Unit II

DC-DC Converters

There are three basic types of dc-dc converter circuits, termed as buck, boost and
buck-boost. In all of these circuits, a power device is used as a switch. This device earlier
used was a thyristor, which is turned on by a pulse fed at its gate. In all these circuits, the
thyristoris connected in series with load to a dc supply, or a positive (forward) voltage is
applied between anode and cathode terminals. The thyristor turns off, when the current
decreases below the holding current, or a reverse (negative) voltage is applied between
anode and cathode terminals. So, a thyristor is to be force-commutated, for which
additional circuit is to be used, where another thyristor is often used. Later, GTO’s came
into the market, which can also be turned off by a negative current fed at its gate, unlike
thyristors, requiring propercontrol circuit. The turn-on and turn-off times of GTOs are
lower than those of thyristors. So, the frequency used in GTO-based choppers can be
increased, thus reducing the size of filters. Earlier, dc-dc converters were called ‘choppers’,
where thyristors or GTOs are used. It may be noted here that buck converter (dc-dc) is
called as ‘step-down chopper’, whereas boost converter (dc-dc) is a ‘step-up chopper’. In
the case of chopper, no buck-boost type was used.

With the advent of bipolar junction transistor (BJT), which is termed as self-commutated
device, it is used as a switch, instead of thyristor, in dc-dc converters. This device (NPN
transistor) is switched on by a positive current through the base and emitter, and then
switched off by withdrawing the above signal. The collector is connected to a positive
voltage. Now-a-days, MOSFETs are used as a switching device in low voltage and high
current applications. It may be noted that, as the turn-on and turn-off time of MOSFETs
arelower as compared to other switching devices, the frequency used for the dc-dc
convertersusing it (MOSFET) is high, thus, reducing the size of filters as stated earlier. These
converters are now being used for applications, one of the most important being
SwitchedMode Power Supply (SMPS). Similarly, when application requires high voltage,
InsulatedGate Bi-polar Transistors (IGBT) are preferred over BJTs, as the turn-on and turn-
off timesof IGBTs are lower than those of power transistors (BJT), thus the frequency can
be increased in the converters using them. So, mostly self-commutated devices of
transistorfamily as described are being increasingly used in dc-dc converters.
Buck Converters (dc-dc)

A buck converter (dc-dc) is shown in Fig. a. Only a switch is shown, for which a device as
described earlier belonging to transistor family is used. Also a diode (termed as free
wheeling) is used to allow the load current to flow through it, when the switch (i.e., a
device) is turned off. The load is inductive (R-L) one. In some cases, a battery (or back emf)
is connected in series with the load (inductive). Due to the load inductance, the load
current must be allowed a path, which is provided by the diode; otherwise, i.e., in
the absence of the above diode, the high induced emf of the inductance, as the load
current tends to decrease, may cause damage to the switching device. If the switching
device used isa thyristor, this circuit is called as a step-down chopper, as the output
voltage is normally lower than the input voltage. Similarly, this dc-dc converter is termed
as buck one, due to reason given later.
 Normally, due to turn-on delay of the device used, the duty ratio (k) is not zero, but has
some positive value. Similarly, due to requirement of turn-off time of the device, the duty
ratio (k) is less than 1.0. So, the range of duty ratio is reduced. It may be noted that the
output voltage is lower than the input voltage. Also, the average output voltage increases,
as the duty ratio is increased. So, a variable dc output voltage is obtained from a constant dc
input voltage. The load current is assumed to be continuous as shown in Fig. b. The load
current increases in the ON period, as the input voltage appears across the load, and it (load
current) decreases in the OFF period, as it flows in the diode, but is positive at the end of the
time period, T.

Boost Converters (dc-dc)

A boost converter (dc-dc) is shown in Fig.a. Only a switch is shown, for which a device
belonging to transistor family is generally used. Also, a diode is used in series with the load.
The load is of the same type as given earlier. The inductance of the load is small. An
inductance, L is assumed in series with the input supply. The position of the switch and diode
in this circuit may be noted, as compared to their position in the buck converter (Fig.a).
 In this case, the output voltage is higher than the input voltage, as contrasted with the previous
case of buck converter (dc-dc). So, this is called boost converter (dc-dc), when a self-
commutated device is used as a switch. Instead, if thyristor is used in its place, this is termed as
step-up chopper. The variation (range) of the output voltage can be easily computed.

Buck-Boost Converters (dc-dc)

A buck-boost converter (dc-dc) is shown in Fig. Only a switch is shown, for which a device belonging
to transistor family is generally used. Also, a diode is used in series with the load. The connection of
the diode may be noted, as compared with its connection in a boost converter (Fig.a). The inductor,
L is connected in parallel after the switch and before the diode. The load is of the sametype as given
earlier. A capacitor, C is connected in parallel with the load. The polarity of the outputvoltage is
opposite to that of input voltage here.
What is Voltage Source Inverter?

Definition: A voltage source inverter or VSI is a device that converts unidirectional voltage
waveform into a bidirectional voltage waveform, in other words, it is a converter that converts its
voltage from DC form to AC form. An ideal voltage source inverter keeps the voltage constant
through-out the process.
Construction

A VSI usually consists of a DC voltage source, voltage source, a transistor for switching purposes,
and one large DC link capacitor. A DC voltage source can be a battery or a dynamo, or a solar cell,
a transistor used maybe an IGBT, BJT, MOSFET, GTO. VSI can be represented in 2 topologies,
are single-phase and a 3-phase inverter, where each phase can be further classified into a Half-
bridge inverter and full-bridge inverter.

