PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:1

Unit: 20

AC CIRCUIT
ALTERNATING CURRENT:
Definition:
“The electric current whose magnitude changes continuously and direction reverses
periodically is called alternating current”.

Explanation:
Alternating current (A.C.) is that which is produced by a voltage source whose polarity keeps on reversing with
time. The magnitude of alternating current changes continuously with time and its direction is reversed
periodically.
It is represented by a sine curve or a cosine curve.
I= Io Sinωt
Where I is Instantaneous value and I0 is peak value of current.
Graphically:
A graphical representation shows the nature of an
alternating current (as shown in Figure).
This graph shows that during one half of the cycle, the
current is positive, while during the other half, it is
negative.
Consequently, the current alternates its direction in the
wires it traverses, flowing first in one direction and then in the opposite direction.

AC TERMINOLOGIES:
1. CYCLE:
One complete set of both positive and negative values of an
alternating quantity is known as a cycle (as shown in figure).
Alternating quantity is positive for half the cycle and negative for the rest half.
Hence average value of alternating quantity (i or V) over a complete cycle is zero.
2. TIME PERIOD (T):
The time taken to complete one cycle of variations is called the
periodic time or time period. OR
The time period of an alternating current (AC) or voltage wave is the duration it takes
to complete one full cycle.
It is typically denoted by the symbol T.
The relationship between time period and frequency (f) is given by the equation: T = 1/f. Where T is in second.
3. FREQUENCY (F):
It refers to the number of complete cycles of the current waveform that occur in one
second.
It is a measure of how many times the direction of the current reverses per second.
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:2
Frequency is typically expressed in hertz (Hz), where one hertz equals one cycle per second.
The relationship between frequency and time period is expressed as f = 1/ T
4. INSTANTANEOUS VALUE:
The value of voltage or current that exists in a circuit at any instant of time “t”
measured from some reference point is known as its instantaneous value.
It can have any value between plus maximum value +VO and negative maximum value -VO and is denoted by V.
The entire waveform (as shown in figure) is actually a set of all the instantaneous values that exist during a
period T.
Mathematically, it is given by V= Vo Sinθ = Vo Sinωt
5. PEAK VALUE:
“The maximum value of alternating quantity (i or V) is defined as peak value or
amplitude.” OR
“The highest value reached by the voltage or current in one cycle is called Peak Value.”
For a sine wave, this is the highest positive or negative value reached during a cycle. It is usually denoted as IO
or lpeak for current and Vo or Vpeak for voltage.
6. MEAN SQUARE VALUE:
“The average of square of instantaneous values in one cycle is called mean square
value.”
𝑉𝑉02 𝐼𝐼02
It is always positive for one complete cycle. e.g. 𝑉𝑉 2 = 2
or 𝐼𝐼 2 = 2

7. ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) VALUE:

“Root of mean of square of voltage or current in an ac circuit for one complete cycle is
called r.m.s value.”

Explanation:
The root mean square (RMS) value of AC represents its equivalent DC value for producing the same heat in a
resistor.
The average value of voltage or current is not used in electric power calculations. The reason being that the AC
cycle consists of positive and negative half cycles, so the average value is zero.
Vave = 0
However, there exists a mathematical relation between the peak
value VO of alternating voltage and a direct current (DC) voltage
that yields an equivalent average electrical power. This constant
DC voltage is referred to as the root-mean-square (r.m.s) value of
the alternating voltage Vrms·

The RMS value of a sinusoidal AC waveform is equal to its peak

value divided by the square root of two.
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜
Vrms =
√2
Vrms = 0.707 VO (Similarly Irms = 0.707 IO)
The DC voltage is approximately 70% of VPeak as shown in figure.
For a sinusoidal wave, the rms value is approximately 0.707 times the peak value.
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:3
Mathematically:
It’s calculated by squaring the instantaneous AC values, averaging them over one cycle, and taking the square
root.
Vrms = 0. 707 x Vpeak for voltage and
Irms = 0.707 x lpeak for current.
Method of Finding rms value:
If we connect an ordinary D.C. ammeter to measure alternating current, it will measure its value as averaged
over a cycle.
Since the average value of current and voltage over a cycle is zero, but the power delivered during a cycle is not
zero because power is I2R and the values of I2 are positive even for negative values of “I”. Thus, the average
value of I2 Is not zero and is called the mean square current.
The alternating current or voltage is measured by square root of its mean square value
known as root mean square (rms) value.
Let us compute the average value of V2 over a cycle. Figure shows an alternating voltage and the way its V2
values vary. The values of V2 are positive on the negative half cycle also. As the graph of V2 is symmetrical about
1 1
the line 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜2 so for this figure the mean or the average value of V2 is 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜2 .
2 2
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜2
The root mean square (rms) value of V is obtained by taking the square root of 2
. Therefore
02 + 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜2
Vrms = � 2

