1

BEd First Year (Correspondence)(EDC)

Academic Year (2022)
Basic AC Circuit
Assignment-I
1.(a) The current and voltage are out of phase by 90⸰ in a pure capacitive AC circuit, the current
lead the voltage by 90⸰. Why?

The capacitor is an electrical device that can be store electrical charge, thereby creating
an electric field which in term stores energy the measure of energy- storing ability is called
capacitance.

The voltage increases, charge builds up on the capacitor, giving to an opposing emf.

The current then goes to zero when the voltage is a maximum. In the discharging part of
the half-cycle, the current is a maximum when the voltage is zero. These charges repeat
during the next half-cycle when the voltage is in the opposite direction. Therefore, the
current and the voltage are out of phase by 90⸰. In a pure capacitive ac circuit, the current
leads the voltage by 90⸰.

Vrms C

(b) Determine the rms current in Figure.

Vrms= 5V
C=0.005μF

F =10 kHz
 2

Solution:

1
𝑋𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
1
= 2𝜋×(10×103 𝐻𝑧)(0.005×10−6𝐹) = 3.183k

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 5𝑉
Irms= =
𝑋𝐶 3.183𝑘Ω

= 1.57mA

2.(a) Define Impedance, Resonance and Power factor.

Consider pure capacitive and pure inductive circuits. In such circuits there is a reactance
opposition to current flow.

The reactance of an ac circuit is the non-resistive opposition to current flow arising from
capacitance and /or inductance.

In practical application we must consider the effects of current opposition from both
resistance and reactance (capacitive and/or inductive).

(b) A series RC circuit has a resistance of 100 ohms and a capacitance of 30μF. If the voltage
source operates at 120 V- 60 Hz, what is the current in the circuit.

Solution:

R= 100 , C = 30 𝜇𝐹, V=120 V, and f = 60 Hz

1 1
𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = 2𝜋×60×30×10−6 = 88 

1
Z = [𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 ] = [(100Ω)2 + (88Ω)2 ]2 =133 
𝑉 120𝑉
𝐼= = 133 = 0.9 𝐴
𝑍
 3

3.(a) Draw the diagram of series RLC circuit and phase diagram. Write down the equation of
impedance Z and phase angle.

(a) (b)

Fig. (a) Series RLC circuit (b) phase diagram of RLC circuit

From Phase diagram

 
1
Z = R + (X L − X C )
2 2 2

𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶
And the phase angle 𝜙 is tan  = 𝑅

𝑋𝐿− −𝑋𝐶
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ ]
𝑅

If 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 , then the phase angle is positive (+ ) and the circuit is said to be inductive.

If 𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝐿 , then the phase angle is positive (- ). In this case the circuit is said to be capacitive.

(b) A series RLC circuit with a voltage source of 120 V- 60 Hz has a resistance of 100  and
capacitive and inductive reactance of 88  and 47  respectively. What is the current in the
circuit?

Solution:

V = 120V, R = 100Ω, XC = 88Ω and XL = 47Ω

 
1
Z = R 2 + (X L − X C )
2 2

 
1
Z = (100) + (47 − 88) = 108
2 2 2

V 120V
and I= = = 1.1A
Z 108Ω

Notice that the circuit is capacitive (XC > XL), and the phase diagram would have a negative
phase angle;

X − XC   47 − 88 
θ = tan −1  L  = tan −1   = tan −1 (−0.41) = −22 
 R   100 
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4.(a) How to transmit electrical power in Myanmar.

All the electrical power generated in Myanmar today in the form of 50 Hz, three-phase
alternation current. Three- phase power is more economical in material requirement, e.g,
wire. However, one of the chief considerations in power transmission and distribution of
any phase power is power losses. The two main sources of power losses are (a)line losses
and (b) leakage losses.

(b) Suppose there is a power input of 1.1 kW to a 60- mile line with a resistance of 0.5 /mi.
Assuming a power factor of one, compare the power loss of the transmission at(a)220 V
and (b) 2200 V.

Solution:

(a)V = 220V , R = 0.5 × 60 = 30 Ω , Pin = 1V

%Ploss = ?
Pin 1100W
I= = =5A
V 220V
There is a current of 5A in the line. That is, the power source supplies 5A at 220V.
Ploss = I 2 R = (5A)2 × (30) = 750 W
and the percent loss is
Ploss
% Ploss = × 100%
Pin
750𝑊
= × 100% = 68%
1100𝑊
(b)V = 2200V (stepped up by a factor of 10),
%Ploss = ?
Pin 1100W
I= = = 0.50 A
V 2200V
Where it is assumed that the transformer losses are negligible. Hence, the line current is stepped
down by a factor of 10, and
Ploss = I 2 R = (0.5A)2 × (30) = 7.5 W
and the percent loss is
Ploss
% Ploss = × 100%
Pin
7.5𝑊
= × 100% = 0.68%
1100𝑊
 5

The Laser and The Electron Microscope

Assignment II
1.(a) What is the Edison effect?

Edison effect
When the plate of a tube is connected to the positive terminal of a battery, a
current is observed in the circuit. The circuit is completed by thermionic emission of
electrons from the heat filament.
(b) What is the difference between donor impurity and acceptor impurity? Name the special
diodes that are useful in certain application.
Donor impurity
An impurity which contributes extra electrons is called a donor impurity.
Acceptor impurity
An impurity which creates a “hole” or vacancy is called an acceptor impurity.
The special diodes are light-emitting diode (LED), photodiodes, Schottky diodes, varactors,
Zener diodes, Laser diodes, step-recovery diodes, backward diodes and tunnel diodes.

2.(a) How are printed circuits made "printed"?

Printed circuit
One method of assembling the miniature components in a convenient package is on a
printed circuit. The “printing” of the circuit of the circuit connections is done on a copper-
clad fused glass cloth board. The circuit is printed on the board by hand or applied in an
acid bath, the unpainted portions of the copper are etched away, leaving the desired circuit
connections.
A photographic method may also be used. The copper of the board is coated with a
photosensitive material. A mask of the desired circuit is placed in the board, and it is
exposed to light. In the developing process, the light-exposed surfaces are etched away.
After the circuit has been etched, small holes are drilled at the proper locations in the
circuit for the mounting of the circuit elements. E.g resistors, capacitors, and sockets,
which are soldered in place.

(b) What is the majority carrier in an N-type semiconductor and a P-type semiconductor? What
are the most important semiconductor materials?

A semiconductor in which the charge carriers are negative electrons is called an N-type
semiconductor.

A semiconductor in which the charge carriers are considered to be positive “holes” is called
a P-type semiconductor.
 6

Two of the most important semiconductor materials are silicon and germanium. The atoms
of these elements have four outermost electrons, which are shared with the other atoms of
the element.

3.(a) What are IC’s and how are they made?

