s. (a) What is the
average force exerted on a 128 lb passenger by a shoulder strap? (b) What would be the
average force exerted on a passenger who is not wearing a shoulder strap and was stopped by
a paddled dashboard in 0.5s?
v0 = 30 mih–1 = 44 fts–1 , vf = 0

(a) Δt = 3.0s

(opposite direction to the v0)

(b) Δt = 0.50s

Example (3)
A man and a child with masses of 70 kg and 30 kg respectively, stand in the middle of
an ice rink. They “push off” each other and man moves off with a speed of 2.0 ms –1. What is
the vcelocity of the child? (Ans: ………… 4.7 ms–1)

Example (4)
Two identical railroad cars roll toward each other and become coupled during
collision. If the velocity of first car is 20 kmh–1 and that of second car is 10 kmh–1. What is the
velocity of the coupled cars after collision? (Ans: 5 kmh–1)
30

Exercise:
1. A 0.25 kg ball with an initial speed of 10 ms –1 hits a wall head-on and rebounds in the
opposite direction with a speed of 8.0 ms–1. (a) What is the impulse of the collision?
(b) If the collision takes place in 0.20s, what is the average force exerted by the wall
on the ball? (c) Was the collision elastic?
2. A 160 lb man and his 80 lb daughter stand together on skates. If they push apart and
the father receivers a velocity with a magnitude of 0.50 ms –1, what is the velocity of
the daughter? (Neglect friction)
3. A 10 kg object with a velocity of 3.0 ms –1 has a head-on, elastic collision with a
stationary 2.0 kg object. What are the velocities of the objects after collision?
4. A 2.0 kg ball traveling at 4.0 ms–1 collides elastically in a head-on collision with a 2.0
kg ball. What are (i) the velocities and (ii) the total momentum of the ball after
collision?
5. A loaded freight car with a mass of 1800 kg traveling with a speed of 10 ms –1 collides
with an identical, stationary, empty car. If after the collision the speed of the coupled
cars is 9.0 ms–1, what was the mass of the load?
6. A body, A, of mass 4 kg moves with a velocity of 2 ms –1 and collides head-on with
another body, B, of mass 3 kg moving opposite direction at 5 ms–1. After the collision
the bodies move off together with velocity v. Calculate v. (Ans: –1 ms–1)
7. A bullet of mass 0.006 kg is fired from a gun of mass 0.5 kg. If the muzzle velocity of
the bullet is 300 ms–1, calculate the recoil velocity of the gum. (Ans: 3.6 ms–1)
 31

CHAPTER –7–
ROTATIONAL MOTION AND DYNAMICS

7.1 Regular Displacement (θ)

Angular displacement is the angle through which an object in rotation moves,
measured in degrees or radians.

s = rθ
s = are length
r = radius of the circle
θ is made in degrees, radians and revolutions.

revolution = 2π rad = 360º

when s = r , θ = 1 radian
1 rad = 57.3º

Angular Velocity (ω)

Angular velocity is the time rate of change of angular displacement.

Average angular velocity

Instantaneous angular velocity, ω (t)

At constant angular velocity

The magnitude of the angular velocity is related to that of the tangential
velocity as,
v = rω
ω = angular velocity
v = tangential velocity
r = radius

Angular Acceleration (α)

Angular acceleration is the time rate of change of angular velocity.
32

Unit → rads–2 , revs–2 , degs–2

Average angular acceleration

when = constant acceleration.

The relation between the angular displacement ‘θ’ and the tangential (linear)
displacement ‘s’ is
s = rθ
the relation between the angular velocity ‘ω’ and the tangential (linear)
velocity ‘v’ is
v = rω
The relation between the angular acceleration ‘α’ and tangential (linear)
acceleration ‘a’ is
aL = rα

Tangential acceleration
at = rα

Centripetal acceleration

The net acceleration

Linear and Angular Analogies

Linear Angular
x θ
v ω
a α

v = vo + at ω = ω0 + αt
 33

s = rθ
v = rω
at = rα

7.2 Torque ()

Torque is defined as the product of the moment arm and applied force.