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜2
Vrms = � 2
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜
Vrms =
√2
Vrms = 0.707 VO
Similarly. Irms = 0.707 IO
Most of the alternating current and voltage meters are calibrated to read rms values. When we speak of A.C.
meter reading, we usually mean rms values unless stated otherwise.
8. ALTERNATING CURRENT OR VOLTAGE EQUATION:
When a coil undergoes constant rotation at a uniform angular velocity within a magnetic field, it generates an
alternating voltage.
Alternating Current (AC) or Voltage refers to the type of electrical flow or potential
difference that periodically changes direction and magnitude over time.
The fundamental equation describing AC voltage or current in a sinusoidal waveform is:
V = Vo Sinωt ............ (1)
I= Io Sinωt ............ (2)
Where: “ V”, “I” represent the instantaneous value of the voltage and alternating current respectively.
Vo, Io is the amplitude of the waveform, which represents the maximum value of alternating
voltage and alternating current respectively.
ω is the angular frequency, given by ω = 2πf
WORKED EXAMPLE: 20.1
If an alternating current is flowing through a circuit with an amplitude of 5 amps, with frequency of 60
Hz, write its equation.
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:4

PHASE OF AC:
Definition:
“The angle which specifies the instantaneous value of alternating voltage is known
as its Phase.”

STATES OF PHASE WITHIN AC CIRCUIT:

1. IN-PHASE:
When two waveforms have the same frequency and reach their peak values or zero
values at the same time, they are said to be in phase.

2. PHASE LAG:
If one waveform reaches its peak or zero value after the other, there is a phase
difference, and the second waveform is said to lag the first.
It is shown by figure, where a wave shown by dotted line lags the wave shown by solid line.
It can be said that the dotted wave form lags the solid line waveform by 90° or (π/2) radians.
3. PHASE LEAD:
Conversely, if one waveform reaches its peak or zero value before the other, the second
waveform is said to lead the first.
It is shown by figure where a wave shown by solid line leads the wave shown by dotted line by phase difference
of 90° or (π/2) radians.

PHASOR:
The representation of phase lead and lag between two alternating quantities is
effectively demonstrated by showing the two AC quantities as vectors, also known as
"Phasor". OR
Physical quantity, which represents both the instantaneous value and direction of
alternating quantity at any instant is called its phase.
It's a dimensionless quantity and its unit is radian.
If an alternating quantity is expressed as V= 𝑉𝑉0 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠( 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 𝜑𝜑0 ) then angle of 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠( 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑) is called its phase.
Where ω t = instantaneous phase (changes with time) and 𝜑𝜑0 = initial phase (constant w.r.t time).
PHASE DIFFERENCE (PHASE CONSTANT):
The difference between the phases of currents and voltage is called phase difference.
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:5
If alternating voltage and current are given by 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉0 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠( 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑1 ) and I= 𝐼𝐼0 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠( 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑2 ) then phase
difference φ = φ1 – φ2 (relative to current) or 𝜑𝜑 = 𝜑𝜑2 − 𝜑𝜑1 (relative to voltage)
PHASOR DIAGRAM:
A diagram representing alternating current and alternating voltage (of same
frequency) as vectors (phasors) with the phase angle between them is called a phasor
diagram.
While drawing phasor diagram for a pure element (e.g. R, L or C) either of the current or voltage can be plotted
along X-axis.
But when phasor diagram for a combination of elements is drawn then quantity which remains constant for the
combination must be plotted along X-axis, so we observe that
(i) In series circuits current has to be plotted along X-axis.
(ii) In parallel circuits voltage has to be plotted along X-axis.
VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF AN ALTERNATING QUANTITY:
A sinusoidally alternating voltage or current can be graphically represented by a counterclockwise rotating
vector provided it satisfies the following conditions.
1. Its length on a certain scale represents the peak or rms value of the alternating quantity.
2. It is in the horizontal position at the instant when the alternating quantity is zero and is increasing
positively.
3. The angular frequency of the rotating vector is the same as the angular frequency “ω” of the alternating
quantity.
To solve AC problems effectively, it is beneficial to represent a sinusoidal quantity, such as voltage or current,
using a line of specific length that rotates in a counterclockwise direction with the same angular velocity “ω” as
the sinusoidal quantity. This rotating line is commonly referred to as a phasor.
Let's consider a line denoted as OA, referred to as a
phasor, which accurately represents, to scale, the
maximum value of an alternating quantity, such as
electromotive force (emf).
In this representation, OA equals the maximum emf value
and rotates counterclockwise at an angular velocity of ω
radians per second around point O, as illustrated in Figure.
An arrowhead is placed at the outer end of the phasor, serving both to indicate the assumed direction of
movement and to specify the precise length of the phasor, especially when multiple phasors coincide.
In Figure, OA represents the phasor after it has rotated through an angle θ, equivalent to “ωt”, from its initial
position when the emf was at its zero value.
The projection of OA on the Y-axis, denoted as OB, equals OA multiplied by sinθ, which is equivalent to EmaxSinωt,
representing the instantaneous value of the emf, denoted as 'e,' at that moment.
Therefore, the projection of OA on the vertical axis accurately portrays, to scale, the instantaneous value of the
emf.
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:
1. Explain the concept of reactance in AC circuits and how it differs from resistance.
2. How does the phase angle affect the relationship between voltage and current in AC circuits?
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:6

SIMPLE AC CIRCUITS:
The basic circuit element in a D.C. circuit is a resistor (R) which controls the current or voltage and the
relationship between them is given by Ohm's law that is V =IR.
In A.C. circuits, in addition to resistor R, two new circuit elements namely INDUCTOR (L), and CAPACITOR (C)
become relevant. The current and voltages in A.C. circuits are controlled by three elements R, L and C.