An integrated circuit consists of diodes, transistors, resistors, and capacitors, which are
fabricated on a silicon chip, usually only a few millimeters square. Single crystals of lightly
doped silicon are drawn from molten material (about 1100 °C). These are cleaved into thin
wafers. Then hundreds of identical IC chips are fabricated on the surface of the wafer in a
series.
To obtain the interconnecting circuit, a photosensitive technique is used. The wafer is
covered with a thin layer of photosensitive plastic called photoresist. When UV light strikes
the resist, it hardens and remains in place when the unexposed portion is washed away. The
hardened plastic can be dissolved later.
A thin layer of metal is then deposited over the resist pattern. When the resist is dissolved,
the metal is removed with it. This leaves a metal pattern for interconnecting the
components on the surfaces where the resist was originally removed.

(b) How do you understand the thermionic emission?

Thermionic emission

The current flowing in the heater circuit heats the filament. This energy causes elements to
be released from or “boiled off” the filament. This process is called thermionic emission.

4. (a) What is xerography and how are they made?

Xerography is a dry process by which anything written, typed, printed or photographed

can be copied.

The heart of xerography is the photoconductors. Some semiconductors are

photoconductors. In the dark, a photoconductor such as selenium is a good insulator and
hence can be electrostatically charged. However, when light strikes a photoconductor, it
becomes conductive permits the electrical charge to leas away from the part hit by the
light.

In transfer electrostatic copying a photoconductor-coated plate, drum, or belt is

electrostatically charge and then illuminated with a projected image of the writing or object
to be copied. The illuminated portions of the plate become conducting and discharge.

The plate then comes into contact with a negatively charged black powder called toner or
"dry ink". The charge-remaining portions of the plate attract the toner, and it adheres to
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these regions. Paper is then placed over the plate and a positive charge is delivered to the
back of the paper. This attracts the toner from the plate surface to the paper. The image is
then fused into the paper permanently by heat, and a copy of the original image is
produced.

(b) What is a ‘hole’ and how can it be considered to be a charge carrier?

A pure silicon crystal may also be doped with boron impurity atoms. Boron atoms
have three outermost electrons, so one electron is lacking, and there is a “hole” or a
vacancy near each impurity atom in the lattice. When a voltage is applied to the crystal,
electrons can transfer to fill holes, thereby leaving other holes behind. Hence, a flow of
electrons in one direction is equivalent to a flow of holes in the opposite direction. In
effect, the holes behave like positive charges, and we refer to positive holes. An impurity
which creates a “hole” or vacancy is called an acceptor impurity. A semiconductor in
which the charge carriers are considered to be positive “holes” is called a P-type
semiconductor.

Si Si Si Si

hole

Si Si Si B

hole

B Si Si Si

Si B Si B

hole
hole

Acceptor impurity doping

 8

The Laser and The Electron Microscope

&
Solar Radiation

Assignment III
1.(a)What is the principle of the laser and what does a laser do?

The laser is a light source, and like other light sources, it converts one form of energy to
another always at a loss. The uniqueness of the laser as a light source comes about because
of the special properties of the light it produces. The development of the laser was one of
the crowning successes of the modern approach to science. The term laser is an acronym
for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (l. a. s. e. r). The principle of the
laser was first developed for microwave frequencies and the first device was called a
maser. The laser is an optical maser. The same principles are involved, but the laser
involves higher frequencies.

(b) What is the basic principle of electron microscope?

The "dual nature of particles" is applied in an electron microscope. A magnetic coil can
focus an electron beam just as a glass lens can focus a light beam. Such magnetic lens are
used to focus the electron beam in an electron microscope.

The electron beam is directed on a very thin specimen. Different numbers of

electron pass through different parts of the specimen, depending on its structure. The
transmitted beam is then brought to focus, forming an image on a film or a fluorescent
screen.

Specimens that cannot be thin-sectional can be viewed by other means. A specimen is

coated with a thin layer of metal. The electron beam is then made to scan across the
specimen. The surface irregularities cause variations in the intensity of the reflected
electrons, and the reflected beam is focused to form an image. The mental coating makes
the specimen electrically conducting. Otherwise, a non-uniform charge would build up on
the specimen and cause the image to be distorted. Magnifications up to 100,000 times can
be achieved with an electron microscope.
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2.(a) What is spontaneous emission and stimulated emission with necessary diagram?
Spontaneous emission
When an electron is excited to a higher energy level in an atom, it generally “decays” after
a short time (on the order of 10-8s) and returns to a lower energy level with the emission of
a photon. This is called spontaneous emission.
Stimulated emission
In a stimulated emission process, an excited atom is struck by a photon of the same energy
of the allowed transition, and the atom emits an identical photon.

Figure: Radiation emission (a) An atom absorbs energy and become excited
(b) It generally, decay spontaneously after a short time, with the emission of a photon.
But if another photon strikes the excited atom (c) it is stimulated into emission.

(b) What is hologram? Draw an arrangement for making and viewing a hologram.
The coherent of laser light has made the producing of three-dimensional images possible
through holography. Greek holes, meaning "whole". A hologram is a made by using
reference and interference beams. Their interference patterns on a photographic film record
the information from "in depth" parts of the object.
 10

When developed the interference pattern appears as a meaningless pattern of light and dark
areas. However, when illuminated with a laser beam (or another light sources, for some
holograms), the recorded information is reproduced and perceived as a three-dimensional
image.

3.(a)Explain the principle of a solar cell. Why is the reverse effect of an LED?
The principle of the solar cell is the reverse of that of the LED (light-emitting
diode). Solar cells allow the direct conversion of solar radiation the electricity. These cells
are solid state junction diodes. Silicon solar cells are the most common.
When sunlight strikes the surface of a solar cell, some of the photons are energetic
enough to free electrons from N-types semiconductor. This creates electron-hole pairs.
Some of the electron-hole pairs immediately recombine. But if the electron-hole pairs are
near the P-N junction, the junction potential barrier (due to diffusion) causes the "charge"
pair to separate. The negative electrons more to the N-type side of the cell and "positive"
holes move to the P-side. The separation of the charges gives rise to a "terminal" voltage.
When connected to an external circuit, a current flow as long as sunlight illuminates the
cell.
 11

(b)A minimum energy of 1.5 x 10-19 J is needed to free an electron in a solar cell. What
wavelength of light will not activate the cell?
E = 1.5 x 10-19 J
E = h
E 1.5 x 10-19
 = = = 2.264 x 10 14 Hz
h 6.625 x 10-34
c = 
c 3 x 108
 = = = 1.325 x 10-6 m
ν 2.264x1014

4.(a) In solar applications, is all of the radiation received direct sunlight? Explain.
In solar applications, radiation reaches the collection surfaces in three ways;
direct radiation, scattered radiation and reflected radiation. Solar radiation at the Earth's
surface is variable and intermittent. The intensity of the direct radiation received varies
during the day and from season to season, depending on the angle of incidence. The
incident radiation may be intermittently interrupted by clouds.