 = the moment arm (or) lever arm

Unit → mN, lb ft

Rigid body
An object in which all the particle maintain fixed distances relative to each
other.

Moment of Inertia (I)

The summation of the products of the masses and distances squared of the
particle of a body about an axis of rotation and measure of rotations inertia.

Unit → kgm2, gcm2, slug ft–2

For a rigid body, torque and moment of inertia are related as
 = Iα
34

Moment of inertia of some common from objects

7.3 Rotational Work, Power and Kinetic Energy

Rotational Work (W)
The product of torque and angular displacement.
W = θ
Unit → joule (J)
CGS → ergs, FPS → ft–lb

Rotational Power (P)

The rotational work per unit time.

Unit → watt (w)

Rotational Kinetic energy

I = moment of inertia of the body

 35

ω = angular velocity
The work – energy theorem for the rotational case is

For a rolling object which has both translational and rotational kinetic energies

7.4 Angular momentum (L)

Angular momentum of a body is (the product of its moment of inertia (I) and its
angular velocity around an axis of rotation.
L = Iω
2 –1 2 –1 2 –1
Unit → kgm s , gcm s , Sl ft s
The angular momentum is related to torque,

In the absence of an unbalanced extern torque acting on a body, the angular

momentum is conserved.
L = Iω = constant
I and ω can change, but the product (Iω) is still constant.

Example 7.1: A particular in a disk rotating with a uniform angular speed of 2rps is 0.2 m
from the axis of rotation. What are (a) the tangential speed of the particle and (b) the angle
through which it rotates in 0.53?
w = 2 rps = 2 (2π rad/rev) = 4π rad s–1
r = 0.2 m
(a) v = rω = 0.2 × (4π) = 0.8 π ms–1
(b) t = 0.5s
θ = ωt
= 4π × (0.5) = 2π rad (or) 360º (or) 1 revolution

Example 7.2: A disk rotating at an angular speed of 10 rads –1 is slowed down by a uniform
angular acceleration to a speed of 4 rads–1 in 3s. What is the angular acceleration?
wo = 10 rads–1 w = 4 rads–1
t = 3s α=?

= –2 rads–2 ←
The disk is slowing down (or) decelerating.
36

Example 7.3: A circular disk initially at rest experiences a uniform angular acceleration of
0.25 rads–2 through two revolutions. (a) What is the angular speed at the end of two
revolutions? (b) How long did it take to make the two revolutions?
(a) ω0 = 0 , α = 0.25 rads–2

ω2 =
= 2 (0.25) (4π)
ω = 2π rad2 s–2
2

ω =
= 2.5 rad s–1 ←
(b) ω0 = 0 , w = 2.5 rad s–1 , t = ?

Example 7.4: What is the moment of inertia for a wheel as illustrated in the Fig. Consider
the mass of the axle and spoke to be negligible.

I =
= m1R2 + m2R2 + … + mNR2
= (m1 + m2 + … + mN)R2
= MR2 ←

Example 7.5: A solid wheel and a spoked wheel of equal mass and radius (20 km and 0.5m)
are set into rotation by descending masses of 4.0 kg. What is the angular acceleration
of each object?

For solid wheel

=
= 7.8 rads–2
For spoked wheel
I = MR2 = 20 (0.5)2 = 5 kgm2
 37

=
= 3.9 rads–2.

Example 7.6: A tangential force applied to a stationary flywheel with a mass of 40 kg and a
radius of 0.50 m angular accelerate the wheel, uniformly throw one revolution in a
time of 2.0s. How much (a) work and (b) power was done by the force in this time?
ωo = 0, M = 40 kg R = 0.5 m
θ = 2π rad (1 rev) t = 2s

θ =

θ =

α =

=
= π rad s–2
 = Iα = (MR2) α
(a) W = θ
= (πMN) (2π rad)
= 2π2
= 2 (3.14)2
= 20 J ←

(b) P =

=
= 10 W.