1. AC THROUGH A RESISTOR:
Consider a circuit consisting of a pure resistor (R), connected to an alternating
voltage source, as shown in figure (a).
At any given time 't,' the potential difference across the resistor's terminals is
expressed as
V = Vo Sinωt ……………. (1)
Where Vo is the peak value of the alternating voltage.
The circuit's current (I) is governed by Ohm's law:
𝑉𝑉
I=
𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
= 𝑜𝑜
𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜
= 𝑅𝑅 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
Or I= IoSinωt ................ (2)
The current achieves its maximum value when Sinωt = 1.
This phase relationship is further illustrated by the phasor diagram as
shown in figure.
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF RESISTIVE CIRCUIT:
From equations (1) and (2), it is evident that the applied
voltage and the current in the circuit are in phase with
each other as shown in figure (b).
The current IR flowing through resistor R is in phase with the voltage VR across the resistor. This alignment can
be visually represented on a phasor diagram by depicting a vector (IR) that coincides with the voltage (VR).
The power loss in a resistor in an AC circuit is a result of the conversion of electrical energy into heat due to the
resistance of the resistor.
The instantaneous power in the resistance can be expressed using the formula.
P = I2R Where, P = Vrms. lrms
WORKED EXAMPLE: 20.2
A 2000 resistor is connected with AC supply of 36V with frequency 60 Hz. Calculate
(i) Current flowing through the circuit. (ii) Power dissipated in the resistor. (iii) Also write equation for
current and voltage as a function of time.

A.C THROUGH CAPACITORS:

BEHAVIOR OF CAPACITOR IN DC SOURCE:
When capacitor is connected to a direct current (DC) supply voltage, then capacitor plates gradually accumulate
charge until the voltage across the capacitor matches with the source voltage. The capacitor retains this charge
as a temporary storage device if the applied voltage is sustained.
The ability of a capacitor to store charge on its plates is termed capacitance (C).
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:7
During the charging process, an electric current flows into the capacitor, causing its plates to acquire an
electrostatic charge. This charging current is highest when the capacitor plates are uncharged, decreasing
exponentially over time until the capacitor reaches full charge.
Once the capacitor is fully charged, it blocks further electron flow onto its plates as they become saturated.
Hence it is often said that capacitor blocks direct current after initial transient time.
BEHAVIOR OF CAPACITOR IN AC SOURCE:
Now consider a capacitor connected to the AC source as shown in the figure.
• During the positive half cycle of alternating voltage, the electrons
flow from upper capacitor plate to the source leaving it as
positively charged “+Q” and source supplies equal number of
electrons to the lower plate making it as negatively charged “-Q”
as shown in figure.
• During the negative half cycle of alternating voltage, the direction
of motion of electrons is also reverted resulting in the capacitor
plates becoming charged in the opposite manner and current
flows in opposite direction, hence capacitor charges and discharges. In this way the alternating current
flows through the capacitor.
If alternating source voltage (V = Vo Sinωt) is applied to the capacitor, the charge on any plate of capacitor is
given by q = CV
By putting the value of V, we get
q = C VoSinωt .......... (1)
Since C and VO are constants, it is obvious that q will vary
the same way as applied voltage. From equation (1) q
and V are in phase.
The current “I” is the rate of change of q with time i.e.,
∆𝑞𝑞
I = ∆𝑡𝑡 ............... (2)
Substitute equation (1) in (2), we get
C 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 ∆Sinωt
I= ∆𝑡𝑡
OR I = C 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 ωCosωt
𝜋𝜋
Since Cosωt = Sin �ωt + �. Therefore
2
𝜋𝜋
I = C 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 ω Sin �ωt + � …………… (3)
2
Multiply and divide the right side of equation (3) by ωC
𝜋𝜋
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 Sin�ωt+ �
I= 1
2
…………. (4)
ωC
1
Where = Xc is the capacitive reactance. Therefore equation (4) becomes
ωC
𝜋𝜋
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 Sin�ωt+ �
I= 𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐
2

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝜋𝜋 𝑉𝑉
I= 𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐
Sin �ωt + � (Since 𝑋𝑋𝑜𝑜 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 )
2 𝑐𝑐
𝜋𝜋
Therefore I = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 Sin �ωt + � ....... (5)
2
Equation (5) shows that in pure capacitive circuit the current exhibits sinusoidal variation and it leads the voltage
by 90 degrees or (π/2) radians or the voltage lags the current by 90 degrees or (π/2) radians as shown in figure.
The reason is that when a voltage is introduced to an initially uncharged capacitor, the capacitor exhibits low
reactance or impedance, resulting in the maximum current draw.
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:8
As the capacitor becomes charged, the current diminishes (zero), causing the voltage across the capacitor to
increase.
Once the capacitor is fully charged, there is no further current flow, and the voltage attains its maximum level,
hence voltage lags the current by 90°.
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT:
The phasor diagram is a graphical tool that illustrates the relationship between
voltage and current in a capacitor using vectors, known as phasors.
Since, in an AC circuit, a capacitor experiences a phase shift between the voltage and the current.
In the phasor diagram shown in Figure:
“V” represents the voltage across the capacitor, while “I” denotes the current flowing through it.
The angle φ = 90° indicates the phase difference by which the current leads the voltage in a capacitor.
REACTANCE OF CAPACITOR:
Definition:
Reactance of a capacitor is a measure of the opposition offered by the capacitor to the
flow of A.C.