(b) A solar cell array has an area of 300cm2. If the cell efficiency is 12 percent, what is the
electrical output on an average day?
As = 300cm2 = 300 x 10-4 m2
12
Efficiency = 12%=
100
𝐸av 𝐸𝑜
𝐴𝑠
= 𝐴

𝐸0
Eav = () A𝑠
𝐴
𝐸
= ( x efficiency) A𝑠
𝐴
12
= 5k Whm-2 day -1 x 1 day x x 300 x 10-4 m2
100
= 1.8 x 10-2 kWh
 12

Thermodynamics
Assignment IV
1.(a) Define (i) thermal equilibrium (ii) thermodynamic equilibrium (iii) zeroth law of
thermodynamics.
(i) Thermal equilibrium
The joint state of two systems that exists when all changes in the coordinates have
ceased is called the thermal equilibrium.
(ii) Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system which is in thermal, mechanical and chemical equilibrium is said to be in
thermodynamic equilibrium.
(iii) Zeroth law of thermodynamics
When any two bodies are each separately in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are
also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

(b) Find the change in internal energy of one mole of an ideal gas when its
temperature changes from 0C to 100C.
The internal energy of an ideal monatomic gas was given by
U= nRT
3
When the temperature
2 changes from T to T + dT, the change in internal energy is

3
dU = 2 n R dT
where, n = 1
R = k NA = 1.3805 × 10-23 × 6.022 × 1023
The change in internal energy
3
dU = 2 n R dT

3
= × 1× 1.3805 × 6.022 × 100
2

= 1247.0057 J

= 1.247 × 103 J
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2.(a) Explain the work done in an isobaric process and isothermal process by using P-V graph.
Work done in an isobaric process
In an isobaric process, the pressure is constant. Then the work done is
V
W = P ∫V b dV = P( Vb − Va )
a

Va Vb

Figure - The shaded area represents the work in isobaric process

Work done is an isothermal process

If the system is an ideal gas and the pressure is not constant, then

nRT
P=
V
In an isothermal process, temperature is constant. The work done is
V
W = ∫V b PdV
a

V dV
= nRT ∫V b
a V
Vb
= nRT ln ( )
Va

Where Vb = final volume, Va = initial volume

Va Vb V
Figure - The shaded area represents the work in isothermal process
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(b) In an isothermal process (that is kept at a constant temperature 0C), 2 kilomole of an ideal
gas is compressed from a volume of 4 liter to 1 liter. Find the work done on the system.

n = 2 kilomole
R = 8.3143 × 103 J kilomole-1
T = 273K
Vf = 1 litre , Vi = 4 litre
𝑉𝑏
W = nR𝑇 ln 𝑉𝑎
1
W = 2 × 8.314 × 103 × 273 ln 4

= 2 × 8.314 × 273 × 2.3 × (-0.6020) × 103

= - 6285 × 103 J

3.(a) State the first law of thermodynamics and second law of thermodynamics.
The first law of thermodynamics
“The increase in internal energy of a system, in an process in which there is no change in
the kinetic and potential energy of the system, equals to the net heat flow Q into the system
minus the total work W done by the system.” This statement is called the first law of
thermodynamics.
The internal energy change of the system is
U2 – U1 = U = Q – W
Where, U2 – U1 = U = the increase in internal energy
Q = the heat absorbed by the system
W = the work done by the system

The second law of thermodynamics

For any process, the total entropy of a system plus its surrounding may never
decrease. ∆S (total)> 0

The total entropy change is zero for a reversible process and positive for an irreversible
process. This is a called the second law of thermodynamics.
 15

(b) Two large objects are isolated from their surroundings. They are at temperature T1 and T2
with T2> T1 and are placed in thermal contact. A small quantity Q is transferred by
conduction leaving their temperatures nearly unchanged. Find the entropy changes.
The entropy change of the surrounding is zero since the system is isolated.
When heat Q is reversibly removed from the object of T 2,
Q
this gives an entropy change ∆s2 = −
T2
Q
Similarly, entropy change of cooler object is then ∆s1 = + T
1

Thus the total entropy change of two objects is

Q Q Q(T2−T1 )
∆Stotal = ∆s1 + ∆s2 = − + =
T2 T1 T2 T1

Since T2 is greater than T1, the entropy change is positive.

4.(a) Discuss the Carnot cycle for an ideal gas with diagram.
This cycle consists of four reversible processes as shown in figure.

Figure - Carnot cycle for an ideal gas

1. The first process starts from state a (Pa, Va, T2) to state b (Pb, Vb, T2) and it is a
reversible isothermal process. In this process, a heat Q2 flows into the system and
work W2 is done by the system.

2. The second process performs a reversible adiabatic process from state b (P b, Vb, T2) to
state c (Pc, Vc, T1). The heat flows into the system is zero and additional work is done
by the system.
 16

3. The third process is a reversible isothermal process from state c (P c, Vc, T1) to stated
(Pd, Vd, T1). There is a heat Q1 flows out of the system and work W1 is done on the
system.
4. The final reversible adiabatic process will return the system from state d (P d, Vd, T1) to
its initial state a (Pa, Va, T2).
The work done in a complete cycle equals the heat absorbed at T 2 minus the heat
rejected at T1.
The net work done is W = Q2 − Q1

(b) What is the maximum efficiency of a heat engine working between 100C and 400C?
T1 = 100C = 100 + 273 = 373 K
T2 = 400C = 400 + 273 = 673 K
Q T
Efficiency e = 1 − Q1 = 1 − T1
2 2

373 673−373
= 1 − 673 = = 0.45
673

Maximum efficiency = 45%

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Equipartition of Energy and Properties of Gases

Assignment V

1.(a) Define degree of freedom.

Degree of freedom
Energy a system possesses is shared equally among all the possible ways of
storing energy in the system. Each independent mode of energy absorption is also called
a degree of freedom.

(b) Show that the average kinetic energy of translation of a molecule is proportional to
the absolute temperature of the gas.
The average kinetic energy of translation of a molecule is proportional to the
Absolute temperature of the gas
The pressure exerted by the wall can be obtained
1
PV = Nm𝑣 2
3

2 1
PV = N ( 𝑚𝑣 2 )
3 2
1
But 𝑚𝑣 2 is the average translational kinetic energy of a single molecule.
2
1
N ( 𝑚𝑣 2 ) = 𝑈
2
N = total number of molecules
U = internal energy
2
PV = 3 𝑈

The equation of state of a ideal gas (at low pressure) is

PV = nRT
2 3
 ∴ nRT = 3 𝑈(∵ PV = 2 𝑈)
2 1 1
nRT = 𝑁( 𝑚𝑣 2 )(∵ 𝑈 = 𝑁( 𝑚𝑣 2 ))
3 2 2
1 3 nRT 𝑁
𝑚𝑣 2 = (𝑛 = thenumberofmoles = )
2 2 𝑁 𝑁𝐴
1 3 NRT
𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 2 𝑁𝐴 𝑁
1 3 RT 𝑅
∴ 𝑚𝑣 2 = ( = k,Boltzmannconstant)
2 2 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐴
 18

1 3
∴ 𝑚𝑣 2 = kT
2 2

The average kinetic energy of translation of a molecule is proportional to the absolute

temperature of the gas.