Example 7.7: A ball initially at rest rolls with slipping down an incline of height. What is the
linear speed of the all when it rolls onto the horizontal surface?

By the conservation of mechanical energy,

Total PE at the top = Total KE at the bottom
38

Mgh =

Mgh =

gh =

V = .

Example 7.8: A mass suspended by a string wrapped around a pivoted

disk is released form rest. What is the angular speed of the disk
after the suspended mass has fallen a distance ‘h’? (Neglect
friction)

ΔKE = ΔPE

Problems
 39

1. A particle is moving in a circle according to the equation θ = 3t 2 + 2t where θ is

measured in radians and t in seconds. Calculate the angular velocity and angular
acceleration.
2. A flywheel whose diameter is 3 m, is rotating at 120 rpm. Calculate the linear velocity
of a point on the rim.
3. A flywheel turning at 900 rpm slowed down to 300 rpm in 5 min. (a) Calculate the
angular acceleration of the flywheel (b) How much revolution did it make during this
time interval?
4. A Lathe rotates with an speed of 6 π rads –1. If the speed is decreased to 2 π rads –1 in
what is the average angular acceleration?
5. The flywheel of a motor is accelerated from rest to a speed of 1500 rpm in 5 s. If the
flywheel has a moment of inertia of 40 slug ft –2, what is the unbalanced torque on the
wheel?
6. A flywheel in the form of a spoked wheel with a mass of 6.0 kg and a radius of 0.8 m
rotates with an angular speed of 20 rads–1. What is the kinetic energy of the wheel?
7. The rotor of a motor rotating initially with an angular speed of 50 rads –1 is slowed to
30 rads–1 while making 10 revolutions. If the rotor has a moment of inertia of 12
kgm2, (a) how much work is done in slowing the rotor, and (b) what is the average
applied torque?
8. A solid sphere and a solid cylinder of equal radii and masses of 40 kg and 32 kg,
respectively, roll together down an inclined plane from rest which reaches the bottom
of the incline first?
9. What is the angular momentum of a 0.20 kg particle traveling in a circular orbit with a
radius of 40 cm at a speed of 12 rads–1?
10. What is the angular momentum of the Earth due to its daily rotation?
***********************
40

CHAPTER –8–
FLUID MECHANICS

Fluid Mechanics: The study of fluids at rest and motion.

The fluid static is concerned with the pressures and forces exerted on liquids and
gases at rest

Fluid: Any substance that can flow.

Liquids and gases are fluids.

Hydrostatics is specially concerned with the behavior of liquids at rest.

Hydrodynamics is the motion of liquids (not only water) and aerodynamics, the motion of
gases.

Fluid dynamics is an important science used to solve may of the problems arising in
aeronautical, chemical, mechanical and civil engineering.
In fluid dynamics, the forces exerted on fluids and the motion that results form these
forces are examined.
It also enables many natural phenomena such as the flight of birds, the swimming of
fish and the development of weather conditions to be studied scientifically.

8.1 Properties of fluids

Gases and liquids are different states of matter, but the common property of being
able to flow gives them similar mechanical property.

Density mass density =

Weight density =

The units of mass density

System Units of mass density Units of weight density
CGS g cm–3
MKS kg m–3
SI kg m–3
British System sl ft–3 lb ft–3

Specific Gravity: The specific gravity (sp gr) of a solid or liquid is the ratio of the
weight of a given volume of a substance to the weight of an equal volume of water.
 41

Where the s and w subscripts refer to substance and water, respectively.