Explanation:
In a purely capacitive circuit, capacitive reactance represents the opposition to alternating current flow.
Similar to resistance, reactance is measured in Ohms, but it is denoted by the symbol XC to differentiate it from
purely resistive values.
𝑉𝑉
Since I=
𝑋𝑋𝑐𝑐
𝜋𝜋
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 Sin�ωt+ �
From equation (4) (I = 1
2
), we get.
ωC
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜
Io = 1 ........... (5)
ωC
V
Like ohms law (I = 𝑅𝑅) the term in denominator of equation (5)
represents the opposition to flow of current; in this case it is called reactance of capacitor.
1
Hence XC = (Since, ω = 2πf)
ωC
1
So XC = ........... (6)
2πfC
The capacitive reactance shows an inverse relationship with the frequency of the applied alternating voltage.
For lower frequencies, the reactance of capacitor increases, while at high frequencies, the reactance decreases.
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:
1. Why is the root mean square (RMS) value used to represent AC voltage and
current instead of instantaneous peak values?
2. How does the phase angle affect the relationship between voltage and
current in AC circuits?
WORKED EXAMPLE: 20.3
A 200Q resistor is connected with AC supply of 36V with frequency 60 Hz. Calculate (i) Current flowing
through the circuit (ii) Power dissipated in the resistor. (iii) Also write equation for current and voltage
as a function of time.
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:9

A.C THROUGH INDUCTOR:

Inductor:
An inductor is a passive electrical component which can be formed by wounding a
conducting wire over an insulating object, such as pencil.
An inductor is usually in the form of a coil, or a solenoid wound from a thick wire so that it has a large value of
self-inductance and has a negligible resistance.
Solenoid is an example of inductor.
BEHAVIOR OF INDUCTOR IN AC SOURCE.
The primary purpose of an inductor is to oppose changes in current. It resists the flow of alternating current
(AC) and stores energy in its magnetic field during the on-time of the AC cycle and releases it during the off-
time.
Consider an inductor in the form of solenoid connected with A.C source as shown in figure.
When the switch is closed current starts to flow through the
inductor, the magnitude and direction of current is changing hence
associated magnetic field also varies due to which an induced emf
is set up in the inductor so as to oppose the change in accordance
with the Lenz law.
The magnitude of induced emf is given by.
∆𝐼𝐼
ε = 𝐿𝐿 ∆𝑡𝑡
To maintain the current, the applied voltage must be equal to the
back e.m.f.
Therefore, the magnitude of voltage across the coil must be equal to induced or back emf. i.e. V = ε
∆𝐼𝐼
V = 𝐿𝐿 ∆𝑡𝑡 ............. (1)
The alternating voltage produces a sinusoidal current, that is
I = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 Sinωt
Hence equation (1) becomes.
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 ∆Sinωt
V = 𝐿𝐿 ∆𝑡𝑡
Or V = ωL𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶ωt
Where ωL𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 , therefore
V = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶ωt ............ (2)
𝜋𝜋
Using that, 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶ωt = Sin �ωt + �. Equation (2) becomes
2
𝜋𝜋
V = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 Sin �ωt + � ...... (3)
2
From equation (3) it is clear that in case of inductors connected in A.C circuit the voltage leads the current by
(π/2) radians as shown in figure.
The reason for voltage leading in an inductive circuit is due to the generation of induced electromotive force
(EMF), commonly known as back EMF, when an alternating voltage is applied to the inductor.
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF INDUCTIVE REACTANCE:
This back EMF appears instantaneously and induces a counter-current flow,
introducing a time delay, typically in the order of milliseconds.
As a result, there is a brief time lag for the circuit current to overcome this opposing
current and attain its maximum value. That is why the voltage manifests first
followed by the appearance of the current after a short interval.
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:10
Hence the voltage leads the current or the current lags behind the voltage in an inductive AC circuit, draw IL
behind VL by a phase angle of 90 degrees as shown by phasor diagram in figure.
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE:
The term inductive reactance refers to the opposition that an inductor offers to the
flow of alternating current.
It is denoted by XL. It is measured in ohms.
Explanation:
In a purely inductive circuit, inductive reactance represents the opposition to alternating current flow.
Like resistance, reactance is measured in Ohms, but it is denoted by the symbol XL to differentiate it from purely
resistive values.
𝑉𝑉
Since I= …………. (5)
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
From equation (V = ωL𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶ωt), we get.
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = ωL𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜
𝑉𝑉
Io = ωL
𝑜𝑜
........... (6)
By comparing equation (5) and equation (6), we get
Hence XC = ωL (Since, ω = 2πf)
So XC = 2πfL ........... (7)
Where: XL is the inductive reactance, “f” is the frequency of the AC signal, “L” is the inductance of the inductor.
Equation (4) shows that inductive reactance is directly proportional to the frequency of the AC signal.
As the frequency increases, the inductive reactance also increases.