2 (a) Write about the equipartition theorem.

Equipartition Theorem
The total average energy per molecule depends on how many independent motions a
molecule can have. If a molecule acts like a point mass, it can move in the x, y, z
directions, and the energy has the three terms proportional to 𝑣𝑥2 , 𝑣𝑦2 and 𝑉𝑧2
corresponding to linear motion in the x, y and z directions, respectively. If in addition
the molecule is diatomic with a rotational inertia about axes x and y, there are two new
terms in the energy, proportional to 𝜔𝑋2 and 𝜔𝑦2 . If vibration is possible, then there are
two more terms, proportional to the squares of relative speed and of the atomic
separation. Every term in the energy expression that is quadratic in an independent
dynamical variable designates a degree of freedom. Generally, the contribution of each
kT
degree of freedom to the average energy of a molecule is 2
. This result is called the
equipartition theorem.

(b) The pressure readily attainable in the Neutron Generator of Yangon University is
10-6 Torr. At this pressure and at ordinary temperature (300 K), how many air
molecules are present in a volume of 1 cm3?
Solution:
p = 10-6 torr = 133.3  10-6 Pa
V = 1 cm3 = 1 10-6 m3
PV = nRT
𝑃𝑉 133.3 ×10−6×1×10−6
n = 𝑅𝑇 = = 0.0445 10-12 mole
8.314×300
𝑁
n=𝑁
𝐴

air molecules N = n NA = 0.0445  10-12  6.022  1023 = 0.2679  1011 molecules

3 (a) How are the root mean square velocity of molecules of a gas and its temperature
related?
3kT
𝑣rms = √
𝑚

where k = Boltzman constant

m = the mass of a single molecule
 19

𝑣rms ∝ √𝑇 Hence, the root mean square velocity is proportional to the square root of
its absolute temperature.

(b) (i) Compute the rms speed of a gas of helium atoms at 300 K.
(ii) At what temperature will oxygen molecules have the same rms speed?
(iii) Through what potential difference must a singly ionized oxygen molecule be
accelerated to have the same speed?
Solution:
3RT
(i) 𝑣rms,He = √ 𝑀 ( R = Universal gas constant)

3×8.314×103 ×300
=√ 4
−1
= 1368ms

(ii) 𝑣rms, O2 = 𝑣rms, He

3RT𝑂2 3RTHe
√𝑀 =√
𝑂2 𝑀He
𝑀𝑂2 ×𝑇He
𝑇𝑂2 =
𝑀He

32
𝑇𝑂2 = 4
× 300 = 2400K

(iii) v = 1368ms-2
mass of a singly ionized oxygen = 𝑚𝑂2
32kg
= 6.022×1026 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑙−1
1
Since PE = KE = 2 mv 2
1 32
= 2 × 6.022×1026 × (1368)2
= 4.972 × 10−20 J
4.972×10−20
= 1.6×10-19
∴ PE = 0.310 eV

4 (a) Calculate 𝑣̅ and vrms for the following distribution of four particles
(i) all have speeds of 25 ms-1
(ii) one has a speed of 3 ms-1, one has speeds of 5 ms-1, two have speeds of 20 ms-1
Solution:
(i) The average speed of all is
25 ×4
= = 25 ms-1
4
 20

The average value of v2 is

∑ v2 (25)2 ×4
= = = 625 m2s-2
n 4
vrms = √̅̅̅
v 2 = √625 = 25 ms-1

(ii) The average speed 𝑣̅ is

∑𝑣
𝑣̅ =
𝑛

(3 ×1)+(5×1)+(20×2)
= = 12 ms-1
4
The average value of v2 is
∑ v2 (3 ×1)2 ×1+(5×1)2 ×1+(20×2)2 ×2
= = = 208.5 m2s-2
n 4
vrms = √̅̅̅
v 2 = √208.5 = 14.439 ms-1

(b) The density of liquid oxygen at 1 atm and -185C is about 1.14 g cm-3. From this, estimate
the volume and size of a single oxygen molecule.
Solution:

Density Of Liquid Oxygen  = 1.14 gcm-3

M
Mass Of Single Oxygen Molecule Is m O2 =
NA

32 gmole -1
=
6.022 10 23 moleculemo l -1
= 5.312  10-23 gmolecule-1

𝑚 𝑚
𝜌= 𝑉
,𝑉 = 𝜌
5.312×10−23 gmolecule
= 1.14gcm−3
−23
= 4.65 × 10 cm3
 21

Statics of Rigid Bodies

Assignment VI
1(a) Derive the center of mass of a system of particles.
Consider a system of particles having masses m1, m2, ….. mn and the radius vectors of each
particle be r1 , r2 , ------, rn respectively. The vector ri is the radius vector to the ith particle
and rCi is the radius vector from c to the ith particle. From vector diagram,

Solution:

r1 = rc + rCi

Z
mi

ri
ሬሬԦ rci
ሬሬሬሬԦ

rc
ሬሬሬԦ
O Y

Multiplying through by mi,

mi ri = mi rc + mi rCi

Similar equation may be written for each of the remaining particles, and adding them
altogether,

m1 r1 + m 2 r2 + - - - - ma ra = (m1 + m 2 + ma )rc + m1 rC1 + m 2 rC2 + - - - - m n rCn

n
 n  n
(or) 
i =1
m r
i i =   i c 
m
 i =1 
 r +
i =1
m i rci

When the point C is defined to be the center of mass

n

m
i =1
i rci = 0
 22

n
Replacing rc by r , m i =1
i ri = (M) r

n
where m
i =1
i = M

m r
i =1
i i
Therefore, r =
M

In terms of rectangular components,

n

m x
i =1
i i
x=
M
n

m yi =1
i i
y=
M
n

m z
i =1
i i
z=
M

(b) Three particles of masses 2, 1, 3 respectively have position vectors

 
r1 = 5t î − 2t 2 ĵ + (3t − 2) k̂., r2 = (2t − 3) î + ( 12 − 5t 2 ) ĵ + (4 + 6t − 3t 3 ) k̂.,


r = (2t −1) î + ( t 2 + 2) ĵ − t 3 k̂.. where t is the time. Find the velocity of the center of mass
3
at t= 1.