What is a Full Bridge Inverter ?

Full bridge inverter is a topology of H-bridge inverter used for converting DC power into AC
power. The components required for conversion are two times more than that used in single phase
Half bridge inverters. The circuit of a full bridge inverter consists of 4 diodes and 4 controlled
switches as shown below.
These diodes are known as freewheeling diodes or feedback diodes because these diodes feedback
the stored energy in the load back into the DC source. The feedback action happens only when
load is other than pure resistive load. The controlled switches for Full-bridge inverters can be BJT,
IJBT, MOSFET or thyristors. Controlled switches considered in this article are thyristors.
The general concept of a full bridge inverter is to alternate the polarity of voltage across the load
by operating two switches at a time. Positive input voltage will appear across the load by the
operation of T1 and T2 for a half time period. The polarity of voltage across load will be changed
for the other half period by operating T3 and T4.

Full Bridge Inverter Gate Signals

This article is about the working operation and waveform of a single-phase full bridge inverter
for R load, RL load and RLC load. The comparison of all loads is given at the end of this article.
Operation of Full Bridge with R Load
The working operation of Full bridge for pure resistive load is simplest as compared to all loads.
As there is not any storage component in the load so, only control switches operate while
feedback diodes do not operate through the operation of the inverter. Only two modes are enough
for understanding the working operation of a full bridge inverter for R load.
Mode 1
Consider all the switches are initially off. By triggering T1 and T2, the input DC voltage (+Vdc)
will appear across the load. The current flow in clockwise direction from source to the series
connected load. The output current across the load will be
Io=Vdc/RL
Where RL is the load resistance, While the output voltage across the load will be
Vo= Vdc
Mode 2
Thyristors T3 and T4 are triggered immediately after completely commutating T1 and T2. The
polarity of voltage immediately reverses after switching complementary switches T1 and T2 with
T3 and T4. The DC input voltage across the load appear with the negative voltage which
 Vo= -Vdc

While the output appearing current is

Io = – Vdc/RL

Waveform of Full Bridge with R Load

The current flowing through load and voltage appearing across the load are both in square wave
form as shown in the third wave of the figure. The switching pattern is shown in the first two
waves. Third wave shows the voltage across the load while the last two waves show the current
flowing through the switches.

The root-mean-square (RMS) value of the output voltage has been calculated from the equation as
given

Fourier transform is used for expressing instantaneous voltage

As all the even harmonics are absent because the waveform of the output voltage is half-wave
symmetric. So, the above equation just shows the odd harmonics. All the even harmonics are
absent including average voltage across the load.

These modes of operations are discussed by taking two assumptions.

All the switches are initially closed.

There is initially zero energy stored in the load.
Advantages

The following are the advantages of voltage source inverter

 Occupies less area
 The output voltage is independent of the load that is used
 Uses simple logic
 More than one motors can be operated with a single voltage source inverter
 Design range up to 500 Hz
Disadvantages

The following are the disadvantages of voltage source inverter

 Not safe, when a short circuit occurs

 Less speed
 The input power factor is less I,e 1s.
Applications

The following are the applications of voltage source inverter

 Uninterruptable power supply

 AC speed drivers
 Filters
 Electronic frequency changer circuits.

Current Source Inverter

Definition: The current source inverter converts the input direct current into an alternating
current. In current source inverter, the input current remains constant but this input current is
adjustable. The current source inverter is also called current fed inverter. The output voltage of
the inverter is independent of the load. The magnitude and nature of the load current depends on
the nature of load impedance.

Current Source Inverter Control

A thyristor current source inverter is shown in the figure below. The diodes D1-D6 and capacitor
C1-C6 provide commutation of thyristor T1-T6, which are fired with a phase difference of 60º in
the sequence of their number. It also shows the nature of the output current waveform. The
inverter act as a current source due to large inductance LD in DC link. The fundamental
component of motor phase current is shown in the figure below.
The torque is controlled by varying DC link current Id by changing the value of Vd. When the
supply is AC, a controlled rectifier is connected between the supply and inverter. When the
supply is, DC a chopper is interposed between the supply and inverter.

The major advantage of current source inverter is its reliability. In the case of current source
inverter a commutation failure in the same leg does not occur due to the presence of a large
inductance Ld.

In an induction motor, the rise and fall of current are very fast. This rise and fall of current
provide large motor spikes. Therefore a motor of low leakage inductance is used. The
commutation capacitance C1-C6 reduce the voltage spikes by reducing the rate of rising and fall
of the current. A large value of capacitance is required to sufficiently reduced the voltage spikes.
 Differences between Current Source and Voltage Source Inverter

The differences between the current source and the voltage source inverter are represented in the
table below

Current Source Inverter Voltage Source Inverter

A stiff current source is provided along with the A stiff voltage source is provided along with the
inverter inverter
The high internal impedance of a DC source The low internal impedance of a DC source
Requires feedback diodes
Absence of feedback diodes
Output voltage varies due to a change in load
Output voltage varies slightly due to the capacitor.
Simple in construction Complicated in construction
Short circuit protection is possible Short circuit protection is not possible
High output impedance Low output impedance
Examples: Capacitor commutated current source Examples: Half-bridge, Full bridge, square wave,
inverter and auto sequential commutated inverter and pulse width modulated inverters
(ASCI).