CHOKE COIL:
A choke coil, commonly known as choke, is an inductor used in electronic circuits.
Definition:
“A coil which consists of thick copper wire wound closely in a large number of turns
over soft Iron laminated core is called a choke.”
Choke coil (or ballast) is a device having high inductance and negligible resistance.
Explanation:
A choke coil, or simply a choke, is a type of inductor with a small resistance and a
large inductance.
A choke coil reduces the current in AC circuit without consuming any power.
When a resistance is used, the current reduces but energy losses occur due to
heating. So, a choke coil is preferred.
• It is used to reduce the current in AC circuits without much loss of energy.
• It is also used in electrical circuits to block or "choke" high-frequency alternating current (AC) while
allowing low-frequency AC to pass through.
In choke coil the inductance “L” of the coil should be large whereas resistance R is very small. Therefore, it
consumes extremely small power.
The choke coil can be used only in ac circuits, not in dc circuits, because for dc(ω=0) the inductive reactance “XL
= ω L” of the coil is zero, only the resistance of the coil remains effective which too is almost zero.
Applications of Choke Coil:
Choke coils find applications in various electronic devices, including:
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:11
1) Power supplies for audio amplifiers (2) Radio frequency (RF) circuits
(3) Other electronic systems where filtering and noise suppression are essential.
WORKED EXAMPLE: 20.4
Suppose we have an inductor in the form of a coil with an inductance of 0.02Henries (H) and connected in series
with an AC signal having frequency of 50 Hz. Calculate the inductive reactance of coil.

RLC SERIES CIRCUITS:

An RLC circuit is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor (R), inductor (L), and
capacitor (C), connected in series or parallel.
RLC circuits are fundamental in electronics for filtering signals, tuning circuits, and resonant applications due to
their ability to manipulate frequencies and impedance.

AC THROUGH RC SERIES CIRCUITS:

“The circuit in which a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C) are connected in series with
AC source is called RC series circuit.”
Consider a circuit containing resistor and capacitor connected in series with an
alternating voltage source as shown in figure.
Due to series circuit same current will flow through each circuit element.
I = IR = IC
While voltage across resistor will be VR and VC across capacitor.
Phasor Diagram:
The phasor diagram is drawn taking current as reference direction as shown in
figure.
In RC series circuits the voltage and current are in phase when considering
resistor component of circuit.
And the voltage lags the current by π/2 radians in case of capacitor, it is drawn
perpendicular to the current phasor in figure.
Impedance of RC series Circuit:
From the phasor diagram, using Pythagoras theorem

V = �𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶2 ....... (1)

Substituting voltage across resistor, VR = I R and across capacitor, VC = I XC in equation (1), we get
V = I�𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2
Divided both sides by current I, we get
𝑉𝑉
= I�𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2 ……. (2)
𝐼𝐼
𝑉𝑉
Where = 𝑍𝑍 is the impedance of RC series circuit. i.e.
𝐼𝐼

Z = �𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2

Phase Angle:
Phase angle between current and voltage as shown in figure (Phasor diagram) is calculated by
𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝑋𝑋
tanφ = = Or φ = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 ( 𝐶𝐶 )
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:12

AC THROUGH RL SERIES CIRCUITS:

“The circuit in which a resistor (R) and an inductor (L) are connected in series with
AC source is called RL series circuit.”
Consider a circuit containing inductor and resistor connected in series with an alternating voltage as shown in
figure.
Due to series circuit same current will flow through each circuit element.
I = IR = IL
The voltage across resistor and inductor is VR and VL respectively.
Phasor Diagram:
The phasor diagram is drawn taking current as reference direction as shown in
figure.
When an inductor is connected with alternating voltage then due to generation
of back EMF current lag the voltage by 90°, it is represented by line perpendicular
to the reference phasor i.e., current I as shown in figure.
Since in resistor the current and voltage are in phase. In the phasor diagram it is
VR line.
Impedance of RC series Circuit:
To calculate the impedance of RL circuit, apply Pythagoras theorem on phasor
diagram from figure.
From the phasor diagram, using Pythagoras theorem
V = �𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿2 ....... (1)
V = I�𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿2
Divided both sides by current I, we get
𝑉𝑉
= �𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿2 ……. (2)
𝐼𝐼
𝑉𝑉
Where = 𝑍𝑍 is the impedance of RC series circuit. i.e.
𝐼𝐼

Z = �𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿2
Phase Angle:
Phase angle between current and voltage as shown in figure (b) is calculated by
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑋𝑋
tanφ = Or φ = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 ( 𝐿𝐿 )
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅

WORKED EXAMPLE: 20.5

In RC circuit a capacitor of 50µF and resistor of 100 0 are connected in series with alternating voltage
source of 220V and frequency of 50Hz. Find the (a) current in the circuit (b) phase angle between voltage
and current.