Solution:
n

m r
i =1
i i
𝑟= n

m
i =1
i

2[5𝑡𝑖̂−2𝑡 2 𝑗̂+(3𝑡−2)𝑘
̂ ]+[(2𝑡−3)𝑖̂+(12−5𝑡 2 )𝑗̂ +(4+6𝑡−3𝑡 3 )𝑘
̂ ]+3[(2𝑡−1)𝑖̂+(𝑡 2 +2)𝑗̂−𝑡 3 𝑘
̂]
𝑟= 2+1+3
 23

10𝑡𝑖̂−4𝑡 2 𝑗̂+(6𝑡−4)𝑘
̂ +(2𝑡−3)𝑖̂+(12−5𝑡 2 )𝑗̂ +(4+6𝑡−3𝑡 3 )𝑘
̂ +(6𝑡−3)𝑖̂+(3𝑡 2 +6)𝑗̂−3𝑡 3 𝑘
̂
𝑟= 2+1+3

1
𝑟 = 6 [(18𝑡 − 6)𝑖̂ + (−12𝑡 2 + 18)𝑗̂ + (12𝑡 − 6𝑡 3 )𝑘̂]

Velocity of the center of mass

1
= 6 [18𝑖̂ − 24𝑡𝑗̂ + (12 − 18𝑡 2 )𝑘̂]

At t = 1, velocity of the center of mass

1
= 6 [18𝑖̂ − 24(1)𝑗̂ + (12 − 18 × 12 )𝑘̂]

1
= [18𝑖̂ − 24𝑗̂ − 6𝑘̂]
6

=3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂

2.(a) Define the following terms.

(i) Translational Equilibrium (ii) Rotational Equilibrium (iii) Center of Gravity of a

System of Particles (iv) Friction.

(i) Translational Equilibrium

The body a whole either remains at rest or move in a straight line constant speed.

(ii) Rotational Equilibrium

The body is either not rotating at all or is rotating at a constant rate.

(iii) Center of Gravity of a system of Particles.

If a system of particles is in a uniform gravitational field, the center of mass is sometimes

called the center of gravity.

(iv) Friction

When one body slides on another, a force tending to resist motion is called force of
friction.

F=µR
 24

Where, F= force of friction

µ= coefficient of friction

R= Normal force

(b) A 60 ft ladder weighting 100lb rest against a well at a point 48 ft above the ground. The
center of gravity of the ladder is one-third the way 40. A 160 lb man climbs half way up the
ladder. Assuming that the wall is frictionless, find the force exerted by the system on the ground and
the wall.

For translational equilibrium

F2 – F1h = 0

F2= F1h
F2
F1v –w-W = 0

a = 48 ft
F1v – 100- 160 = 0
W = 160 lb
F1v = 26lb F1v 100 lb
w

For rotational equilibrium F1h b

𝑏 𝑏
F2(a) – w (3) –w (2) = 0

c2= a2 +b2

b2 = c2 – a2

=(60)2 – (48)2

b = 36ft

36 36
F2 (48) -100 ( 3 ) – 160 ( 2 ) = 0

F2= 85 lb
 25

F2= F1h = 85 lb

Assuming that the wall is frictionless, find the force exerted by the system on the ground and
the wall.

3.(a) Explain equilibrium on smooth surface.

(i) A block of mass “M” at rest on a flat horizontal surface.

(ii) The weight (W=mg) of the block acts vertically downwards at the center of the block.
(iii) The block does not move, the surface must exert an opposing force which is equal in
magnitude to “mg” denoted by “R” (rector).
(iv) If an external force “F” is applied, then the block will accelerate in the direction of F1.
The reaction will be (mg=F2).

(b) A block of mass “m” rests on a rough plane inclined at an angle “Ɵ”, to the horizontal,
under the action of a force “F” applied horizontally. The line of action of F passes
through the center of gravity of the block. If the coefficient of friction is μ find the
minimum value of F consistent with static equilibrium.

F will have minimum value, if the block is at the point of sliding down the plane. For such
a case, the force of static friction Rn acts up the plane. Resolving all forces which acts on
the block into components parallel to and perpendicular to the plane and writing the
equations of static equilibrium,

Rn

F cos Ɵ + μ Rn = mg sin Ɵ Fs

Rn = F1 sin Ɵ + mg cos Ɵ Ɵ
F

F = mg
mgsinƟ
mgcosƟ
 26

If  is angle of friction,  = tan

sinθ - cosθ tan ε

F = mg
cosθ + μ sinθ

sinθ cosε - cos θ sin ε

F = mg cosε
cosθ cosε + sinθsinε
cosε

sin(θ - ε)
F = mg
cos(θ - ε)

F = m g tan (θ - ε)

4.(a) Find the center of mass of a semi-circular region of radius "a" using Polar co-ordinate.

The radius of the circle is r = a.

If o is the mass per unit area from the symmetry that the centroid must line on y-axis.

𝑥=𝑜

𝑐  𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝑦= 𝑑𝐴

𝑐  𝑦𝑑𝐴
𝑦= 𝑑𝐴
 𝑎
𝑜 𝑜 (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒)𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑
=  𝑎
=𝑜 ∫𝑟=𝑜 𝑜 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑

4𝑎
= 3

(b) Suppose that a 6lb block is place at the 25cm mark on the meter bar of weight 4lb resting
on two scales at its ends, what do the scales read?

For translational equilibrium, the condition is

F1 + F2 + w +W = o
 27

F1 + F2 + (-6) +(-4) = o

F1 + F2 = 10 lb
For rotational equilibrium, the condition is
1 1
-w (4 ) - W(2 ) +F2(1) = o

1 1
-6 ( ) - 4( ) +F2 = o
4 4

−3
( )-2+F2 =o
2

7
-(2 )+ F2 = o
7
F2 = ( 2 ) = 3.5 lb

F1 + F2 = 10

F1 = 10 – F2 = 10-3.5 =F1 =6.5 lb

 28

Work, Potential energy and Gravitational Potential

Assignment VII
1(a) Explain work done by a variable force and show that the total work done by the force is
equal to the sum of the work done by each of the components of the force.

Solution
Suppose the particle is initially of some point A and is transported along some path to
another point B. If the force is variable and the path an arbitrary curve; the element of work
dw is defined as the amount of work done by the force on the particle while the particle is
traversing an element d𝑟Ԧ along that curve.
dW ሬԦ . drԦ
= F ____________ (1)
Where, dW = element of work done
drԦ = element of the path,
ሬFԦ = the force
The total work done by the force when the particle passes from A to B along the chosen
path is the line integral of Ԧf along the path
𝑟
WA→B = ∫𝑟 𝐵 𝐹Ԧ . drԦ _____________ (2)
𝐴

The work may also be written in terms of the compounds of the force along the co-
ordinate axis. Equation (1) becomes
dW = (𝑖̂ Fx + 𝑗̂ Fy + 𝑘̂ Fz) . (𝑖̂ 𝑑 x + 𝑗̂ dy + 𝑘̂ dz)
= Fx dx + Fydy + Fzdz ___________ (3)
Intagrating Eqn (3)
x y z
WA→B = ∫X B FX dx + ∫y B Fy dy + ∫z B Fz dz
A A A

= Wx + Wy + Wz
The total work done by the force is equal to the sum of the work done by each of the
components of the force.
 29

Y A

B
X

(b) Due to a force field Ԧf , a particle of mass 4 moves along the space curve rԦ=(3t 2 -2t)̂i+ t 3̂j-
t 4 k̂. Find the work done by the field in rԦ=(3t 2 -2t)̂i+ t 3̂j-t 4 k̂ moving the particle from the
point where t = 1 to the point where t = 2.