The standard density of water is taken at a temperature of 4ºC or 39.2ºF, at which
water has its maximum density. Since water in the metric CGS system has a mass
density ρw = 1.0 gcm–3, the numerical values of the specific gravity and the mass
density are equal.
Densities of some common substances
Substance Mass density Weight density
–3 –3
Solids gcm kg m lb ft–3
Aluminum 2.7 2700 169
Brass 8.7 8700 540
Copper 8.9 8900 555
Glass 2.6 2600 162
Gold 19.3 19300 1204
Ice 0.92 920 58
Iron 7.9 790 490
Lead 11.4 11400 705
Silver 10.5 10500 654
Steel 7.8 7800 487
Wood (oak) 0.81 810 51
–3 –3
Liquids gcm kg m lb ft–3
Alcohol 0.79 790 49
Benzene 0.88 880 55
Gasoline 0.68 680 42
Glycerol 1.26 1260 79
Mercury 13.6 13600 850
Water 1.0 1000 62.4
Sea Water 1.03 1030 64.0
–3 –3
Gases gcm kg m lb ft–3
Air 0.00129 1.29 0.0807
Carbon dioxide 0.00076 0.76 0.0481
Helium 0.00018 0.18 0.0111
Hydrogen 0.00009 0.09 0.0058
Nitrogen 0.00125 1.25 0.0782
Oxygen 0.00143 1.43 0.0892

8.2 Pressure and Pressure Measurement

Pressure
Pressure is defined as the normal force F per unit area A.

In Symbols: where p is pressure, F is normal force and A is area.

42

Within the volume of a fluid, the pressure depends on depth, since the force on a
surface is dependent on the weight of fluid above it.
Considering a column of height h above an area A, the mass of fluid in the column is

m = ρ V, where mass density.

Then the pressure due to the height of the column is

p = ρ g h = D h where D = ρ g = weight density.

Thus, the pressure within a fluid is directly proportional to the depth h.
In an open container, a liquid is also subjected to atmospheric pressure
(pressure due to the weight of overlying atmospheric gases). Atmospheric pressure at
sea level is 14.7 lb in–2 or 1.013 × 105 Nm–2. The total or absolute pressure pabs at a
depth h in an open liquid is
pabs = ρ g h + patm
= D h + patm , where patm is the atmospheric pressure.

Pressure Measurement
A pressure measurement is an interval or difference relative to some reference.
The usual references are absolute zero pressure and atmospheric pressure. Absolute
zero pressure corresponds to a complete vacuum, or no pressure at all.
When a pressure is expressed as a difference between a pressure value and a
complete vacuum, it is called an absolute pressure.
When a pressure is expressed as a difference between a pressure value and
atmospheric pressure, it is called an gauge pressure.
As can be seen from figure,
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
pabs = pgauge + patm
Comparing this to equation pabs = D h + patm ,
pgauge = D h = ρ g h
This would be the pressure measured on some pressure-measuring instrument,
e.g., that had been zeroed at sea level.
 43

(a) positive gauge pressure

(a) positive gauge pressure pabs + pgauge + patm

(b) negative gauge pressure (partial vacuum)

(b) negative gauge pressure (partial vacuum) pabs = –pgauge + patm

Barometer: A barometer is an instrument which is used to measure atmospheric

pressure. Atmospheric pressure is measured by means of a barometer.
Standard atmospheric pressure at sea level supports a column of mercury 30 in.
(actually 29.92 in) or 76 cm = 760 mm in height.
1atm = 14.7 lbin–2
= 1.01325 × 105 N m–2 (Pa)
= 1013250 dyn cm–2
= 30 in Hg
= 76 cm Hg
= 760 mmHg (torr).

8.3 Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle

When an object submerged in a liquid is lifted, it seems lighter or easier to lift than
when it is not in a liquid. Since an object in a liquid is easier to lift or requires less
force, there must be an upward force acting on the object in the liquid that balances
part of the object’s weight. This phenomenon is calls buoyancy and the upward
acting force is called the buoyant force.
{Buoyancy: The upward thrust on a body immersed in a fluid. This force is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced.}
To see how this occurs, consider an object submerged in a liquid, as illustrated in
figure.
44

The liquid pressure acting downward on the top of the object is p1 = ρ g h1.
Where ρ is the mass density of the liquid.
Similarly, the liquid pressure acting upward on the bottom of the objects is p2 = ρ g h2.
Since h2 > h1, the upward pressure is greater than the downward pressure.