RLC SERIES AC CIRCUIT:

An RLC series circuit consists of a resistor (R), inductor (L), and capacitor (C)
connected in series to an AC voltage source as shown in figure.
Since all three circuit elements are connected in series so same current will flow
through them.
I = IR = IL = IC
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:13
Hence to analyze the different properties of circuit we draw a phasor diagram of RLC series circuit as shown in
figure.
Since the capacitive and reactance were determined as
1
XC = and XL = 2πfL
2πfC
For smaller frequency capacitive reactance is much greater than inductive
reactance i.e., XC > XL causing the circuit to exhibit behavior as an RC circuit.
For larger frequency inductive reactance dominates over capacitive
reactance i.e. XL > XC and circuit behaves like an RL circuit. Hence the circuit
is said to be more inductive than capacitive.
IMPEDANCE TRIANGLE:
Definition:
“The combined effect of resistance and reactance in RLC circuit is known as
impedance.”
It is denoted by Z.
Explanation:
A circuit containing resistor, inductor and capacitor offer opposition to flow of current due to all these circuit
elements known as impedance.
It is measured by the ratio of the rms value of the applied voltage to the rms value of resulting A.C.
𝑉𝑉
Z = 𝐼𝐼 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

Mathematically:
The impedance triangle is shown in the figure. To draw an impedance triangle, represent the resistance (R) as
the horizontal side of the triangle.
Represent the inductive reactance (XL) or capacitive reactance (XC) as the
vertical side of the triangle.
The direction (up or down) depends on whether it's inductive or
capacitive reactance.
Now the hypotenuse of the triangle represents the impedance (Z).
From the right-angle triangle impedance can be calculated by using the
following relation. Z = �𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇2 .......... (1)
Where Z is impedance, R is resistance in a circuit and 𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇 is the difference
of capacitive and inductive reactance of circuit.

POWER IN A.C CIRCUITS:

The calculation of power dissipation in a resistor involves the formula P = VI. However, this equation is not
applicable in circuits where capacitors and inductors are connected to an alternating voltage source.
The reason being that in a purely resistive circuit, the current and voltage are in phase. Whereas circuits
containing capacitive or inductive elements exhibit a lead or lag of π/2 radians between the current and voltage,
respectively, disrupting the applicability of this relationship.
Therefore, in such a case to determine power dissipation, project V onto the direction of reference current
phasor as shown in figure.
In A.C. circuit the phase difference between applied voltage V and the current I is θ. The component of V along
current I is V Cosθ. Actually, it is this component of voltage vector which is in phase with current. So, the power
dissipated in A.C. circuit is P = V l Cosθ
Where Cosθ represents power factor.
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:14
WORKED EXAMPLE: 20.6
A resistor (R) of 10 Q and an inductor (L) of 0.05 Hare connected in series. The AC voltage source has a
peak voltage of 100 V and a frequency of 50 Hz. Find:
1. The impedance of the circuit. 2. The RMS current through the circuit.
3. The average power consumed by the circuit
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:
1. Compare and contrast the flow of AC through resistors versus capacitors in terms of phase shift.
2. Describe the conditions under which maximum power transfer occurs between a source and a load in
an AC circuit.

RESONANT FREQUENCY:
For a certain frequency the capacitive and inductive reactance becomes equal, XC = XL.
This frequency is called resonant frequency fr and circuit is said to be in resonance
state.

Calculation:
To calculate the resonant frequency, use the fact that
XC = XL
1
= 2πfL
2πfC
1
Or 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑟 = ······· (1)
2π√𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
From the figure, XC and XL are in opposite directions, therefore, at resonant frequency they cancel each effect
in circuit. Now opposition to the current flow is solely offered by resistor, resulting in maximum current to flow
through the circuit, moreover either side of resonant frequency the current in the circuit decreases.
USE OF RLC SERIES CIRCUIT:
RLC series circuit is an important circuit it is used in; Electronic filters, Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
Suppression, Tuned Circuits, etc.

PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT:

PARALLEL RL CIRCUIT:
Definition:
An RL parallel circuit is a setup where a resistor and an inductor are
connected in parallel and share the same voltage source.

Explanation:
In some respects, the RL parallel circuit is similar to the purely inductive parallel circuit.
In parallel RL circuit, applied voltage “V” is same for both components and is therefore plotted in standard
position in the phasor diagram.
V = VR = VL
But the net current distributes in both components and can be
determined by the opposition (reactance) of the individual branches.
I = �𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2 + 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿2
Wave and Phasor Diagram:
Figure shows a composite diagram of waveforms and phasors.
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:15
Since the phasor diagram shows that the two branch currents are not in phase, it will be necessary to use phasor
addition in order to determine the total current.

PARALLEL RC CIRCUIT:
Definition:
An RC parallel circuit (also known as an RC filter or RC network) is an electrical
circuit consisting of a resistor R and a capacitor C connected in parallel, driven by a
voltage source or current source.

Explanation:
In a parallel RC circuit, the voltage is uniform across all components, while the
total current is the sum of individual currents through the resistor and capacitor.

I = �𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2 + 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶2

Wave and Phasor Diagram:

Figure shows a composite diagram of waveforms and phasors as per
circuit conditions. The current phasors IR and IC are out of phase;
therefore, phasor addition must be used to determine total current.

PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT:

Definition:
A Parallel RLC AC Circuit is one where the resistor, inductor, and capacitor are
connected in parallel to each other and the AC source.

Explanation:
In this configuration, the voltage across each component is the same, but the currents through them differ.
The parallel arrangement affects the overall impedance and current
distribution in the circuit, making it distinct from its series counterpart.
In a parallel circuit, the voltage V (RMS) across each of the three
elements remains the same. Hence, for convenience, the voltage may
be taken as a reference phasor.
In the parallel RLC circuit, the supply voltage “Vs” is common to all three
components, while the supply current “ls” consists of three parts:
1) The current through the resistor (IR)
2) The current through the inductor (IL), and
3) The current through the capacitor (lC).
The current flowing through each branch, and therefore through each component, will differ from one another
and from the supply current “I”.
The total current drawn from the supply is not simply the arithmetic sum of the three individual branch currents
but their vector sum. i.e.
I = �𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2 + (𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 − 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 )2
Similar to the series RLC circuit, we can solve this circuit using the phasor or vector method. However, in this
case, the vector diagram will use the voltage as its reference, with the three current vectors plotted relative to
this reference voltage.
The phasor diagram for an AC RLC parallel circuit is created by combining the individual phasors for each
component and adding the currents vectorially.
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:16
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT:
From the phasor diagram of AC RLC parallel
circuit, we observe that the current vectors
form a right triangle, with the hypotenuse
represented by “ls”, the horizontal axis by IR,
and the vertical axis by IL - IC. This configuration
form is known as a Current Triangle.

Consequently, we can apply Pythagoras's

theorem to this current triangle to
mathematically determine the individual
magnitudes of the branch currents along the x-
axis and y-axis. This will allow us to calculate
the total supply current “ls” of these
components when the circuit's phase angle is given.
RESONANCE OF PARALLEL RLC AC CIRCUIT:
A parallel circuit containing a resistance, R, an inductance, L and a capacitance, C will produce a parallel
resonance (also called anti-resonance) circuit when the resultant current through the parallel combination is in
phase with the supply voltage.
At resonance there will be a large circulating current between the inductor and the capacitor due to the energy
of the oscillations, then parallel circuits produce current resonance.
A parallel resonant circuit stores the circuit energy in the magnetic field of the inductor and the electric field of
the capacitor. This energy is constantly being transferred back and forth between the inductor and the capacitor
which results in zero current and energy being drawn from the supply.
In the solution of AC parallel resonance circuits we know that the supply voltage is common for all branches, so
this can be taken as our reference vector. Each parallel branch must be treated separately as with series circuits
so that the total supply current taken by the parallel circuit is the vector addition of the individual branch
currents.
𝑉𝑉
IR =
𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
IL = IL =
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑉𝑉
IC = IC = V. 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
Therefore, IT = Vector sum of (IR + IL + IC)
IT = �𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2 + (𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 + 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 )2
At resonance, currents IL and IC are equal and cancelling giving a net
reactive current equal to zero. Then at resonance the above equation
becomes. IT = �𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2 + (0)2 = IR
Therefore, the circuit current at this frequency will be at its minimum
value c of V/R and the graph of current against frequency for a parallel
resonance circuit is shown in figure.
The frequency response curve of a parallel resonance circuit shows that
the magnitude of the current is a function of frequency and plotting this onto a graph shows us that the response
starts at its maximum value, reaches its minimum value at the resonance frequency when IMIN = IR and then
increases again to maximum as “f” becomes infinite.
The result of this is that the magnitude of the current flowing through the inductor, “L” and the capacitor, “C”
tank circuit can become many times larger than the supply current, even at resonance but as they are equal and
at opposition (180° out-of-phase) they effectively cancel each other out.
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:17
As a parallel resonance circuit only functions on resonant frequency, this type of circuit is also known as “a
Rejecter Circuit” because at resonance, the impedance of the circuit is at its maximum thereby suppressing or
rejecting the current whose frequency is equal to its resonant frequency.
The effect of resonance in a parallel circuit is also called "current resonance".

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:
1. What factors determine the resonant frequency of an LC circuit?
2. How does the quality factor (Q-factor) relate to the sharpness of resonance in a circuit?
WORKED EXAMPLE: 20.7
An inductor of solenoid has a reactance of 500Q is connected with an alternating voltage 220V and
frequency of 50 Hz. Calculate the inductive reactance of the solenoid.

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:

According to this theorem:
“Maximum power is transferred from a source to a load when the impedance of the
source matches with the impedance of the load”.
Since impedance is a measure of the opposition a circuit presents to the flow of alternating current (AC).
Therefore, impedance includes both resistance and reactance, where reactance is the opposition due to
capacitance or inductance.
When the impedance of the source matches the impedance of the load, the
conditions for maximum power transfer are met.
Under these circumstances, the electrical energy is efficiently transferred from the
source to the load, resulting in maximum power transfer.
Mathematically, suppose RL denotes the resistance of load and Rs is source
resistance.
Since RL = Rs as shown in figure, maximum power transfer will occur. In practical terms, achieving maximum
power transfer is often important in designing electronic circuits to optimize efficiency and minimize power loss.
WORKED EXAMPLE: 20.8
For an RLC circuit in parallel with a 5 Q resistor, a 0.02 H inductor, and a 0.005 F capacitor, calculate the
resonant frequency fr?