Solution

rԦ = (3t2 – 2t) 𝑖̂+ t3ĵ – t4 k̂

𝑑𝑟Ԧ
= (6t - 2) 𝑖̂ + 3t2 𝑗̂ – 4t3k̂
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑟Ԧ
= 6 î + 6t ĵ-12 t2k̂
𝑑𝑡 2
2
ሬFԦ = m 𝑑 2𝑟Ԧ = 4 (6 𝑖̂ + 6t ĵ – 12 t2k̂)
𝑑𝑡

= 24 𝑖̂ + 24 t ĵ – 48 t 2 k̂
d𝑟Ԧ = [(6t -2)𝑖̂ + 3t2ĵ – 4t3k̂] dt
𝐹Ԧ.d𝑟̂ = 24 (6t -2) dt + (24t) (3t2) dt + (-48t2)(-4t3)dt
𝑡=2 𝑡=2 𝑡=2
W = ∫ 𝐹Ԧ.d𝑟̂ = ∫𝑡=1 24(6t-2)dt + ∫𝑡=1 72 t3 dt+ ∫𝑡=1 192 t5dt
W = 2454 J

v v v
2(a) Show that Fx = - , Fy = - , Fz = - . Show further that the three equations combine
x y y

to give F = -  V for a conservative force field.

Solution
 30

Consider a particle acted upon by a conservative force F and be moved a small distance dr

from a point P to another point Q. The work done by the force on the particle is,

dW = F . dr = - dV ______ (1)

v v v
But dV = dx + dy + dZ and
x y z

dr = dx î + dy ĵ + dz k̂

Thus eqn: (1) becomes

F . dr

= (Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂ ). (dx î + dy ĵ + dz k̂ )

= Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz

v v v
= - dx - dy - dZ _________ (2)
x y z

Eqn (2) is to be true for any elements dx , dy and dz we must equate the coefficients of
the infinite simals term by term.

v v v
Fx = - , Fy = - , Fz = -
x y y

The components of the force at any point in a conservation field are the negative of the
corresponding components of the gradient of the potential energy at that point.

F = - V

(b) If the force acting on a particle is given by ሬFԦ= -∇

ሬሬሬԦV, prove that the total work done in
moving the particle along a curve C from P1 to P2 is W = V (P1) – V (P2).
Solution

p
ሬԦ . dr
Work done W= ∫p 2 F
1

p
ሬԦ V . dr
= ∫p 2 - ∇
1
p
= ∫p 2 - dV
1
 31

𝑝
= [−𝑉 ]𝑝21
W = V (P1) – V (P2)

3(a) State the Law of Gravitation in words and in symbol. What is the value of gravitational
constant (in SI unit)?
Solution
Law of Gravitation
Everybody in the universe attracts every other body with a force, directed along the line
joining the two bodies, of magnitude directly proportional to the masses of each of the
bodies and inversely proportional to the squares of the distances separating the bodies.
Mm
ሬሬሬሬԦ
F = - G r2 r̂
Mm 𝑟Ԧ 𝑟Ԧ
= -G [∵ r̂ = ]
r2 r r
Mm
= -G ሬሬሬԦ
r
r3

Where, ሬሬሬሬԦ
F = gravitational force acting on m by M
m, M = the masses
G = gravitational constant
r̂ = unit vector
r = the distance between M and m
Gravitational constant in SI unit is 6.67 x 10-11 m3/kgs-2
(b) A particle of constant mass m moves in space under the influence of a force field ሬሬF.

Assuming that at times t1 and t2 the velocity is ሬሬሬԦ

v1 and vሬሬሬԦ2 respectively. Prove that the work

done is the change in kinetic energy.

Solution

r
ሬԦ . drԦ
Work done W = ∫r 2 F
1

t
ሬሬԦ. drሬԦ dt
W = ∫t 2 F
1 dt
t dv
ሬԦ
W = ∫t 2 m . .v
ሬԦ dt
1 dt
v
W = m ∫v 2 v
ሬԦ . dv
ሬԦ
1

1 v
W = m ∫v 2 d( v ሬԦ)
ሬሬԦ. v
2 1
 32

1 v2
W = mv 2 |
2 v1
1 1
W = mv22 - 2 mv12
2

4(a) What are conservative force and conservative field?

Conservative Force and Conservative Field
If the work done on the system by the force is independent of the manner in which the
change of the configuration was made the force having this property is called a conservative
force. The corresponding field is called conservative field.
(b) Explain potential energy in a gravitational field and potential.

Potential energy in a gravitational field

The potential energy of m studied at P, a distance of r from 0, may be found by computing
the negative of the work done by the force while m is brought from r =  to r = r. A
straight line path extending through the origin is convenient.
r
V = − ∫∞ ሬFԦ. drԦ
r
= − ∫∞ Fdr
r Mm
= − ∫∞ −G dr
r2
r 1
= G Mm ∫∞ r2 dr
1 r
= G Mm [− r ]
∞
1 1
= − G Mm [r − ]
∞
G Mm
= − r

Potential ()
Potential  is the potential energy for unit mass at a point in the field, thus the potential at a
distance r from M is
V
 = m
G Mm
= − rm
GM
= − r
 33

Atoms & The Special Theory of Relativity

Assignment VIII

1.(a) What is Cathode rays? Write down the properties of cathode rays.
Cathode rays
The bombardment of the cathode by the positive ions is that the cathode emits particles
called cathode rays.

Properties of cathode rays

(i) They travel in straight lines
(ii) They penetrate small thickness of material such as metal foils.
(iii)They carry considerable amount of kinetic energy.
(iv) They are emitted perpendicular to the surface of the cathode.
(v) They carry negative charge.
(vi)They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

1.(b) State the Atomic models discovered by JJ Thomson and E. Rutherford.

Atomic model
(i) In 19th century JJ Thomson, believed that the invisible atom of a solid cluster of
positively charged electricity with negative charged electrons embedded in it.
(ii)E. Rutherford, so called planetary model of the atom patterned after the solar system.
According to this model atom consists of positive nucleus located in the centre of the atom,
while electrons rotating about the nucleus from a cloud of orbits.

2. (a) Define (i) Atoms (ii) Ions.