Expressing the difference of these pressures in terms of force:

Fb = F2 – F1
= p2 A – p1 A = (ρ g h2 – ρ g h1) A = ρ g (h2 – h1) A
Fb = ρ g h A.
Where Fb is the upward buoyant force and
h = h2 – h1 is the height of the object.
The volume of the object is V = Ah,
Fb = ρ g V = mg
Buoyant force = weight of displaced liquid

Where or m = ρ V, which is the mass of the fluid displaced by the object, and
m g is the weight of the displaced fluid.

Archimedes’ Principle
An object in a fluid is buoyed upward with a force equal to the weight of the
volume of the fluid displaced by the object.
Archimedes’ principle applies to gases as well as liquids, i.e. to fluids in
general. For example, a helium ballon is buoyes up in air.

Floating and Sinking

The magnitude of the buoyant force acting on an object determines whether
the object will float or sink.
An object will sink if its weight exceeds that of the displaced fluid (buoyant
force) and will rise if its weight is less than that of the displaced fluid.
A block of wood held submerged under water and then released will rise to the
surface and float. The block will adjust to a depth in the water at which its weight is
equal to the weight of the water displaced (∑F = 0, equilibrium).
This is more conveniently expressed in terms of the densities of the object ρ 0
and the fluid ρf.
The weight of the object is w0 = m0 g = ρ0 g Vo
 45

The weight of the displaced fluid or buoyant force is Fb = wf = mf g = ρf g Vf

Then, suppose the object is completely immersed in the fluid and released. While
completely submerged, Vo = Vf,

(a) If ρf > ρo , then Fb > wo , and the object will be buoyed up to surface and will float.
(b) If ρf < ρo , then Fo < wo , and the object will sink.
(c) If ρf = ρo , then Fb = wo , and the object will float in equilibrium at any submerged
depth it is places.
(It is assumed that ρf is constant with depth or that the fluid is incompressible.)
Hence, An object will float in a fluid if the density of the object is less than or
equal to the density of the fluid.

Example 8.1: A cylindrical sea lab with a diameter of 10 ft and a height of 8.0 ft is lowered
in the ocean so the top the lab is 200 ft below sea level. What are (a) the pressure and the
force on the top of the lab and (b) the pressure on the bottom of the lab due to the sea water?
(a) For sea water D = 64.0 lb ft–3 , h = 200 ft
p = ρ g h = D h = 64.0 × 200 = 12 800 lb ft–2
The area of the circular top of the lab is

(b) The bottom of the sea lab is h = 208 ft below sea level.
p = D h = 64.0 × 208 = 13300 lb ft–2

Example 8.2: What is the atmospheric pressure if the column height of mercury barometer is
76 cm?
ρ = 13.6 × 103 kg m–3, h = 76 cm = 0.76 m, g = 10 ms–2
p = ρ g h = 13.6 × 103 × 10 × 0.76 = 1.034 × 105 N m–2

Example 8.3: The pressure of a boxer’s glove on his opponent’s head during a knockout is
about 5 × 105 N m–2.
Convert this pressure to units, (i) atm (ii) lb in–2 (iii) mm Hg.
1 atm = 14.7 lb in–2
1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 Nm–2 (Pa)
1 atm = 760 mmHg.
46

(i) p = 5 × 105 Nm–2

1.01325 × 105 Nm–2 = 1 atm
5 × 105 Nm–2 = 4.92 atm
(ii) 5 × 105 Nm–2 = 4.92 atm
4.92 atm × 5 × 105 Nm–2 = 72.47 lb in–2
(iii) 5 × 105 Nm–2 = 4.92 atm
760 mmHg × 4.92 atm = 3.7468 × 103 mmHg

Example 8.4: Having density concept why do we still need to use relative density? Give the
density of water is SI. How do you understand specific gravity? A stone weights 50 g in air
but seems to weight 40 g when immersed in water. What is the specific gravity of the stone?
Density of a substance is different units whereas its relative density, unit less, is the
same in any system of units.
So there can be no confusion or mistake in working with Relative Density.
And in determining relative density use have to measure only one quantity (mass)
while in determining density use need to meaning mass and also volume.
So we get better accuracy in measurement of relative density and calculations by
using relative density are more accurate.