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION DEVICES:

1. METAL DETECTORS:
The oscillator circuit is used in metal detectors.
Metal detectors used for security checks operate on the principle of electromagnetic
induction.

EXPLANATION:
A simplified explanation of working of metal detector is described below:
1. Generating an Electromagnetic Field:
The metal detector contains a coil of wire through which an electric current flows, creating a magnetic field
around the coil. This coil is often housed in a special arrangement, such as a loop or wand.
2. Interaction with Metals:
When a conductive metal object is brought into the vicinity of the electromagnetic field, it disturbs the field.
This disturbance induces a secondary magnetic field in the metal object.
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:18
3. Eddy Currents:
The changing magnetic field induces circulating electric currents within the metal object, known as eddy
currents. These eddy currents, in turn, generate their own magnetic fields.
4. Detection of Changes:
The metal detector has a receiver coil or coils that are in close proximity to the transmitter coil. The receiver
coil(s) detect changes in the magnetic field caused by the presence of the metal.
5. Alert Mechanism:
When the metal detector senses a significant change in the magnetic field, indicating the presence of a metal
object, it triggers an alert. This alert can be in the form of an audible sound, a visual signal, or both, depending
on the design of the metal detector.

2. THE ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH:
The electrocardiograph (ECG) is a medical diagnostic tool used to record the electrical
activity of the heart over a period of time.

PRINCIPLE:
The principle behind the electrocardiograph is based on the electrical signals generated by the heart during each
heartbeat.
WORKING:
The heart is a muscular organ that contracts rhythmically to pump blood throughout the body. This contraction
is initiated and coordinated by electrical signals generated within the heart.
Electrodes are attached to specific points on the skin of the patient. The standard placement involves attaching
electrodes to the limbs and chest. These electrodes are conductive and are used to detect the electrical signals
produced by the heart.
The electrical signals produced by the heart are picked up by the electrodes. The detected electrical signals are
amplified to make them more measurable and are then recorded on a graph or displayed on a monitor. The
resulting graph is called an electrocardiogram.
The ECG graph represents the electrical activity of the heart over time. It consists of waves and intervals, each
of which corresponds to a specific phase of the cardiac cycle.
Physicians analyze the ECG to gather information about the heart's rhythm, rate, and various other aspects of
its electrical activity.
Deviations from the normal ECG pattern can indicate cardiac abnormalities, such as arrhythmias, ischemia, or
other heart conditions.

3. OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT:
An oscillator circuit is an electronic circuit that generates a continuous periodic signal
at a specific frequency.

Explanation:
Oscillator circuits produce the carrier wave, which serves as the central frequency around which the
information-carrying signal is modulated.
Oscillator circuits are designed to be tunable, allowing broadcasters to set the carrier frequency to a specific
value. This turnability is essential for assigning unique frequencies to different radio stations, preventing
interference between them. Oscillators are designed to be modulated by an information-carrying signal.
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave varies according to the audio signal, while in
frequency modulation; the frequency of the carrier wave is modulated. This modulation process allows the
transmission of audio information.
PHYSICS: XII (New Edition) 2025 Page Number:19
The carrier wave itself does not convey information; it serves as a medium to carry the modulated information
signal. The oscillator generates a stable carrier wave, ensuring that the modulated signal can be reliably
transmitted over long distances. The carrier wave, when modulated with the audio signal, forms the composite
radio wave that propagates through space. This transmitted signal can be received by radio receivers tuned to
the carrier frequency.
In summary, the oscillator circuit is the heartbeat of a radio transmitter, generating the carrier wave that
facilitates the transmission of modulated information signals.
Its stability, tunability, and modulation capabilities are pivotal for effective and interference-free radio
broadcasting.

4. RESONANCE IN TUNING CIRCUIT OF RADIO:

In radio tuning circuits resonance is an important phenomenon that enables the selective reception of a desired
radio frequency while rejecting others.
PRINCIPLE:
The principle of resonance is crucial in the tuning circuits of radio to enhance the reception of specific radio
frequencies.
WORKING:
Resonance occurs when the inductive and capacitive reactance in a circuit cancel each other out, resulting in a
condition where the circuit efficiently absorbs energy at a particular frequency.
Resonance is integral to the functioning of radio tuning circuits. It ensures that radios can selectively receive
signals from desired stations with clarity and efficiency, making it possible to enjoy various broadcasted content
without interference from other frequencies.
IMPORTANCE OF BROADCASTING:
• Broadcasting remains a powerful medium with far-reaching impacts on society.
• It informs, educates, entertains, and connects people, playing a crucial role in cultural preservation,
economic development, and social cohesion.
• Its ability to reach a wide audience makes it an indispensable tool for communication in the modern
world.