(i) Atoms
All chemical elements are made up of extremely small particles known as atoms.
𝐴
In symbol, 𝑍𝑋 where , X = the notation of kind of element
A = the atomic weight (or) mass number
Z = the atomic number (or) the charge number
 34

(ii) Ions
The same amount of electricity is associated with an atom during electrolysis, this charged
atom is called an ion.
Positive ion = cation
Negative ion = anion

2.(b) An electron emitted from a heated filament is accelerated to the anode by a potential
difference of 300 V between the filament and the anode. Calculate (i) its kinetic energy in
ergs (ii) the velocity of the electron when it reaches the anode.
Solution:
V = 300 V, q = e = 1.6 x 109 C

W
(i) KE = W = qeV = eV [∵ V = ]
q

KE = 1.6 x 10-19 x 300

= 480 x 10-19 J
= 480 x 10-19 x 107 erg = 4.8 x 10-10 ergs

(ii) KE = ½mv2
me = 9.1 x 10-31 kg = 9.1 x 10-28 g
KE = ½ mv2
2 KE
v2 = m
2 x 4.8 x 10−10
= 9.1 x 10−28

= 1.05 x 1018 = 1.02 x 109 cms-1

3. (a) Write down the two postulates of the special theory of relativity. Which postulate is
responsible to differentiate the classical theory and Einstein’s theory of relativity? According
to the relativity, what do an observer find on length, mass and time when the observer is
moving relative to the object?
Postulates of special Theory of Relativity
1. Laws of physics have same mathematical from in all inertial (nonaccelerating) frames of
references.
2.The velocity of light in vacuum is constant and it is independent of velocity of the source
and the observer.
Second postulate is responsible to differentiate the classical theory and Einstein’s theory of
relativity.
 35

According to the relativity, when the observer is moving relative to the object:
𝐿0
The length is L=
𝛼
The mass is m = α m0
The time is t = α t0

(b) Calculate the ratio of the mass of the particle to its rest-mass when the particle moves
with speeds that are the following fractions of the speed of light (i) 0.9 (ii) 0.99.

Solution:

(i) v = 0.9c
𝑚0
m= 2
√1− 𝑣2
𝑐
𝑚0
= √1 − ( 0.9 )2 = 0.4359
𝑚
(ii) v = 0.99c
𝑚0
= √1 − ( 0.99 )2 = 0.1411
𝑚

4. (a) What is Absolute motion? Write down the Lorentz transformation equation.

Absolute motion
Absolute motion, which is the translation of a body from one absolute place to another
absolute place, can never be detected. Translator motion can be perceived only in the form of
motion relative to other material bodies.

Lorentz transformation equation

𝑥−𝑣𝑡
xˈ = 2
√1− 𝑣2
𝑐

yˈ = y
z =z
𝑡−𝑣𝑥/𝑐2
tˈ = 2
√1− 𝑣2
𝑐

(b) Is the acceleration of the particle in S and Sˈ frame invariant under Galilean transformation?
(i) A particle with proper lifetime of 1μs moves through the laboratory at 2.7 × 108 ms-1.
What is its lifetime as measured by observers in the laboratory? (ii) What will be the
distance traversed by it before disintegrating?

Yes. The acceleration of the particle in S and Sˈ frame is invariant under Galilean
transformation.
 36

Solution:

(i) t0 = 1 μs = 10-6 s , v = 2.7 × 108 ms-1 , t = ?

𝑡0 10−6
t= 2
= = 2.3 × 10-6 s
√1− 𝑣2 8 2
𝑐 √1− [2.7 ×108 ]
3 ×10
(ii) The average distance moved by the particle before disintegration

x = (2.7 × 108)( 2.3 × 10-6) = 621 m

 37

Waves and Particles

&
Hydrogen Atom

Assignment IX

1.(a) How do you understand matter wave? De Broglie considered that if a particle having a mass
m and a charge q acquires a velocity v under the action of potential difference V, what did he
get the equation?

Matter Wave
The wave associated with the material particles are called the matter waves.
matter wave.
If a particle having a mass m and a charge q acquires a velocity v under the action of
potential difference V, then its kinetic energy is
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑉𝑞
2
ℎ
Since p=mv and 𝜆 = 𝑝 ,the de Broglie wavelength of that particle is obtained
ℎ
𝜆=
√2𝑚𝑉𝑞

(b)Find the de Broglie wavelength associated with (i)a 46 g golf ball with velocity 36ms -1(ii) an
electron with a velocity 107ms-1.

Solution:

(i) For golf-ball,

m = 46 g

= 46 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔
𝑣 36
v = 36ms-1, 𝑐 = 3×108

= 1.2 X 10−7

= 0.12 × 10−6
𝑣
 = ? 𝑐 < 0.01
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
6.625 ×10−34
𝜆= 46 × 10−3×36
−34
= 3.99 × 10 𝑚
𝜆 = 3.99 × 10−24 Å
 38

(ii) For electron,

𝑚 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
𝑣 = 107 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑣 107
= = 0.03
𝑐 3×108
𝑣
∴ 𝑐 > 0.03
ℎ 𝑣2
𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣 − √1 − 𝑐 2

6.625×10−34
= √1 − (0.01)2
9.11×10−31 ×3×106

𝜆 = 7.727Å

2.(a) State Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. Write down the Balmer’s equation.
The position and momentum of a particle cannot be determined simultaneously with
any desired accuracy.

Δx ΔP ≥

Where, Δx = uncertainty in position

ΔP = uncertainty in momentum

The energy-time uncertainty relation can be derived as follows,

ΔE Δt ≥

Where, ΔE = uncertainty in energy

Δt = uncertainty in time
h
=
2
h = Planck’s constant = 6.625 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
The simple relationship among the various lines of a spectrum was obtained by
Balmer in 1885.Balmer’s equation expressed in modern notation is

1 1 1
= 𝜈̅ = 𝑅𝐻 [21 − 𝑛2] n = 3,4,5
𝜆

Where , =the wavelength

𝜈̅ = the wave number of the spectral line
R H = Rydberg’s constant for hydrogen atom=109,677.581cm-1
n= integer (greater than 2)
 39

(b)The life span of a state of an atom is 5 X 10-8 s. What is the uncertainty of energy in
measuring the energy of the state?
Solution:
Δt = 5 X 10-8 s, ΔE = ?
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle,
ΔE . Δt ≥ ℏ
ℏ
ΔE =
∆𝑡
1.055 ×10−34 Js
= 5×10−8 𝑠
ΔE= 0.211 x 10-26J
1eV= 1.6 x 10-19J
= 0.132 x 10-7 eV

3.(a) State Bohr’s Quantum condition and De Broglie’s matter wave concept.

Bohr's Quantum condition and De Broglie's matter wave concept

On the basis of de Broglie’s matter waves, we can consider that an electron moving round a
nucleus as a wave encircling the nucleus.
Bohr second postulated states that the angular momentum in a stable orbit is given by an
integral multiple of .
mvr = n

nh
mvr =
2

nh
2r =
mv

h
2r = n ( = mv)

Where 2r = the circumference of the electron orbit

n = integer x de Broglie wavelength of the electron

This mean that an integral number of waves must fit into the orbit exactly.
(b)Find the energies of photons, whose wavelengths are 1500 Å and 2000 Å respectively.
Solution:
 40

Energy of photon,
𝜆 = 1500Å ,E=?

ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝜆
12345𝑒𝑉Å
= 1500Å
= 8.23eV
𝜆 = 2000Å ,E=?
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝜆
12345𝑒𝑉Å
= 2000Å
= 6.172eV

4.(a) (i) What is meant by ionization potential?

Ionization Potential
The energy required to remove the electron from the lowest orbit n = 1 to n = α
(outside the atom) is called ionization potential.

(iii) Determine the ionization potential of the singly ionized helium.