Density of water (in SI system) = 103 kg m3

Specific gravity: Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a given substance to
the density of water.
Upward thrust = weight of water displaced
50 g – 40 g = V × 1 × g
V = 10 cm3

Specific gravity of the stone = 5

(b) A 60 kg balloon is filled with 200 m 3 hydrogen. What force is needed to hold
the balloon to prevent it from rising up?
(density of air = 1.3 kgm–3, density of hydrogen = 0.09 kgm–3)
m = 50 kg (balloon) v = 200 m3
Total weight = weight of the balloon + weight of hydrogen
W = mg + ρh Vg
Upward thrust = weight of air displaced
F + W = ρair Vg
F + mg + ρh Vg = ρair Vg
F = ρair Vg – mg – ρh Vg
= g (ρairV – m – ρh V) = 10 (1.3 × 200 – 60 – 0.09 × 200)
= 10 (260 – 60 – 18) = 1820 N
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Example 8.5: A cube of material 20 cm on a side has a mass of 7200 g. (a) Will the cube be
float in water? (b) If so, what will be the height of the cube extending above the water
surface?
(a) The volume of cube is V = l3 = (20 cm)3 = 800 cm3

Since the density of water is ρw = 1.0 g cm–3, then ρw > ρc , and the cube will float.
(b) wc = ρc g Vc
Fb = ρw g Vw
wc = Fb

∴
ρc g Vc = ρw g Vw
Vw = 0.90 Vc.
The volume of water displaced is 0.90 of the volume of the cube, 90% of the cube is
submerged. This means that 10% of the cube’s volume is above the water, (OR)
Vabove = (0.1) Vc = (0.1) (8000) = 800 cm3
Cross-sectional area of the cube A = (20) (20) = 400 cm2

The cube extends 2 cm above the water surface.

Problems
1. How do you understand specific gravity? A stone weights 50 g in air but seems to
weight 40 g when immersed in water. What is the specific gravity of the stone? (b) A
gold coin weights 10 g in air and 9.5 g in water. What is the volume of the coin?
2. A ship of mass 1200000 kg floats-in sea-water. What volume of sea water does it
displace? If the ship enters fresh water, what mass of cargo must be unloaded so that
the same volume of water is displaced as before? Density of fresh water = 10 3 kgm–3,
relative density of sea-water = 1.03.
3. An irregular object weights 200 × 980 dyn in air, 160 × 980 dyn when immersed in
water, and 170 × 980 dyn when immersed in oil. Calculate (i) the density of the
object; (ii) the density of the oil.
4. Why is the cutting edge of a knife made very thin? A rectangular glass block of
dimensions 30.0 cm by 5.0 cm by 10.0 cm weights 37.5 N. Calculate the least and
greatest pressure it can exert when resting on horizontal table.
5. What is the unit for pressure used in weather maps? How do you understand a normal
atmospheric pressure? How can you express the standard atmospheric pressure?
Describe the fact that we can apply to construct a barometer?
6. Show that the total pressure (in liquid at rest) at the depth of h is the sum of
atmospheric pressure and that of pressure due to liquid.
48

7. If the pressure on the surface of a fluid is increased by an amount P, by how much is

the pressure at a depth ‘h’ increased? The fluid has a density ρ.
8. What is force required to hold a cubic block of ice with sides of 2.0 m submerged
under water?
9. A submarine weighs 800 tons. How much water must be displaced for the sub to be in
equilibrium at some submerged depth in the ocean?
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