Solution:

13.6×z 2 Ef
En = eV n=α
n2
For He+ , z = 2
For ground state, n = 1 n=1
Ei
The ground state energy for singly ionized helium,
-13.6×22
En = eV
n2
E1 = -54.4 eV

The ionization potential for He+ ion is = Eα - Ei

= 0 - (-54.4)
= 54.4 eV

(b) Find the wavelength, energy and frequency of radiation emitted when the H atom
undergoes n = 4 to n = 2.

Solution:

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓

= 𝐸4 − 𝐸2
 41

13.6 13.6
=− − (− ) 𝑒𝑉
42 22
1 1
= 13.6 (4 − 16)

E = 2.55eV

The energy of the radiation=2.55eV

ℎ𝑐
But E = h = 𝜆
ℎ𝑐
= 2.55𝑒𝑉
𝜆
ℎ𝑐
= 
2.55𝑒𝑉

12345𝑒𝑉Å
2.55𝑒𝑉
= 𝜆 (ℎ𝑐 = 12345𝑒𝑉Å)

 = 4841.18 Å

𝑐
=
𝜆
3×108 ×1010 Å𝑠 −1
= 484.18Å

 =6.1 × 1014 𝐻𝑧
 42

Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation

&
X -Rays Spectra
Assignment X
1. (a) Write down two important facts of photoelectric effect and photoelectric current.

The important facts about photoelectric effect are:

(i) The number of electrons emitted is directly proportional to the intensity of

light.

(ii) The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is directly proportional to the
frequency of light.

The photoelectric current depends on two factors:

(i) The intensity of the incident light.

(ii) The wavelength of the incident beam.

(b) The photoelectric threshold wavelength for a metal is 10000 Å when light of wavelength

5461 Å is incident on it, the retarding potential in Millikan’s experiment is 1.02 V.

Calculate the value of the Planck’s constant.

Solution:

0 = 10000 Å

= 10000× 10−10 𝑚

= 1× 10−6 𝑚

 = 5461 Å
= 5461× 10−10 𝑚

V0 = 1.02 V

h =?

V0 (e) = E–W
 43

V0 (e) = h - h𝑜

hc hc
V0 (e) = −
 0

1 1 
V0 (e) = hc  − 
  0 

h = V0 e
1 1 
c − 
  0 

1.02 1.6 10−19

=
 1 1 
3 108  −10
− −6 
 546110 10 

1.632 10−19
=
3 108 1.83 106 − 1106 

1.632 10−19
=
3 108 1.83 − 1 106

1.632 10−19
= = 0.6554 10−33
2.49 1014

h = 6.554 x 10-34 Js

2. (a) Define the following (i) blackbody (ii) work function (iii) threshold frequency

(iv) stopping potential.

(i) Blackbody
A body which can absorb or emit all of the electromagnetic radiation falling upon
it (so that its absorptivity or emissivity is 1) is called a blackbody.

(ii)Work function (W)

Work function is the work required to remove electrons from the metal when radiation
with sufficient frequency falls on it.
 44

(iii) Threshold frequency (𝒐 )

Threshold frequency is the smallest frequency that can cause the emission of electrons
from the metal surface due to photoelectric effect.
(iv)Stopping potential (V0)
Stopping potential is the potential at which the photoelectric current becomes zero.

(b) When radiation of wavelength 2536 Å falls on sodium, the stopping potential is 2.8 volts.

Find the threshold wavelength for sodium.

Solution:

 = 2536 Å
𝑉𝑜 = 2.8 V

𝑜 = ?
KE = 𝑉𝑜 e = 2.8 eV

KE = h - h𝑜
1 1
=hc( - )
 0
1 1 𝐾𝐸
( - )=
 0 ℎ𝑐

2.8 𝑒𝑉
= = 2.268 × 10−4 Å−1
12345 𝑒𝑉Å
1 1
= - 2.268 × 10−4
𝑜 

1
= - 2.268 × 10−4
2536

0 = 5970 Å
3(a) What are the advantages after the discovery of X-rays?

X-rays could penetrate through the skin and flesh of the body of an animal. However, it
could not penetrate through the bone easily. Thus, if some organ of the body of an animal,
such as the hand of a human being, was placed on a fluorescent screen and X-rays were
 45

allowed to fall on the organ, the shadow of the bone could be observed on the screen.
Because of this differential penetrating power of the radiation, different hospitals in Europe
began to use it as a valuable ne aid in the field of surgery very soon after its discovery. In
fact there are few instances in the history of physics where a new fundamental discovery
found application in the practical field so soon after the discovery.

(b) Describe the properties of X-rays.

Properties of X-rays
(i) X-rays can penetrate through most substances.
(ii) X-rays can produce fluorescence in different substances.
(iii) X-rays can blacken photographic plates.
(iv) X-rays ionize the gas through which they travel.
(v) X-rays are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields.
(vi) X-rays travel in straight lines like ordinary light.
(vii) X-rays are both reflected and refracted.
(viii) X-rays can be diffracted with the help of crystalline substances. They can also be
polarized.
4(a) Discuss briefly the absorption of X-rays when a parallel beam of the X-rays passes through
a slab of some material. What is total absorption coefficient  ?
When as parallel beam of the X-rays passes through a slab of some material, the intensity
of the emergent beam is less than that of the incident beam. The decrease in intensity of
the beam when it transverse a small thickness dx of the slab,
dI
-dI = μ I dx (or) = -μdx; I = I0e-μx
I
Where, I0 = the intensity of the incident beam
I = after absorption
x = a thickness of the material
Total absorption coefficient (μ)
Total absorption coefficient ‘μ’ is the sum of the scattering coefficient ‘σ’ and the fluorescent
transition coefficient ‘τ’.
μ=σ+τ
 46

(b)The mass absorption coefficient of X-rays of wavelength λ = 0.7 Å is 5 per gram per cm2 for
aluminum, and 50 per gram per cm2 for copper. The density of aluminum is 2.7 grams per
cm3 and that of copper is 8.93 grams per cm3. What thickness, in cm, of each these substances
is needed to reduce the intensity of the X-ray beam passing through it to one-half its initial
value? Sol; For aluminum,  = 2.7 gcm-3
𝜇
Mean absorption coefficient, = 5𝑔−1 𝑐𝑚2
𝜌

 = 5

= 5 x 2.7

= 13.5 cm-1
I 1
= ,x =?
Io 2
I = Io e−x
I
= e−x
Io
I
ln = −x
Io
1
ln = −x
2
ln 0.5
x=−

ln 0.5
x=−
13.5
x = 0.0513cm
For copper, ρ = 8.93 gcm-3
𝜇
Mean absorption coefficient, = 50 𝑔−1 𝑐𝑚2
𝜌

μ = 50 ρ
= 50  8.93
= 446.5 cm-1
I 1
= ,x =?
Io 2
I = Io e−x
 47

I
= e−x
Io
I
ln = −x
Io
1
ln = −x
2
ln 0.5
x=−

ln 0.5
x=−
446.5
x = 1.5521 x 10−3 cm